
H 

^ 



THE HOESE, 



BY WILLIAM YOUATT. 



A XEW EDITION, WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. 







fffl^^f 



TOGETHER WITH A 



GENERAL HISTORY OE THE HORSE; 



A. DISSERTATION ON 



THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE, 

HOW TRAINED AND JOCKEYED, 

AN ACCOUNT OF HIS REMARKABLE PERFORMANCES; 

AND 

.\N ESSAY ON THE ASS AND THE MULE, 
BY J. S. SKINNER, 

ASSISTANT POST MASTER GFNERAL, AND EDITOR OF TTIE TURF REGISTEH. 



NEW YORK: 

PUBLISHED BY LEAVITT & ALLEN, 

379 BROADWAY. 



/ 






Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the vear 1843, by 

LEA AND BLANCH A RD, 

in the office of the clerk of tlie District Court of the United States in and for the 
Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 



AUG 12 1927 



^ 






PREFACE TO THE LONDON EDITION. 



PUBLISHED UNDER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION 

OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 



The First Edition of The Horse, which was completed in 
the year 1831, has since had a large and continued sale: and 
in acknowledging the valuable communications which have 
been made for the improvement of the work, it is satisfactor}' 
to the Committee to be able to state, that no grave errors in it 
have been pointed out. 

Vetermary science has, however, made great progress in the 
last twelve years; the Structure of the Horse, the Injuries and 
Diseases to which he is subject, and the Treatment of these 
have been investigated, in this country and abroad, with much 
dihgence and success, both at Colleges and in Societies devoted 
to the cultivation of Veterinary knowledge, and by practition- 
ers whose education and experience render their observations 
worthy of great respect. 

In these circumstances, the Society intrusted to the Author 
the preparation of a New Edition of this Treatise ; and he has 
subjected it to so complete a revision, as to render it in many 
respects a new work. This remark applies especially to the 
chapters relating to the Diseases of the Horse. 

Respectfully submitted, 

By order of the Committee, 
THOMAS COATES, Sec. 

42 Bedford Square, London, 
1st March 1843. 

1 * (5) 



PEEEACE, 

BY THE AMERICAN EDITOR. 

In undertaking, at the instance of the American publishers, to prepare 
a new edition of the last London copy of the work here presented, on 
he Horse ; it has been my endeavour to ad^pt it more exactly to the 
circumstances of our own country ; and by omitting some portions of 
the original, not immediately illustrative of the principal subject, to 
reduce the volume, without impairing its value for practical uses. 

Few things have occurred, serving better at once to characterize and 
accelerate the march of intellect and benevolence which distinguishes 
the age in which we live, than the well-known formation, in England, 
of a " Society fou the DIF^usI0^^ of Useful Knowledge;" composed, 
as it is, of men of the highest repute in the various departments of learn- 
ing and industry; headed by Lord Brougham. 

Their proceedings, as far as published, all show them to be animated 
by a generous desire to collect, simplify, and publish in the cheapest 
form, the latest and most authentic discoveries and improvements in 
science, and in arts promotive of the comfort and happiness of the 
human race. Under their auspices, several series of publications have 
appeared, one of which is denominated the " Farmer's Series." Of 
this class, the first is the book on the Horse. That the Horse shouki 
have been placed at the head of the list of domestic animals, having in 
view a treatise on the breeds, properties and uses of each, is a distinc- 
tion to which he is justly entitled, in reference as well to the beautiful 
symmetry of his form, and his extraordinary physical powers, as to his 
admirable docility of temper, and high moral qualities, fitting him 
eminently for the various purposes of pleasure and of business. 

In the work to which we are now introducing the reader, pruned, as 
it has been, of some preliminary chapters, he will find little to amuse 
him, of a character merely curious and speculative ; the mysteries of 
charlatanry, and the nostrums of empiricism, have been carefully 
excluded; and where terms of anatomical and medical science have 
been necessarily employed, they are explained, and applied with a degree 
of plainness and precision, which bring them within the ready compre 
hension oi' every reader 

vi) 



PREFACE. VI] 

The task of preparation to render the present edition more useful for 
'\naerican readers, has consisted chiefly in what will be found prefixed 
*o it, on the various stages which have marked and acts which have 
contributed to the improvement o( the English stock of horses; some of 
the best of which, as is more particularly shown, have been imported 
into the United States, from time to time, for the last century or more — 
as also, and more particularly, of what is said of the American Trot- 
ting Horse. To these have been added, a dissertation on the natural 
history and uses of the Ass and the Mule; the last named animal 
being decerned worthy of especial notice, on account of its utility 
and economy, in American agriculture ; and the yet greater extent to 
which it is believed it might be employed with advantage in this, as it 
is known to be in some other countries. 

But without presuming to recommend the work on account of any 
observations of his own, the American Editor, who has himself written 
volumes to illustrate and defend the interests of American husbandry, does 
venture, with the utmost confidence, to pronounce the work itself to be 
one which every gentleman may read with certainty of instruction — 
leaving, as it does, in truth, nothing untold, which need be known of the 
Horse, in his minutest anatomy, with full directions as to breeding and 
breaking, food and exercise ; as, also, plain descriptions of his various 
diseases, and their most simple and certain cures. Such a work ought 
to be in the possession, for convenient reference, of every owner of 
horses, whether for the coach, the saddle, the cart, or the plough. The 
great value attached to this work, and its entire success in England, 
may be understood, when we state that the new edition just published 
in London, and from which the present is reprinted, has been nearl}' 
rewritten by the author, and improved by the insertion of many new 
cuts, prepared for it by a distinguished artist. 

J. S. S. 

Washington, May, 1843. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



I TROTTING MATCH IN HARNESS Frontispieck. 

2. HEAD OF THE BLACK ARABIAN Title. 

3. SKELETON OF THE HORSE Page 68 

4. BONES OF THE HORSE'S HEAD 70 

5. SECTION OF THE HORSE'S HEAD 72 

6. DIAGRAM OF THE SKULL 75 

7. OCCIPITAL BONE OF THE HORSE 77 

8. SPINAL CHORD, WITH BRANCHING NERVES 80 

9. SECTION OF THE EYE 86 

!0. MUSCLES OF THE EYE 92 

11. HORSE LABOURING UNDER LOCK-JAW 103 

12. ANATOMY OF THE LEG AND FOOT 113 

13. SECTION OF THE UPPER JAW BONE 123 

14. MUSCLES, NERVES, AND BLOOD-VESSELS OF THE HEAD AND 

UPPER PART OF THE NECK 125 

15. THE PALATE 142 

16. GLENOID CAVITY OF THE HORSE AND TIGER COMPARED 143 

17. TEETH OF A FOAL A FEW DAYS AFTER BIRTH. 144 

18. TEETH OF A FOAL AT TWO MONTHS 144 

19. TEETH OF A FOAL AT TWELVE MONTHS 145 

20. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A GRINDER 145 

21. TEETH AT THE AGE OF A YEAR AND A HALF 146 

22. TEETH AT THE AGE OF THREE YEARS 147 

23. TEETH AT THE AGE OF THREE YEARS AND A HALF 147 

24. TEETH AT THE AGE OF FIVE YEARS 148 

25. TEETH AT THE AGE OF SIX YEARS 148 

26. TEETH AT THE AGE OF SEVEN YEARS 149 

27. TEETH AT THE AGE OF EIGHT OR NINE YEARS.— Bishoped 149 

28. FINEST SHAPE FOR THE NECK AND HEAD 159 

29. THE RIBS AND VERTEBRAE 167 

30. THE STOMACH 221 

31. TERMINATION OF THE ESOPHAGUS 222 

32. THE BOT-FLY IN ITS VARIOUS STAGES 224 

33. THE INTESTINES 228 

34 SECTION OF THE BLIND GUT 229 

35. ENTANGLEMENT OF THE SMALL INTESTINES 239 

36. CURVED AND STRAIGHT CATHETER 247 

37. BONES OF THE LEGS 256 

38. SIMPLE LEVER 257 

39. MUSCLES OF THE OUTSIDE OF THE SHOULDER 259 

40. MUSCLES OF THE INSIDE OF THE SHOULDER AND FOREARM. .. 260 

41. SECTION OF THE PASTERN 272 

42. INSIDE VIEW OF THE BONES OF THE PASTERN 276 

43. OUTSIDE VIEW OF THE BONES OF THE PASERN 276 

44. ATTACHMENTS OF THE MUSCLES OF THE PASTERN 276 

45. DISEASES OF THE FORE-LEG 277 

46. INSIDE MUSCLES OF THE HIND-LEG 281 

47. OUTSIDE MUSCLES OF THE HIND-LEG 282 

48. THE HAUNCH AND HIND-LEGS 283 

49. THE HOCK-JOINT 286 

50. ANATOMY OF THE FOOT 295 

51. ANATOMY OF THE BASE OF THE FOOT 295 

.52. THE CORONARY RING 297 

53. PERCIVALL'S SUSPENSATORY APPARATUS FOR THE CURE OF 

FRACTURES 323 

54. THE CONCAVE-SEATED SHOE 338 

55. THE UNILATERAL 339 

56. OPERATION FOR CORNS 340 

57. PERCIVALL'S SANDAL 343 

58. PERCIVALL'S SANDAL FASTENED TO THE FOOT 344 

(8) 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTION, BY J. S. SKINNER. 

The Horse, in England and America — as he lias been, and as he is. .lage 17 

Lindsay's Arabian 34 

The best Races in Annerica ?5 

Best Races— Mile Heats 36 

Best Races at Two-Mile Heats 37 

Best Races at Three-Mile Hieats 38 

Best Races at Four-mile Heats 39 

Lengths of the principal Race-Courses in England 41 

Rules and Regulations of the New York Jockey Club 42 

The Hunter 48 

The American Trotter 49 

Rules and Regulations of the New York Trotting Club 64 

Trotting at Mile Heats 57 

Trotting at Two-Mile Heats 57 

Trotting at Three-Mile Heats 57 

Trotting at Four-Mile Heats 57 

Best Pacing in America on Record 59 

Miscellaneous Examples of Extraordinary Performances of American 

Trotters 58 

Extraordinary Trotting Match 60 

Trotting on the Beacon Course 63 

Centreville (L. I.) Trotting Course 63 

Trotting on the Hunting Park Course 64 

Height of Trotting Horses " 64 



THE HORSE, 

HIS ANATOMY— WITH HIS DISEASES AND REMEDIES. 

BY WILLIAM YOU ATT. 

CHAPTER I. 
The Zoological Classification of the Horse » - • ' ^J^ 

CHAPTER II. 
The Sensorial function ^''' 

(9) 



C CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER m. 

i'njuries a>'d Diseases of the Skull — the Brain — the Ears — and 

THE Eyes „ 93 

Fracture OH 

Exostosis 9-i 

Caries 91 

Compression of the Brain 94 

Pressure on the Brain 04 

Megrims 94 

Apoplexy 95 

Phrenitis 98 

Rabies, or Madness 100 

Tetanus, or Locked Jaw 103 

Cramp 106 

Stringhalt 107 

Chorea 109 

Fits, or Epilepsy 109 

Palsy 109 

Rheumatism 110 

Neurotomy Ill 

Insanity , 115 

Diseases of the Eye 116 

Common Inflammation of the Eye 117 

Specific Ophthalmia, or Moon-Blindness 117 

Gutta Serena 121 

Diseases of the Ear 121 

leafness 122 

CHAPTER IV. 

Tin A.WAT05IY AND DiSEASES OF THE NoSE AND McUTII 122 

Nasal Polypus 12G 

Nasal Gleet, or Discharge from the Nose 127 

Ozena 128 

Glanders , 129 

Farcy 1 36 

The Lips 139 

The Bones of the Mouth .■ 141 

The Palate 141 

Lampas 142 

The Lower Jaw 142 

Dis<;ases of the Teeth 151 



CONTENTS. XI 

The Tongue 152 

Diseases of the Tongue 152 

The Salivary Glands 15;f 

Strangles 154 

The Pharynx 156 

CHAPTER V. 

Fhe Anatomy and Diseases op the Neck and Neighbouring Parts 157 

Poll-Evil 157 

The Muscles and proper form of the Neck 158 

The Blood- Vessels of the Neck IGl 

The Veins of the Neck 161 

Inflammation of the Vein 161 

The Palate 163 

The Larynx 163 

The Trachea or Windpipe 164 

Tracheotomy ". . . 165 

The Bronchial Tubes 160 

CHAPTER VI. 

FiiE Chest 167 

The Spine and Back 171 

The Loins 172 

The Withers 173 

Muscles of the Back 173 

Fistulous Withers 174 

Warbles, Sitfasts, and Saddle Galls 174 

Muscles of the Breast 175 

Chest-Founder 175 

CHAPTER VII. 

The Contents of the Chest 175 

The Thymus Gland 175 

The Diaphragm 176 

Rupture of the Diaphragm 177 

The Pleura 179 

The Lungs 181 

The Heart 181 

Diseases of the Heart 182 

The Arteries 184 

The Pulse 184 

Inflammation 185 

Fever ■ • • • 1 87 



xii CONTENTS. 

The Veins 1^^ 

Bog and Blood Spavin 188 

Bleeding 189 

CHAPTER Vni. 

The Membrane of the Nose 191 

Catarrh, or Cold 192 

Inflammation of the Larynx 193 

Inflammation of the Trachea 194 

Roaring • 1 94 

Bronchocele 197 

Epidemic Catarrh 197 

The Malignant Epidemic 203 

Bronchitis 205 

Pneumonia — Inflammation of the Lungs 20G 

Chronic Cough 211 

Thick Wind 212 

Broken Wind 21S 

Phthisis Pulmonalis, or Consumption 215 

Pleurisy 217 

CHAPTER IX. 

The Abdomen and its Contents 221 

The Stomach 221 

Bots 224 

The Intestines ." 227 

The Liver 230 

The Pancreas 231 

The Spleen 231 

The Omentum 231 

CHAPTER X. 

The Diseases of the Intestines 232 

The Duodenum 232 

Spasmodic Colic 232 

Flatulent Colic 234 

Inflammation of the Bowels 235 

Enteritis 235 

Physicking 237 

Calculi, or Stones, in the Intestines 238 

Introsusception of the Intestines 238 

PjHtanglement of the Bowels 239 

Worms 330 



CONTENTS. Xlli 

Hernia, or Rupture 240 

Diseases of the Liver 241 

Jaundice 242 

Tlie Kidneys 243 

Inflammation of the Kidneys 244 

Diabetes, or Profuse Staling 245 

Bloody Urine — Haematuria 245 

Albuminous Urine 245 

The Bladder 245 

Inflammation of the Bladder 246 

Stone in the Bladder 246 

CHAPTER XL 

Breeding, Castration, &c 248 

Castration 254 

CHAPTER XII. 

The Fore Legs 255 

The Shoulder 255 

Sprain of the Shoulder 255 

Slanting direction of the Shoulder 256 

The Humerus, or Lower Bone of the Shoulder 260 

The Arm 261 

The Knee 264 

Broken Knees 265 

The Leg 267 

Splint 268 

Sprain of the Back-Sinews 269 

Wind-Galls 271 

The Pasterns 272 

Lesions of the Suspensory Ligament 274 

The Fetlock 275 

Grogginess 275 

Cutting 275 

Sprain of the Coffin-Joint 277 

Ringbone 277 

CHAPTER XIII. 

The Hind Legs 279 

The Haunch 279 

The Thigh 279 

The Stifle 283 

Thorough-Pin 285 

The Hock 285 

3 



TIV CONTENTS. 

Enlargement of the Hock 286 

Curb 287 

Bog Spavin 287 

Bone Spavin 288 

Capped Hock 290 

Mallenders and Sallenders 291 

Swelled Legs 291 

Grease 292 

CHAPTER XIV. 

The Foot 295 

The Crust or Wall of the Hoof 296 

The Coronary Ring 297 

The Bars 297 

The Horny Lamince 298 

The Sole 298 

The Frog 299 

The Coffin-Bone 300 

The Sensible Sole • 300 

The Sensible Frog 301 

The Navicular Bone 301 

The Cartilages of the Foot 301 

CHAPTER XV. 

The Diseases of the Foot 302 

Inflammation of the Foot, or Acute Founder 302 

Chronic Laminitis 304 

Pumiced Feet 304 

Contraction 305 

The Navicular-Joint Disease 309 

Sand-Crack 311 

Tread and Over-reach 312 

False Quarter 313 

Quittor 313 

Prick or Wound in the Sole or Crust 315 

Corns 317 

Thrush 318 

Canker 320 

Ossification of the Cartilages 321 

Weakness of the Foot 321 

CHAPTER XVI. 
Kractukes : 322 



CONTENTS. 



X7 



CHAPTER XVII. 

On Shoeing 33J^ 

The putting on the Shoe 335 

Calkins 33G 

Chps 337 

The hinder Shoe 337 

Different kinds of Shoes 337 

The Concave-seated Shoe 337 

The Unilateral, or one side nailed Shoe 339 

The Hunting Shoe 340 

The Bar-Shoe 34O 

Tips 311 

The Expanding Shoe 341 

Felt or Leather Soles 341 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

Operations 344 

Bleeding 345 

Blistering 346 

Firing ; 347 

Setons 349 

Docking 350 

Nicking 351 

CHAPTER XIX. 

The Vices and Disagreeable or Dangerous Habits of the Horse 353 

Restiveness 353 

Backing or Gibbing 356 

Biting 357 

Getting the Cheek of the Bit into the Mouth 358 

Kicking 358 

Unsteadiness while being Mounted 359 

Rearing 359 

Running Away 359 

Vicious to Clean 360 

Vicious to Shoe 360 

Swallowing without Grinding 360 

Crib-Biting 361 

Wind-Sucking 362 

Cutting 36ii 

Not Lying Down 362 

Overreach 362 

Pawing 363 



\Vl CONTENTS. 

Quidding 363 

Rolling 363 

Shying 363 

Slipping the Collar 365 

Tripping 366 

Weaving 366 

CHAPTER XX. 

The General Management of the Horse 366 

Air 366 

Litter 368 

Light 369 

Grooming 370 

Exercise 371 

Food 372 

CHAPTER XXL 

The Skin and its Diseases 381 

Hide-bound 383 

Pores of the Skin 385 

Moulting 385 

Colour 386 

Surfeit 387 

Mange 388 

Warts 390 

Vermin 390 

CHAPTER XXn. 

On Soundness, and the Purchase and Sale of Horses 390 

CHAPTER XXIIL 
A List of the Medicines used in the Treatment of the Dis- 
eases OF the Horse , 398 



AN ESSAY ON THE ASS AND MULE, BY J. S. SKINNER. .. 419 



THE HORSE, 

IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA— AS HE HAS 
BEEN, AND AS HE IS. 



Of all the beasts of the field, which, as we are tc^d, the Lord formed out of the 
earth, and brought unto Adam to see Avhat he would call them, none has moro 
engaged the attention of the historian and the philosopher — none has figured more in 
poetry and romance, than the horse. 

Coeval with their domestication, and the knowledge of their admirable capacities 
to minister to our comforts and pleasures, according to Plutarch, the sentiment has 
been common to all good men, to treat the horse and the dog with especial kindness, 
and to cherish them carefully, even when the infirmities of age and long service have 
rendered them useless. 

For the volumes which have been written on the Horse, whether more or less 
authentic, as to his original country, his natural history, the time of his subjuo-ation 
to the use of man, and the various purposes for which he has been employed, — 
whether in the homely gear of field-labour, or in the gorgeous trappings of the tour- 
nament or chariot of war on all these points of his history and his uses, we might 
refer the curious reader to various works, some of them elegant, alike in their embel- 
lishments and their literature ; but to quote and to collate them here, would be to 
depart from the line of practical utility prescribed for the execution of our task ; 
hence, keeping that object constantly in view, we shall merely glance at what has been 
written of his early history and services, and so come down rapidly to tlie period in the 
history of the English horse where, after successive importations of foreign stallions, 
and the observance of judicious systems of breeding, the stock of the mother country, 
from which ours is derived, had attained about the days of Flying Childers, in the 
beginning of the last century, a high degree, if not its maximum of excellence. It 
was when so improved that the horse was imported into our then British Colonies: 
and what, after all, it may be asked, is there economical and thrifty in our agricul- 
tural and domestic habits — or good in our political and social institutions, the ele- 
ments and general outline of which we have not derived from Old England ? Some 
orchardists contend that a branch cut from an old trunk and grafted on a young scion, 
will, nevertheless, sympathize with the parent stock, and imder the laws of vegetable 
life, will decay as the parent tree declines ! Does the theory sometimes apply to 
ountries and governments ? or shall we thrive nationally, as plants grow larger and 
lore robust when transplanted from the seed-bed into wider space and freer circula- 
tion ] But these are questions for the politician. 

None of the writings to which we could point the reader contain more frequent 
mention, or more glowing descriptions of the power and beauty of the Horse, than 
the great hook of books! The Bible teaches us that from whatever land this animal 
may have been originally brought into Egypt, that country had already become a great 
horse market, even before horses were known in Arabia ; the country with which 
we are apt to associate all that is most interesting in the history of this noble beast. 
Geological researches, however, have discovered fossil remains of the horse in almost 
2* c .17) 



;8 THE HORSE. 

every part of the world, " from the tropical plains of India to the frozen regions of 
Siberia — from the northern extremities of tlie new world to the southern point of 
America." Hut amongst the Hebrews, horses were rare previous to the days of 
Solomon, wlio had horses brought out of Egypt after his marriage with the daughter 
of Pharoah, and so rapidly did he multiply them by purchase and by breeding, that 

♦ hose kept for his own use required, as it is written, " four thousand stables, and 
forty thousand stalls." Hence, when honoured by a visit from the beautiful Queen 
of S'heha, bringing with her " camels bearing spices," an-l " very much gold and 
precious stones," it was doubtless in the contemplation of his magnificent stud of 
horses and chariots, kept for the amusement of his wives and concubines, as well as 
of his other vast displays of power and magnificence, that her majesty exclaimed, in 

• he fullness of her admiration, — " How-beit I believed not the words until I came, 
and mine eyes had seen it, and behold the half was not told me !" 

This gallant monarch appears to have enjoyed a large monopoly of the horse trade 
wnh Egypt, for which he was probably indebted to his having an Egyptian Princess 
for one of his wives. His merchants supplied horses in great numbers to the Hittit« 
Kings of Northern Phcenicia. The fixed price was one hundred and fifty shekels for 
one horse, and six hundred shekels for a set of chariot horses. Thus early was in 
vogue, as it seems, the gentleman-like fashion to drive four-in-hand, which came 
down to the good old days when in our Republican coimtry the Tayloes, and the 
Ridgelys, and the Lloyds, and Hamptons still figured and flourished on the race-courses 
at Annapolis and Washington. 

That there was in the " olden time," something remarkably luxurious in the style of 
living and equipage at the ancient metropolis of Maryland, may be gathered from the fol- 
lov/ing remarks in " New Travels through America," in the year 1781, by the Abbe 
Robin, chaplain to the French army. — "Their furniture here is constructed of the 
most costly kind of wood, and the most valuable marble, enriched by the elegant 
devices of the artist's hand. Their riding machines are light and handsome, and 
drawn by the Jleetest coursers, managed by slaves richly dressed. This opulence was 
particularly observable at Annapolis. Female luxury here exceeds what is known in 
the provinces of France — a French hair-dresser is a man of importance among them ; 
a certain dame here hires one of that c-raft at a thousand crowns a year salary." 

Before the days of Solomon, their honours, the Judges and Princes of Israel, used 
generally to ride on Jisses and 3Iules ,• no less patient and faithful servants of man than 
the horse ; and to whom the editor will endeavour to render justice, in the course of 
this introduction to the English work. 

It is not, be it said, with all our partiality for the Horse, that he possesses any oiv. 
physical or moral trait, in higher excellence than some other animals. In sagacity, he 
falls short of the ponderous and drowsy Elephant ; in muscular development and 
grace of limb, he surpasses not the Stag; in ardour and constancy of devotion, he can 
scarcely be said to equal his friendly companion and rival for his master's affections, 
tlie faithful Dog ; and his courage fails him at sight of a " Lion in the way," — while 
in the humbler qualities of patience and availability to the very last, even to the hair 
and the hoof, that unambitious drudge, the Ox, may well assert his pretensions to com- 
parison, if not to superiority. It is the admirable combination of the several qualities 
which, taken singly, serve to confer distinction on other quadrupeds, that united in 
him, fits the horse for employments so various ; giving him pre-eminence alike in tiie 
wagon or the plough — the coach and the battle-field. While on the one hand, with a 
flight of speed, compared in vScripture to "the swiftness of the Eagle," he submits his 
neck, clothed in thunder, to be restrained by a silken rein in the hands of a Di Vernon, 
his courage in war is thus eloquently described by Job. We give what is esteemed 
the best translation of a passage often quoted, no less for its appcsiteness than for its 
Bublirnity. 

" Hast thou given mettle to the horse ? 

And clothed his neck with ire ? 

Dost thou command him to spring like a grasshopper t 

The grandeur of his neighing is terror : 

With his feet he beats the ground, 

Rejoicing in his strength ; 

And goes forth to meet the embattled foe. 



THE HORSE. 19 

The fearful sight he scorns, and trembles not, 

Nor from the sword doth he draw back. 

Above him rattle the quiver, the glittering spear, and arrow. 

Under him trembles the earth ; yet he hardly touches it. 

He doubts if it be the sound of the trumpet he hears, 

But when it becomes more distinct, then he exults, 

And from afar, pants for the battle, 

The word of command, and the war-cry." 

And then as to his gallantry ; where, in all nature, does she exhibit such a magnifi- 
cent display of that conservative passion, by which alone the Great Jehovah has 
secured the perpetuity of all his creatures, as in the high-formed, pampered stallion, 
under the impulse of amatory anticipations ! — affording in this resistless necessity of 
animal organization, proof that should dispel, even in a land of Atheists, all doubt of 
an overruling design or Providence, 

" Whose work is without labour ; whose designs 
No flaw deforms, no difficulty thwarts ; 
And whose beneficence no charge exhausts." 

It may be the force of early association, but we apprehend it is almost indispensable 
to have been born and " raised in the country" to estimate fully the attachment which 
can there alone grow up in all its power, between a man and his horse ! What con- 
queror, " from Macedonia's madman to the Swede," so proud as the boy and his horse 
' Button" or " Bright-Eye," that can beat all competitors in a quarter-race ! Alex- 
ander was a fool, and Bucephalus a garron, compared to these two great characters, in 
playtime at a country school. " Hand experientia loqiior!^^ 

To the valetudinarian, how delightful to escape from his sick room, and once more 
throw himself in his saddle, to ride abroad and snuff the fresh air of the morning ; or 
no less to one in the manly vigotir of health, to mount his sure-footed, high-mettled 
&teed, and go bounding, at three-quarter speed, 

" Over the hills and far away," 
under the reckless excitement of the chase, or sometimes even solitary and alone, ye< 
most agreeably exhilarated by that cheerful turn of thought educed by rapid horseback 
motion, in the bracing air of the country ! He, at least, must have felt these sensa- 
tions, Avho described them so happily and with so much enthusiasm, in the old Ameri- 
can Turf Register and Sporting Magazine ; a work since much improved, and now 
conducted with rare taste and elegance by W. T. Pouter, of New York. 

In strong fear of reproach for departing from the strict line of utility laid down for 
our observance, we cannot forbear to appropriate space enough here to multiplj'' copies 
of this beautiful tribute 

"TO MY HORSE." 

WiTii a glancing eye and curving mane, 
He neighs and champs on the bridle-rein ; 
One spring, and his saddled back I press. 
And ours is a common happiness ! 
'Tis the rapture of motion ! a hurrying cloud 
When the loosened winds are breathing loud :— 
A shaft from the painted Indian's bow — 
' A bird — in the pride of speed we go. 

Dark thoughts that haunt me, where are ye now ? 
While the cleft air gratefully cools my brow. 
And the dizzy earth seems reeling by. 
And nought is at rest, but the arching sky : 
And the tramp of my steed, so swift and strong, 
Is dearer than fame and sweeter than song ? 

There is life in the breeze as we hasten on ; 
With each bound some care of earth has gone, 
And the languid pulse begins to p!ay„: 
And the night of my soul is turned to day , 
A richer verdure the earth o'erspreads, 
Sparkles the streamlet more bright in the meads ; 



20 THE HORSE. 

And its voice to the flowers that bend above, 

Is soft as the whisper of early love ; 

With fragrance spring flowers have burdened the air, 

And the blue-bird and robin are twittering clear. 

Lovely tokens of gladness, I marked ye not, 
When last I roamed o'er this self-same spot. 
Ah ! then the deep shadows of sorrow's mien 
Fell, like a bhght, on the happy scene ; 
And nature, with all her love and grace, 
In the depths of the spirit could find no place. 

So the vexed breast of the mountain lake, 
When wind and rain mad revelry make, 
Turbid and gloomy, and wildly tost, 
Retains no trace of the beauty lost. 
But when through the moist air, bright and warm, 
The sun looks down with his golden charm. 
And clouds have fled, and the wind is lull. 
Oh ! then the changed lake, how beautiful I 

The glistening trees, in their shady ranks, 

And the ewe with its lamb, along the banks, 

And the kingfisher perched on the wither'd bough, 

And the pure blue heaven, all pictured below ! 

Bound proudly my steed, nor hound proudly in vain. 

Since thy master is now himself again. 

And thine be the praise when the leech's* power 

Is idle, to conquer the darkened hour 

By the might of the sounding hoof, to win 

Beauty without and joy within ; 

Beauty else to my eyes unseen, 

And joy, that then had a stranger been. 

We return without further preliminary to trace the progressive improvements which 
have ended in giving us the horse of all vwrk of the present day, and as now employed 
for ordinary uses. These uses require hardiness aaid strength for economical and 
laborious drudgery, and activity and speed for light harness and the saddle ; while 
for every purpose it is essential that he should have good wind. The work itself, to 
which these remarks are but introductory, it will be remembered treats more par- 
ticularly and fully, and leaves nothing more to be learned about the anatomy and 
diseases of the Horse. How the qualities designated above have been gradually estab- 
lished and preserved from deterioration, it would be impracticable to ascertain and 
relaie without going back as we propose to trace the outline at least of the history of 
the English Horse, from which ours are descended — and here, before proceeding 
further, it is deemed proper the better to indicate its importance to every practical 
husbandman, that we lay it down as a principle, that the horse, in his domesticated 
condition, where his propagation is conducted arbitrarily and without rule — where the 
male and female are brought together capriciously, and without care or judgment as 
to the qualities of each, constant and widespread deterioration must be the consequence. 
On this point, upon which we insist as of the highest consideration, we shall dAvell 
again, to show why it is that animals in a state of nature will preserve a higher 
standard than when unskilfully and carelessly bred in a state of domesti- 
cation. In the meantime, in sketching the history of the English horse, it is not 
deemed essential to go back anterior to the Invasion of England by Julius Cttsar. 
Even at that period it is clear that there existed in that island a good substratum To: 
forming a superior race, for that observant and accomplished warrior spoke in the 
highest terms of the horses he found there. So well was he convinced of their excel- 
lence, that he took back with him many of them to Rome, where English horses soon 
grew into great demand ; and thus early was an inducement offered to the hardy ana 
enterprising Briton, which since then has suffered no abatement, to pay strict atten- 
tion to this important source of agricultural wealth. 

• Leech, in old poetic dialect, means physician. 



THE HORSE. 21 



Huo-h Capet, king of France, in the ninth century, proposing to himself by intei- 
raarriao-e with Etheldista, to inlhse more vivacity into the breed of these semi-barba- 
rous islanders, sent over to her brother Prince Athelstan, a supply of German " running 
horses " as they were called, this being the first mention of the race-horse in English 
annals' It is to be supposed that in all cases of male horses thus spoken of, " entire 
horses are to be understood ; for then it was not common, as it is now, to violate 
wantonly the Mosaic Law, which says, " a beast that is crushed, bruised, evulsed, oi 
excised (these beino- the four modes of castration,) you shall not bring unto Jehovah, 
nor shall >/ou make it so in your land:' A practice as doubtful, as to its necessity or 
utility in respect to the horse, as it is inhuman wherever it is useless. In the case ot 
edible animals, where emasculation promotes size and fatness, and improves the 
flavour for the table, as with the hog and the sheep, this execrable mutilation is neces- 
sary and therefore more excusable ; but this is not the case with the horse. In t ranee, 
where he is remarkable for strength in proportion to size, the post and the farm horse 
is rarely, if ever, castrated ; and when horses for the road undergo this operation, it is 
done in a manner and with such reservations as not to destroy the external appearance 
of this sexual development; the suppression of which is there considered a striking 
disfiaurem'ent. Descending next to the epoch of William the Conqueror, whose 
eharffer was of the Spanish breed, and whose cavalry won for him the victory at the 
Battle of Hastings-one of his subjects, lioger de Belseme, justly obtained popularity 
as a national benefactor, by the importation of Spanish stallions into Eiigland. feo 
decidedly beneficial was the result of this munificent act of an individual subject, that 
it may well be noted as an era in its way, for it is not to be doubted that these Spanish 
stallions partook largely of the blood of the Barb, brought into Spam by the Moors, 
as the Norman-French horse in Canada does, of the same blood, carried from Spain 
and Palestine to Normandy. To show how largely this new infusion of foreign blood 
must have refined and thinned the wind, so to say, of the English strain of horses, at 
that juncture, it is sufficient that we exhibit a well-drawn portrait, ready to our hand, 
of the Barbary horse, more nearly allied than any other to the f ^^7' ^"J.^IJ^^^J"^ 
equal at least in form, if not in spiriW-of the same stock, in fact, as Godolphm, com- 
monlv called the " Godolphin Arabian." 

"The fore hand of thoBarb is generally long and slender, and his mane long and 
rather scanty. His ears are small, beautifully shaped, and placed in such a manner 
S to g ve him great expression ; his shoulders are light, flat, and sloping backwards 
withers fine and standing high ; loins short and straight; flanks and ribs round and 
full without giving him too large a belly ; his haunches strong and elastic ; the croup 
fsoret rnes long to a fault, the tail is placed high, thighs Wl turned and rounded, 
ei dean and beLtifully formed, and the hair thin, soft and silky ; the tendons are 
cfrtached from the bone, but the pasterns are often too long and bending; the feet 
rnthpr small, but in areneral sound." . , /- ^i_ 

In thin ineation^of the barb, what reader will fail to recognise most of the genu- 
ine and well-established characteristics of the high form and breeding so much prized 

^^T^e E^Xn^Sto'ck, to which a little too much heaviness had already been given 
bv the dash of German blood, was now approaching that stage which demanded but 
oL mo?e d p of the long-winded, light-foit^,d, silken-coatod Eastern courser, such a 
it received some centuries after with such palpable ^"^ /"^^J;?"? ,^^^^^^^ 
Darley Arabian; and ao-ain from Godolphin, endowing it with both speeu ana 
Sout/essS a measure, to^which no addition has been made ^Y -y -^^^ X- 
kle of exotic blood. When we reach in the progress of these ^e'^^^^'^^V^/;P;\'^7,;^^^^^^ 
it will be proper to speak more Particularly of this effectwe agency of the^^^^^^^ 
brated stallions in elevating the character of the En^hsh ^lood horse, we shaUive 
some reasons, drawn from the ^^-^Vfr^^^^^o^^ree^^^^ 

Sect to have seen anywhere asserted, why it was that tney coi . ^ ^^ 

.hat end, and how it is that similar results hav« "°Vefon he w^^ 
same kind. In the meantime i^^^^ecessay to linger on the w^^^^ importations and 
the chain may not be broken which connec s *^^^^"^^' /; P^'XUo-es and delicrht« 
other important incidents to which Y^ -e -d^Jf 3, ^/k of surllooted Lngrwinded 
that spring from the possession of the existing sioch. ui ou 



22 THE HORSE. 

cattle. With your permission then, kind reader, to use an expression familiar to the 
votaries of the cha^e, let us " try hack.'''' 

While the government of one man would be a dangerous experiment until we can 
have " Angels in the shape of men to govern us," yet when the monarch happens to 
be enlightened and virtuous, then the more absolute his power the belter, perhaps, for 
iiis country Even bad ones, sometimes by freak or passion, confer great good on 
particular interests or branches of industry. We have already seen how, under the 
reign of William the Conqueror, the munificence of a subject gained him renown as a 
patriot by the introduction of Spanish horses into England. Subsequently, King John 
with all his bad qualities, established for himself at least one claim to honourable 
notoriety, by his various measures to better the strain of horses in use at that time, and 
especially by the introduction of the Flanders Horse, to give more weight and sub- 
stance to the heavy coach-horse, needed for, and adapted to the unwieldy carriages and 
bad roads then in use. "To this monarch too," says an English writer, " we are 
unquestionably indebted for tile foundation of our unrivalled draught horses. Aware 
of the superiority in bulk and strength of the Flemish breed, he imported, at one time, 
an hundred of the finest stallions." Subsequently, Edward II. imported thirty war, 
and twelve heavy draught horses, from Lombardy ; and these again were well crossed 
at a later period, when Edward III. of warlike temper, brought over fifty Spanish 
horses, at a cost of thirteen pounds six shillings, equivalent, in our day of luxury and 
paper money, to $800 each. It is fairly to be presumed, that in his great passion fci 
the chase, His Royal Majesty perceived the necessity of giving more speed to the 
hunter, by throwing off some of the sluggish blood and massiveness of the Flemish 
stock, which is in general " large in the carcass, pretty clean in the leg, and patient 
and enduring, but slow. They are good at a dead pull, but very heavy in the fore- 
liand ; inclined to get fat, but wanting in activity. They fall oflf in the rump, and the 
hips stand out too much from the ribs. The most unsightly part is the setting-on of 
the tail, which comes out low and points downwards." Such are the general charac- 
teristics of the Flemish horse. " Flanders Mare," as every one knows, is a common 
term to express the opposite of grace and delicacy. They were imported into Eng- 
land, as above stated, to give size to coach-horses, when roads were bad and coaches 
of enormous weight ; but, as cause and eflfect are connected, and the one infallibly fol- 
lows and is controlled by the other, coaches have become lighter, and coach-horses 
quicker and more airy, as roads have been improved. The policy of this change from 
heavy to lighter horses, however, was again necessarily restrained and limited by the 
then still existing necessity for having chargers of great stamina to carry, beside.? 
their rider, the heavy armour weighing over three hundred pounds, as did that in com 
mon use before the invention of gunpoicder ! 

How often public policy, the exterior relations of a country, and various accident? 
and events apparently altogether extrinsic, serve to establish historical facts, and t.6 
influence the courses of national industry, literature, and arts ! Thus, the representa- 
tion of a man driving a hofse attached to a harrow, woven in a piece of tapestry, is 
the evidence relied upon to prove that about contemporaneously with the Norman con- 
quest, horses had got to be employed in that sort of labour; and here again we see, at 
a subsequent period, a revolution in the whole system of breeding horses in Britain, 
brought about by the invention of gunpowder ! While in our own day, we have beheld 
steam so applied as to drive horse-power from all her great thoroughfares, and to do 
in her factories the labour of some millions of men I Truly, these are the days of 
progress ! 

We come now to the period when horses were first distinctly classified and disci 
plined expressly for war, and the fuif, the c7iase, the road, and the coach ,• and here we 
may safely leave the subject as far as relates to the introduction of foreign horses into 
England, for the most part judicious, and well calculated, as the reader must have per- 
ceived, to pave the way for what has since been accomplished in the melioration of 
this favourite animal, and in adapting his structure and properties, from time to time, 
to his new and more various,, employments. Some particular enactments, however, 
designed to accomplish the same objects, are well worthy of being mentioned ; and, iJ 
might be added, of being imitated — in our own country and time. In the reign of 
Henry VIIL, even the size and fcrm of Stallions v,-exe prescribed by Statute; ani3 



THE HORSE. 



2H 



severe penalties were inflicted for every deviation from the lawful standard. We have 
often tnought, and elsewhere maintained, that the Legislatures of the several States 
would do well to impose a tax on Stallions ; and, moreover, provide that none should 
j)fi allowed to propagate their race, but under license granted by judges, connoisseurs 
of horses, who should have power to condemn the worthless as the Inspector con- 
denms a hogshead of rotten tobacco ; leaving a tax of fixed amount upon all such as 
could pass inspection — or the amount should be light or heavy, in proportion to the 
perfection or defectiveness of the animal. All thick, straight-shouldered, cat-hammed 
garrans, and all overgrown beasts " sixteen hands or upwards, under the standard," 
should be condemned to celibacy ! This would go far, in a few years, to dinunish 
the number of ungainly monsters, to be found at every cross-road, propagating their 
own wretched deformities, and vices of sha])e and temper. That horses do propagate 
hysical and moral defects, tliere can be no doubt — were it not invidious, living exam- 
ples might be given of both as to curbs and sulks ! one of which defects may have 
endangered, and the other have caused on a recent occasion, the loss of many thou- 
sands. 

Without having, as we hope, omitted anything material to show the reader how 
abundant have been the materials, and how judicious the use of them, to secure the 
excellence of the English Horse up to the period at which we have arrived — here we 
reach the epoch when we are told that public races were established, and horses that 
had given proof of their superior swiftness became known and celebrated throughout 
the kingdom. " The breed was cultivated, and their pedigree as well as those of their 
posterity, (in imitation of the Arabian manner,) was preserved and recorded with 
exactness." 

Here then, at last, as we contend, in this establishment and patronage of the turf, as 
an exact and severe test of equestrian power, and in the faithful preservation of pedi- 
grees, we discover at once the source and the guarantee for preserving all that is 
excellent in this noble animal, distinguished as we have said, in his rare combination 
of strength, swiftness, beauty, lastingness, docility, and courage. Tlie prescription 
of weight to age — the measurement of the track, and the opening of the Stud-book, 
have done for English horses, what Magna Charta did for English-men ! 

As with man, " 'tis liberty alone that gives to life its lustre and perfume," so there 
would seem to be something in his aristocratic blood, that inspires the thorough-bred 
coarser with an indomitable pride and courage. To look at is but to admire him as 
he walks, " rejoicing in his strength !" but both man and horse will degenerate in 
character and value when in their government there is provided no test for their 
capacity — no stnnulus to virtue — no reward for their ambition, nor restraint upon its 
vicious indulgence ! 

Nothing is easier than to declaim against the turf, on account of the abuse which 
too often attends the use of that, and other institutions. We might consent to its 
abatement or suppression, if those who desire it will tell us how, except by its 
exciting hazards and hopes, and its infallible test as a measure of equestrian power, 
men can be prevailed upon to breed systematically, to acquire skill in training, and 
to encounter the expense and trouble of carefully testing the capacities of horses ; — 
dooming the most worthless to the plough, and sending, finally, the very best only into 
the breeding stud, to perpetuate their fine qualities ! How, except by tlius ascertain- 
ing and breeding from the most perfect, can he be kept up to the standard he has 
reached, and finally, how but by such authentic annals, and proofs to refer to, can 
even the practical farmer employ any given degree of the pure blood, some of which 
all admit to be advantageous and desirable for every service, even the most humble 
and laborious to which the Horse can be subjected \ In respect of the reliance to be 
placed on the English Stud-Book for pedigrees, and the good effects (f sprinkling the 
horse of all work with more or less of the warm blood of the Eastern Courser, we covet 
for our own conviction no better support or authority than the views adopted and 
sanctioned by B. O. Tayloe, Esq. of Washington, a gentleman and scholar, who has 
done more than any writer of whom we have any knowledge, to throw light upon tlu; 
obscure but interesting annals of the American turf, consisting until then of a con- 
fused mas? of scattered materials — rudis indigesta quo rnoles — arranging them in 



U4 



THE HORSE, 



chronological order, and imparting to them all the perspicuity and Aveight of digested 
and authentic history. 

"Additional attention was given to hlood during the reigns of Elizaheth and 
James. The latter had his running horses, and with great judgment, imported from 
Arabia. A south-eastern horse was brought into England and purchased by James 
of Mr. Place, who was afterwards Stud-master to Oliver Cromwell. This beautiful 
animal was called Place's While Turk. Shortly after appeared the Helmsly Turk, 
imported by the Duke of Buckingham. Charles I. ardently pursued the amusements 
of the turf, now a favourite diversion with English gentlemen. With but few ex 
coptions, the oldest English pedigrees end in Place's White Turk. At the Restoration 
a new impulse was given to breeding and running fine horses. The system of 
improvement was thenceforth zealously pursued. Every variety of Eastern blood 
vvas engrafted upon the English; and the superiority of the produce, above the very 
oest of the original stock, began to he evident. Their beauty of form, speed, and stout- 
ness, greatly surpassed the original breed. In the latter part of Queen Anne's reign 
there was still further improvement caused by tlie introduction of the Darby Arabian. 
Having to contend with prejudice, it was some time before he attracted notice. From 
him sprung a strain of unequalled beauty, speed, and strength. The Darby Arabian 
has been properly termed the parent of the racing stock. The present English 
thorough-bred horse is of foreign extraction, improved and perfected by the influence 
of climate and diligent cultivation. 

"The pedigree of English Eclipse affords a singular illustration of the descent from 
pure Eastern blood, both of himself and his ancestors, Marske, Reguhis, Squirt, and 
Childers. The strictest attention has been paid to pedigree. In the descent of 
almost every modern racer, not the slightest flaw can be discovered ; or when, with 
the splendid exceptions of Sampson, and his son Bay Malton, one common drop has 
mingled in the pure stream, it has been speedily detected in the degeneracy of their 
progeny. Tlie Stud-Book,. which is authority acknowledged by every English breeder, 
traces all the old pedigrees to some Eastern courser, or until they are lost in the 
uncertainty of early breeding. 

"The thorougli-bred horse enters into every other breed, and adds or often gives to 
it its only value. For a superior charger, hunter, or saddle-horse, three parts, or one- 
half should be of pure blood; but for the horse of all work,' less will answer. The 
road-horse, according to the work required of him, should, like the hunter, possess 
different degrees of blood. The best kind of coach-horse is derived from mares of 
some blood, crossed with a three-fourth or thorough-bred stallion of sufficient size 
and substance. Even the dray-horse, and every other class of horse, is improved by 
a partial mixture of the thorough-bred." 

The late John Randolph, a connoisseur as well as an amateur in all such matters, 
used to say, that the long, slouching walk of the blood horse would tell, even in the 
plough, in a hot summer's day. 

A retrospective glance at the low condition of the turf, and of the blood horse in 
this country, at the date of the establishment of the Ameuican Turf Register and 
Sporting Magazine, by Mr. Skinner, at Baltimore, in 1829, will show how the influ- 
ence of that official record of blood and of performance, revived this ancient amuse- 
ment, and, as if by magic, retrieved and brought into demand again, the still pure but 
long-neglected descendants of illustrious ancestors. Pedigrees were thenceforth 
strictly scrutinized, the grain was winnowed from the chaff; and while some bastards, 
claiming liigh family pretensions, were exposed and repudiated, the rust which, through 
time and carelessness, had accumulated on the bright escutcheon of the real Simon 
Pure, was brushed away, and the mark of legitimacy indelibly stamped upon his 
brow. 

Prior to the establishment of the Turf Register, the dam of Kate Kearney and of 
Sussex, two among the best nags ever bred in the Old Dominion, was sold at public 
auction, for thirteen pounds, tobacco currency, and was afterwards bought out of a 
cart for $50, by Col. J. M. Selden, a fair specimen, himself, of the good old Virginia 
fitock ; withoiii, at the time, it is true, a knowledge of her pedigree. She was used as 
d common farm hack, in tlie heaviest and hardest work, going in the wagon and 
breaking up heavy James' River bottom-lands in the plough ; and, as Col. S. has 



THE HORSE. 25 

assured us, was the only horse on the estate, whereof there were many much larger, 
that never lost a day's work, or required to be turned out and rested occasionally, from 
sickness or exhaustion. Being informed of her blood, she was rescued from the??i 
"babe uses" and sent to Sir Archy, by whom she produced Kate Kearney, and to l^'ir 
Charles, and produced the renowned, but ill-fated Sussex, sire of Lady Clifden. LaJy 
Lightfootwent out of a common livery-stable at $500; and old Eclipse, not long before 
his race with Sir Charles, was otlered to the writer of these remarks for $2,500. At 
an advanced age he sold for $10,000, and is now, at twenty-seven years old, in vigor- 
ous health, covering in Kentucky at $100. One of his get by Lady Lightfoot was 
sold to a gentleman of Pennsylvania for $10,000, and that only on condition, as it was 
rumoured, that the buyer would reciprocate the favour, by letting the gallant owner 
of him have one hundred bottles of his old Bingham wine, for ten times that number 
of dollars. 

Sir Archy was in a great measure indebted to his fame, if not to his great value as a 
stallion, during his declining years, to the establishment of the Turf Register, in which 
Vv'ere heralded the brilliant achievements of his renowned get and their descendants. Ho 
had been made but a mere addition in the exchange, for but so-so high-bred cattle, by 
his breeder, the late Col. John Tayloe, of Mount Airy ; and thus passed into the hands 
of his nephew, the late Ralph Wormley, Esq., of Rosegill, at whose death, shortly 
thereafter, he was purchased in his three year old form, after being beaten, by our re- 
nowned turfman, W. R. J., Esq., of Chesterfield, Virginia, who soon placed him at the 
head of the turf, with the reputation of being as good a four-miler as had ever run in Ame- 
rica. Such fame soon supplied his Harem — and at once he acquired a higher name in the 
Stud than any stallion that had ever been in our country ; and now, thanks to the Regis- 
ter, is very generally regarded as ourGodolphin Arabian — the ancestor of Boston, and 
Fashion, and Wagner, and Grey Eagle, and J. Bascom, and Postboy, and Mingo, and 
Lady Clifden, and Fanny, and Sarah Washington, and Grey Medoc, and Jim Bell, &c. 

It would here be unjust, not to say ungrateful, in one who has so often been the hon- 
oured medium of his favours in that v/ay, not to make acknowledgments to the truly vene- 
able Judge G. Duvall, forthe light shed by him on the earlier annals of the American 
Turf. So wonderful is his memory, that he can place each horse as he saw them 
come out in remarkable races hffore the revolution ! How gratifying to his friends to 
behold this old IMaryland-born advocate of our revolutionary claims ; compatriot of 
Washington, and Tilghman, and Howard ; asserter of all we have achieved that is 
good in political — examplar of all that is commendable in private morals ; approaching 
his centenary, and yet erect in port and in spirit, like one of our majestic old poplars, 
sparsely surviving the ravages of the axe and the peltings of the pitiless storm — memo- 
rials of the virgin soil and better days in which its roots were struck. 

When we insist that the great objects to be aimed at, action and power of endurance, 
are only to be secured with certainty, by exact trials of speed and the preservation of 
authentic pedigrees, we may perhaps be met by the suggestion that this theory is at 
war with all observation as to the effect of indiscriminate intercourse among wild 
horses, which are said to display high powers and excellence, not only on the plains 
and pampas of North and South America, but yet more in the deserts of Arabia, where 
this animal is generally supposed to be found in his highest finish. As to the fine 
specimens of their race, which are taken with the lusso, from immense herds roaming 
at large on the plains of this continent, it is to be borne in mind, that while none but 
the best are thus selected, the basis of these herds was originally brought, like that of 
the fine cattle of Louisiana, from old Spain; beingdeeply imbued with the fine blood of 
the Andalusian or Barb Horse. That such a race, running at large, in a country 
highly adapted to its constitution, should not have degenerated and become worthless 
in form and spirit, is not so discordant with the principles of artistical breeding, for 
which we contend, as may at first sight appear — for it is well known that in these wijd 
herds, the work of procreation is conceded not indiscriminately to all, but is fought tor 
and engrossed by the most spirited and vigorous stallions among them ; following, in 
this case, the laws that govern all animated nature, where might takes the place of 
right, and courage and strength, there, as elsewhere, usurp the Lion's share — hence, 
though in general the size, too often made a matter of primary consideration, may be 
below the medium standard of the domesticated Horse, the more estimable qualitiea 
3 D 



26 T II E H R S E . 

of fine propcidon, activity, and game of the sire, are transmitted to his get. It niav 
well be supposed, too, that this monopoly of sexual enjoyment is rarely allowed to 
continue more than one or two years. x\s the season of love opens with the budding 
of the leaf, in the genial warmth of spring weather, this envied privilege becomes 
again a prize for the most desperate rivalry ; the fiercest conflicts, often mortal, then 
ensue ; and the delights of the harem are at last yielded for a time to the victor who 
proves himself the possessor, in a su])erior degree, of the very qualities — strength, 
spirit, and activity — which, under the best management, we should desire to impart! 
This suiliciently accounts, as we apprehend, for such excellence in several points, as 
id admitted to be often found in the horse of the desert and the pampas ; pre- 
serving him from that degeneracy, both moral and physical, which, under the svstem 
of breeding " in-and-in'''' too closely, is seen to show itself in monstrous shapes, in 
King's evil, sometimes in idiotcy. Lord Byron, himself a nobleman, and unfortunately 
not exempt from personal deformity, could not forbear sarcastic allusion to the effects 
of this in-and-in system, which, prompted by reasons of state and of fixmily aggrandize- 
ment, is sometimes followed too far in the royal and noble families of Europe : 

" they breed in-and-in, as might be known; 



Marrying their cousins, nay, tiieir aunls and nieces, 
Which always spoils the breed, if it increases." 

The natural-born children of high-born sires are often observed to be more 
sprightly and energetic than those which spring lawfully from parents so nearly allied ; 
it may be because they are made like the Frenchman's incomparable shoe, in a " mo- 
ment of enthusiasm," which, in more enterprises than one, is the guarantee of a for- 
tunate issue. 

There has been, since long before the American Revolution, on the islands along 
the sea-board of Maryland and Virginia, a race of very small, compact, hardy horses, 
usually called beach-horses, which, in a sketch like this, deserve a passing notice. 
They run wild throughout the year, and are never fed. When the snow sometimes 
covers the ground for a few days in winter, they dig through it in search of food. 
They are very diminutive, but man}'^ of them are of perfect synnnetry and extraordinary 
powers of action and endurance. The Hon. H. A. W. of Accomac, has been heard to 
say that he knew one of these beach-horses, which served as pony and hack for the boys 
of one family, for several generations; and another that could trot his 15 miles within 
tlie hour, and was yet so small that a tall man might straddle him, and with his toes 
touch the ground on each side. He spoke of another that he believes could have trotted 
30 miles in two hours. As an instance of their innate horror of slavery, he mentions the 
fact of a herd of them once breaking indignantly from a pen into which they had been 
trapped, for the purpose of being marked and otherwise cruelly mutilated ; and rather 
than submit to their pursuers, the}' swam off at once into the wide expanse of the ocean, 
preferring a watery grave, to a life of ignominious celibacy and subjugation ! "Why 
might not one of these small but symmetrical stallions, on the principles which we shall 
hereafter explain, beget superior stock, if put to large, well-formed, high-bred mares 1 
Mr. W. is clearly of opinion, from all circumstances and appearances, that these small 
horses, smaller even than the Canada Stallion, possessing such powers as he 
describes, are descendants of thorough-bred stock ! Other animals in a wild state, no 
less than tlie Horse, are doubtless preserved from degeneracy under the same con- 
servative polity of nature. Thus we see the graceful stag loses in the wilderness 
none of his exquisite symmetry of form, delicacy and hardness of bone, and matchless 
swiftness of foot. When Autumn is first seen to put on the "sere and j'^ellow leaf," 
the Doe, having then performed her maternal office, feels the sexual passion revive in hei 
bosom; but its indulgence is postponed, until the rival bucks have settled again foi 
the season, the question of physical superiority by actual, sometimes deadly combat 
So desperate are these encounters, that Stags have not unfrequently been found dead, 
as related by that scientific officer, Col. Long, upon his own observation, with their 
antlers inextricably interlocked, presenting striking and melancholy pictures of the 
universal passion "strong in death." A large pair of antlers thus entangled were 
found, in a western wilderness, and sent to Nicholas Biddle, Esq., and may be seen 
over the door of his studio at Andalusia, overgrown with ivy. The same reason- 



THE HORSE, 



27 



lag accounts for the great size and beauty observable in cattle that roam at large, in 
South America, as indicated bj the hides we often see on the wharves in our large 
seaports — though at other times the males mingle in all kindness and social harmony, 
yet in these aifairs of love, still more than in trade, all nature proclaims there is " no 
friendship." How much of truth to nature, in the chaste and pious Thomson's 
description of the effect of this vernal influence on the temper of the Bull! 

■Through all his lusty veins 



The bull, deep-scorch'd, the raging passion feels 
Of pasture sick, and negligent ot food: 
Scarce seen, he wades among the yellow broom, 
While o'er bis ample side, the rambling sprays 
Luxuriant shoot ; and through the mazy wood 
Dejected wanders, nor the enticing bud 
Crops, though it presses on his careless sense. 
And oft in jealous maddening fancy wrapt 
He seeks the fight, and idly butting feigns 
His rival gored in every knotty trunk." 

In these cases, where nature is left without disturbance to preserve herself from 
decay, Providence, which never works in vain, will take care that all goes right; — 
but how different the result when animals tamed and domesticated by the cunning of 
man, are brought together for reproduction, arbitrarily, and, as is generally done in 
our country, perhaps above all others, in utter disregard of everything like rule or 
system, and in total ignorance or carelessness of their respective points and qualities, 
as well as of their adaptation or relationship, the one to the other ! With this igno- 
rance and carelessness almost universal, there is constant danger, as we have before 
stated, o{ general delerioratiim ; and in introducing a work intended to promote the 
health and improvement of this animal, it cannot be too strongly urged that this ever- 
existing tendency is only to be counteracted by presenting those strong incentives 
which alone can prompt a few to devote the time and the skill which are indispensa- 
ble to maintain the blood horse, sans iache, and in the highest perfection. Nothing 
can more clearly show the wise and benevolent order of Providence that man should 
exercise his superior intellect for the improvement of all around him, than the ease 
and certainty with which it is seen that, by close attention, we can modify and 
meliorate all organized existences in the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Hence 
the most acid and worthless grape is by skilful culture rendered sweet and luscious ; 
flowers without attraction are gradually nurtured into beauty and fragrance ; tne 
cat may be made to present all the rich colours of tortoise-shell, and the pigeon 
may be "bred to a feather." These remarks might appear foreign or super- 
fluous, but for their obvious design to enforce the necessity of breeding ike horse 
with incessant regard to an ever-existing susceptibility of improvement on the 
one hand, and liability to degenerate on the other. Without some such strong 
incentives as above referred to, in a few years, one might as well look among 
the black Dutch for a dancing-master, as to look anywhere for breeding horses 
that will insure speed, and stoutness, and spirit. 

In regard to the prevalent impression that the Arabian horse runs wild in the desert, 
breeding promiscuously, and that where he has been domesticated, no attention is paid 
to pedigree, and no recourse had to racing to test their powers, — all accounts go to show, 
on the contrary, that no people preserve their equestrian /amz'/y trees with more sedulous 
care. To reach the root of some, they go down many centuries. Although, according to 
Strabo, an historian of high repute, who lived in the time of Augustus and Tiberius, 
much about the era of Christ's appearance, Arabia was still without horses; yet it is 
undoubtedly a f^ct that they soon took the most effectual methods to improve them to 
the utmost, and among these, says a very learned commentator on the Mosaic Code, 
'• I am inclined to consider the spirit of horse-racing, an exercise in which the ^abs 
eagerly sought for renown, as the primary cause of that perfection which the art of 
horse-breeding so rapidly attained among them ; but I by no means exclude soil and 
dimal'., and food, as contributing causes."— ■" Wherever, (says the same writer,> 
racing is established either as a source of fame or profit, good horses will be sought 
for, and the breed improved in the first instance by the best foreign stallions, and then 



2S THE HORSE. 

oy those home-bred ones which show the Lest qualities ; and thus the country wiW 
by de^ees acquire an excellent breed." 

"That races (says he,) were introduced among the Arabs, very soon after they 
began to breed horses, appears from the very names of the coursers. Ten horses 
started together, and from the victor to the last, each has its own proper name or 
epithet ; — one of their best scholiasts enumerates them in the following manner as 
they came out in the race : — 

Sabek, the foremost — the inspirer of joy and banisher of care — because his 

aster can behold the race with delight, and without concern, 1 

Mutgalli — because he had his head on the back of the winner, 2 

Miisalli — because he satisfies his owner, 3 

Tnli — the pursuer, 4 

Murtach — the ardent, or mettlesome, 5 

Jllif — the keen, or well disposed, G 

Muvaimnal — the inspirer of future hopes, 7 

Hadi — the lazy, 8 

Latim — the belaboured, because taken into the stable with blows, .... 
Lucait — or whose name is not to be named, and of whom nothing is said, 

because the case is too bad, 10 

The admitted excellence to which the general stock of English horses has been 
brought, is then the result, as has been seen, of a good foundation to build upon ; of 
successive and in most cases judicious crosses, by the use of foreign stallions, most 
frequently Barbs ; and of superabundant wealth employed in the breeding and train- 
ing of stud ; those addicted to all the luxurious uses of the horse, having besides 
other facilities a wide latitude before them, in the various strains to select and breed 
from. 

The reason why the Darley Arabian, and after him the celebrated Barb, Godolphin, 
contributed more decidedly than any Arabians have done since, to the improvement 
of the race-horse, is, that they were imported at the very juncture when the British 
stock was in a condition to need a cross that would impart more muscle and harder 
bone, and give better wind ; while it diminished the size and weight of the carcass, 
which had been made too heavy by repeated uses of the Flemish and German breed- 
In our own country we know, and probably in all others, the progress of improve- 
ment of domestic animals has been much retarded and counteracted, by the vulgar 
persuasion that the largest males should be selected for the purpose of procreation. — 
Than this common impression no error could be more pernicious. This fallacy is 
the source of the disappointment and mortification experienced by farmers who give 
enormous prices for overgrown bulls and rams, and who always give the preference 
to stallions that measure "full sixteen hands and upwards under the standard." — On 
this point we cannot do better than refer to an able essay of Professor Cline of Lon- 
don, on the form of animals, published in the third volume of the American Farmer. 
With the principles laid down in that essay, every farmer should make himself 
familiar. A few passages may be quoted, no less for their appositeness to the point 
here made, than for their general applicability and value in the study of all animal 
economy. 

" Muscles. — The muscles, and tendons which are their appendages, should be large ; 
by which an animal is enabled to travel with greater facility. 

" The bones. — The strength of an animal does not depend on the size of the bones 
but on that of the muscles. — Many animals with large bones are weak, their muscles 
being small. Animals that were imperfectly nourished during growth, have their bones 
disproportionably large. If such deficiency of nourishment originated from a consti- 
tutional defect, which is the most frequent cause, they remain weak during life 
Large bones therefore generally indicate an imperfection in the organs of nutrition. 

" On the improvement of the fnrm. — When the male is much larger than the female, 
the offspring is generally of an imperfect form. If the female be proportionably larger. 
the offspring is of an improved form. — For instance, if a well-formed large ram be 
put to ewes proportionably smaller, the lambs will not be so well shaped as their 



THE HORSE. 



29 



parents ; but if a small ram be put to larger ewes, the lambs will be of an improved 
form. 

" The proper method of improving the form of animals consists in selectino- a well 
formed female, proportionably larger than the male. The improvement depends on 
this principle ; that the power of the female to supply her oflspring with nourishment 
is in proportion to her size, and to the power of nourishing herself from the excellence 
of her own constitution. 

" The size of the foetus is generally in proportion to that of the male parent, and 
therefore when the female parent is disproportionately small, the quantity of nourish- 
ment is deficient, and her offspring has all the disproportions of a starvelino-. But 
when the female from her size and good constitution is more than adequate to the 
nourishment of a foetus of a smaller male than herself, the growth must be propor- 
tionably greater. The large female has also a greater quantity of milk, and hei 
offspring is more than abundantly supplied with nourishment after birth. 

" To produce the most perfect formed animal, abundant nourishment is necessarv 
from the earliest period of its existence until its growth is complete. 

" The power to prepare the greatest quantity of nourishment from a given quantity 
of food depends principally upon the magnitude of the lungs, to which the organs of 
digestion are subservient. 

" To obtain animals with large lungs, crossing is the most expeditious method, 
because well formed females may be selected from a variety of large size to be put to 
a well-formed male of a variety that is rather smaller. 

^'^ Examples of the good effects of crossing the breeds. — The great improvement of the 
breed of horses in England arose from crossing with those diminutive Stallions, Barbs, 
and Arabians ; and the introduction of Flanders mares into this country was the 
source of improvement in the breed of cart-horses. 

" Examples of the bad effects of crossing the breed. — When it became the fashion in 
London to drive large bay horses, the farmers in Yorkshire put their mares to much 
larger stallions than usual, and thus did infinite mischief to their breed, by producing 
a race of small-chested, long-legged, large-boned, worthless animals." 

Such, we believe, was the ill effect of the cross by a large " Cleveland bay" stal- 
lion, imported and sent to Carroll's Manor in Frederick County, Maryland, some 
years since, by the late Robert Patterson. His younger brother, George, a gentleman 
of fortune by inheritance, but a farmer by choice, and of uncommon sagacity and 
judgment, would have foreseen the result of such a cross. Nowhere so systematically 
as on his estate, have we ever seen so fully carried out and completely illustrated, 
this important principle in breeding as already quoted from Professor Cline, that " to 
produce the most perfect formed animal, abundant nourishment is necessary from the 
earliest period of its existence until its growth is complete." So thoroughly is Mr. 
P. impressed too with the expediency of getting as much blood as you can into the 
horse of all work, consistently with the weight which is indispensable for slow and 
neavy draught, that he seeks to have as much of it as can be thrown into his plough 
and wagon horses. Were the question doubtful, the argument must preponderate 
which is supported by the practice of an agriculturist, rare in all countries, who is 
ready with his reason for everything he does, and " no mistake at that." 

Enough, it is believed, has already been said to show how exactly opportune was 
the cross of the Arabian and the Barb, on the English stock; nor does it require any 
further reasoning to sustain the position before laid down, that these males of exquisite 
form, but proportionably smaller than the females of their day in England, having 
accomplished their purposes by enlarging the lungs and improving the conformation 
of their progeny, giving more muscle and less bone ; the same stallions, could they 
rise, phcenix-like from their ashes, could probably not now be employed with the 
<iame beneficial effects. 

A review of his most distinguished performances, leads us to think that in culti- 
rating the powers of the horse, the ne plus ultra of success was reached in the days 
of Flying Childers, in the beginning of the last century, and was sustained with 
anfailing excellence to the time of Highflyer in 1774 (perhaps we might say ta 
fhe present dav !) — a period embracing, con sscuti rely, the wonderful performances 
3=^ 



30 THE HORSE. 

and progeny of others besides Matchem, Marsk, the sire of Shark (who won in 
matclies upwards of $80,000), Mirza, Bay Malton (who in seven matches won 
$30,000), King Herod, whose get in nineteen years won more than a million of 
dollars ; Shark himself, afterwards imported to the U. States, who, besides a iup 
of the value of one hundred and twenty guineas, and eleven hogsheads of claret, 
won the vast am.ount of $77,000. Eclipse is said to have run the four miles at York 
in 1770, in eight minutes, carrying one hundred and sixty-eight pounds, being forty- 
two pounds over the standard weight — making the result equal to four miles in 6 m. 
27s. If, according to the opinion of experienced sportsmen, the correctness of which 
is questionable, seven pounds weight be equal to a distance of two hundred and forty 
yards in a four-mile race ; and giving him a right to dispute the palm of superiority 
with Flying Childers himself. 

It is to be remembered that neither of these two paragons of the English Turf, aa 
they are generally esteemed, were trained before they were five years old. Some 
assuming as a fact, what we consider problematical — a falling off, in stoutness, of 
the English racer, since the days of Highflyer, — have ascribed it to the modern prac- 
tice of bringing horses forward too young ; but it must not be forgotten that High- 
flyer himself, who won and received little less than $50,000, and who was never 
beaten, nor ever paid forfeit, came on the turf in his three year old form, carrying 
one hundred and twelve pounds, and ran his last race on the 14th of September, 1779, 
when, though lame and out of condition, he won easy, and retired to the breeding 
stud at five years old ! But may we not with more reason, attribute the reality, or 
the assumption, as it may be, of less bottom, or to speak more distinctly, less capacity 
to carry weight and repeat long distances, in the modern English courser, rather to 
the modern fashion of training for short racing, and to their reliance on the foot of 
the horse, and the skill of the rider to bring him out in a brush at the run home, than 
to any real degeneracy of the stock ] On these points we find some observations in 
a journal which w^ell sustains the title of "The Spirit of the Times." The remarks 
by the Editor are regarded by us as of such high authority, and so apposite, that we 
cannot forbear giving them a place." 

" The superiority of the English horses over the American, as regards speed, is 
almost universally allowed by those American turf-men and amateurs who have 
witnessed their performances at home. We might name Captain Stockton, Major 
Davie, Judge Porter, Mr. Corbin, Mr. Neil, the late Mr. Golden, Mr. Kirkman, 
and many other gentlemen with w-hom we have conversed upon the subject. The 
forte of the English horse of the present day is speed, beyond a doubt ; and while 
Americans give up the point, as to short distances, they think our four-mile horses 
can beat the English in races of heats at that distance. There is no encouragement 
offered to the English turf-man to breed a four-mile horse, save here and there a plate 
of 100 guineas value; all, or nearly all the valuable prizes are offered for two and 
three year olds, so that the object of the breeder is to bring out a colt in the fall of his 
two year old form, having such strength and substance as shall enable him to take 
up heavy weights, and go from half to three-quarters of a mile at a flight of speed. 
As colts that have won frequently, beating good fields, as three year olds, are subse- 
quently very heavily handicapped so as to place them upon an equality with indiffer- 
ent performers, they almost invariably give way in competing for the valuable ])ublic 
prizes offered, such as the cups at Goodwood, Liverpool, Ascot, &c. A very fine four 
mile horse in England would not command one-quarter of the price luhich could be 
obtained for a tried two year old. He would soon be broken down by having twenty 
or thirty pounds extra clapped upon his back, to place him on a level with an untried 
three year old carrying a feather." 

"Investigator," who we cannot doubt is Mr. B. O. T. of "Washington, explains 
conclusively, to our minds, " the yet unexplained difference between the time of the 
racing in the two countries," when he attributes it, in a great measure, to the shape 
and soil of the English courses, &c., emphatically called the turf. 

In confirmation of this opinion of the effects of soil, it may be mentioned tha't a 
gentleman amateur has just remarked to us, that when Miss Foote lately won a four 
mile heat on the Melaric Gourse, New Orleans, in 7m. 35s., the shortest time in 
\merica until now beaten by Fashion ana Boston on Long Island, the course was 



THE HORSE. 



31 



quite elastic, and that though the surface was dry, water might have been found 
within a few feet, if not inches, anywhere below it. 

We apprehend, however, that these " very fine four-mile King's plate horses'" are 
exactly such as ought to have been selected for importation to this coui\try, instead 
of the "fashionable stock, bred to speed, under the influences before mentioned. 

The question has been raised, and may well be entertained without implying any 
narrow or unbecoming feeling of national jealousy; — whether the turf-horse of^Eng- 
lish stock does nnt degenerate in Jlmcrica? Referring to the controling influences of 
climate, soil, and food, there is certainly no reason to infer that he should ; but, from 
the very nature of these, quite the contrary ; and why may we not believe that there 
is in nature, a power which will coerce animal, as we know it will vegetable produc- 
tions, to forego their original peculiarities, and partially conform themselves, in pro- 
cess of time, to the more immutable laws of soil and climate ! We recollect to have 
heard Mr. Jefferson, in proof of the influence of soil over vegetables, state, that he 
knew a French gentleman, on his inheritance of a famous and very profitable wine 
estate, impair at once the quality of the wine, and his own income, materially, by 
employing some crude and unsuitable manure to fertilize his vineyard. The vines 
bore more abundantly, but the wine lost its flavour, and the vineyard its wonted 
repute. So it is with other vegetables. The celebrated white wheat will change 
from white to red, on being transplanted into any other from its natale soltim — the 
eastern shore of Maryland and Virginia ; and the celebrated Havana tobacco, with change 
of soil and climate, loses both its line texture and rich fragrance. Thus, without any 
violence of presumption, we may assert the influence of both soil and climate on the 
constitution and temper of the horse. How long would the satin-coated, thin-skinned, 
flint-footed, hard-boned, muscular and proud-spirited Arabian, accustomed to a short 
bite, and delighting in a hot sun, retain, after being transferred to the rich and suc- 
culent pastures of the "low countries," the high and peculiar characteristics which 
have given him pre-eminence over all the families of his race] 

Exposed in rigorous climates, the horse could not long survive in a state of nature, 
but when protected and well supplied with food, it is difhcult to determine how fai 
towards the pole he might be sustained ; and we may here quote from good authority, 
" That this animal existed before the flood, the researches of geologists aflxjrd 
abundant proof. There is not a portion of Europe, nor scarcely any part of the 
globe, itom the tropical plains of India, to the frozen regions of Siberia — from the 
northern extremities of the new world to the very southern point of America, in 
which the fossil remains of the Horse have not been found mingled with the 
bones of the Hippopotamus, the Elephant, the Rhinoceros, the Bear, the Tiger, the 
Deer, and various other animals, some of which, like the Mastodon, have passed 
away." 

In point of fact, however, every other circumstance being nearly similar, the Horse 
thrives best in countries within or near the torrid zone. In the mild climates of 
Northwestern Europe, this noble animal reaches a high development. The wild 
horse of this continent, brought from Texas, or the more remote provincias internas, 
and tamed, we have been told, though in general unsightly when compared to the 
high-bred horse of the United States, is greatly superior in hardiness and ease of 
support. We may further sustain these reflections on the influence of climate, with 
the opinion of a gentleman of great observation and knowledge of geography and 
natural history, Mr. Darby, who thinks that " in the zone of North America, com- 
prising Western Louisiana, Texas, &c., to the Gulf of California, this most splendid 
auxiliary of man, with anything like equal care and skill, will reach his utmost devel- 
opment of form, strength, beauty, and afl'ectionate docility." 

In additional support of our hypothesis, that climate and food have their influence 
on the form and character of animals, and that these influences in England are less 
auspicious to high perfection of the Horse than the warmer and dryer climates of tlio 
United States, we may adduce the remarks of English writers of authority. The 
effect indeed of climate and soil on wool-bearing animals is asserted by all natural- 
ists. Bakewell, who bestowed particular attention on the subject, contends that tht« 
softness of wool depends chiefly on the soil on which the sheep are fed. Professor 
Cline. whose able disquisition we have already freely quoted, says " the pliancy 



32 THE HORSE. 

of the animal ecoa:my is such as that an animal will gradually accommodate itself to 
great vicissitudes in climate and alterations in food, and by degrees undergo grea 
changes in constitution. The size of animals is commonly adapted to the soil ■vvhicli 
tliey inhabit. Where produce is nutritive and abundant, the animals are large, having 
grown proportionably to the quantity of food whicii for generations they haife been 
accustomed to obtain." To these respectable authors it will be sufficient to add the 
observations of Captain Thomas Brown, in his Biographical Sketches of the Horse, 
that " the degenerating effects of a British atmosphere and pasturage, can only be suc- 
cessfully combated, by the occasional introduction of Asiatic blood. A permanently 
excellent breed can never be expected in this climate ,•" except, we would add, as has 
been well and truly said of Liberty itself, by eternal vigilance. 

On the soundness of these views, may not the opinion safely rest, that on this con- 
tinent the Horse ought to reach and retain powers at least equal to any he has ever 
attained in England % And were truth to compel the admission, which is by no means 
certain, of any deficiency or falling off, might it not be fairly ascribed to the want, in 
this country, of the vast means and the leisure, the science and the skill, which 
English Aristocracy can command and aflbrd to bestow on the turf, and all the appoint- 
ments and accommodations, requisite for the pursuit and enjoyment of that and other 
field sports ; all of which create wide and constant demand, at high prices, for honest, 
and stout nags, that can go both the pace and the distance ] If money " makes the 
mare go," so will it the horse, and by its agency, what may not be achieved in a 
country where a nobleman finds amusement in spending, like the Duke of Richmond, 
at Goodwood, fifty thousand dollars on his dog kennel? If the superiority claimed by 
some for English over American horses, cannot be the fruit of climate, neither can it be 
as»ril)ed to any want on our part of their best blood. Our importations go back more 
than a century. On this point we are glad again to borrow and adopt the views of that 
accomplished amateur, Mr. B. O. Taylce, of Washington, by whom the public has 
been well reminded that " at a very early period of its Colonial Government, fine 
horses were introduced into Virginia — encouragement was given by Legislative 
enactments, and speed was particularly attended to — Bull-Rock, a famed son of the 
Darby Arabian, and wholly of Eastern blood, was imported as far back as 1730, the 
year that the Godolphin Arabian (Barb), was introduced into England; and many 
other English horses and mares were imported, long before any Stud-Book appeared 
in England." Before and soon after the Revolutionary War, and again, since the 
establishment of the American Turf Register, the importations into New York, New 
Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and South Carolina, have embraced many 
of the most distinguished families that have adorned the English Turf; bringing 
streams pure and copious, from the great fountains of 3Iatchem and Eclipse, with an 
ample infusion from the loins oi Herod himself; in whose stock, above all, is united 
" the two essential qualities of speed and bottom." To go more into detail in proof 
of our abundant resources, if Avell husbanded, for sustaiising a stock of horses equal ir 
all desirable points, and for all manner of work, to that which any other country can 
exhibit, would here be out of place — else it would be easy to present a list not nuich 
short of three hundred imported horses, among the very best which in their day 
could be found in the "fast-anchored isle," beginning, as before stated, near half 
a century before the American Revolution. 

Let it suffice to name a few, such, for example, as Shark, at the close of the last 
century, and shortly thereafter those Derby winners, Saltram, (one of the best sons 
of the famed Eclipse,) Diomed, Spread-Eagle, and Sir Harry ; the equally famed 
race-horses Gabriel, Buzzard, Eagle, and Chance; and latterly the renowned winners 
of the Derby — Priam, St. Giles, and some others — and of the St. Leger, Rowton, 
Margrave, and Barefoot, that with their close competitors, also imported to this 
country, Sarpedon, Caetus, Trustee, and Emancipation; together with Glencoe, Rid- 
dleworth, and Leviathan; Chateau-Margaux, and perhaps some others, were race- 
horses of the very highest repute in their day, in England. 

Soon after the lastrevivalof the turf in America, and before there was time to witness 
its effects on our existing stock, it was deemed expedient to import again, at very great 
tost, some of the most fashionable horses of the "old country," with a view to the re- 
generation, as It was suppjsed, of our native stock, but it is questionable how far il was 



THE HORSE. ,j 

needed ; for, as very recently observed in the " Spirit of the Times,"—" Notwitl. 
standing the immense chance they have had, (having generally had the choice of 
the finest mares,) but seven of them have a winner at four-mile heats last year, while 

thirteen of native stallions have winners that won thirty-two races." True, the 

winner of the race of races, Fashion, is by imported Trustee ; but how much of her 
stoutness may not have come down to her from her grand-dam, Old lieah'li/, of Medley 
blood — a blood illustrated in so many fields in contests of four-mile heat's] Witness 
the extraordinary achievements of his g. g. g. son, (througli Duroc, Amanda, and 
Grey Diomed, son of Medley) Jmerican Eclipse in 18-33, three heats of four miles, in 
2.3m. 50s., and his competitor Henry, tracing to Medley through his grand-dam by 
Bellair, son of Medley. Sir Hal, at Broad Rock, winning the four mile day from 
Cup Bearer, in one heat, 7m. 40s. — Cup Bearer breaking down. Oscar, near Balti- 
more, in 1806, beating First Consul in 7m. 40s. — each winning horse, as well as 
Cup Bearer, partaking largely of the Medley blood, though no t\vo were by the same 
horse. It is also worthy of remark as warranting the assumption that Fashion owes 
her vast powers as much to the old English imported Medley blood, Americanized, 
as to her recently imported sire, that two days after her immortal victory, her half- 
brother — grandson of Old Reality, and by Shark, a son of American Eclipse, in a 
second heat drove the unrivalled son of Timoleon to the winning post in 7m. 46s., 
running the next heat and ending a doubtful contest in 7m. 58^s. 

As already stated, the object in thus dwelling on the wonderful capabilities of the 
bred horse, and of endeavouring to show that with proper inducements and precau- 
tion to measure his foot and to gauge his bottom, and to record faithfully his 
genealogy and performances, there need not be, as there has not been any general 
decay — and in insisting that without a portion of his blood we can reckon on no 
general or permanent supply of good nags for saddle or harness, is to impress upon 
American husbandme?! generally, the absolute necessity of keeping these ulterior but 
important objects always \a view. Those who are opposed to all field sports, on 
account of the dissipation and vice with which some of them are too often accom- 
panied, might yet learn to tolerate what they cannot enjoy. The whole business of 
life is mixed with good and evil, and full of compromises. — Shall we forego the use 
of gunpowder, because that " villanous compound" sometimes charges tlie pistol of 
the duellist ; or throw up altogether the use of steam, because human life is occasion- 
ally sacrificed by the careless use of it] 

But it is not only as a question of individual comfort, or of agricultural resource, 
that this subject is to be looked at. It is worthy, too, of the serious regard of the 
statesman, in the higher and more important aspect it presents in a military point of 
view, and as thus connected with our national defences. In caralry, perhaps more 
than in any other weapon, our locality must always give us an advantage over any 
invading force. An enemy cannot bring cavalry with him. With sometliing like a 
well arranged system in breeding our horses, this advantage may be turned to great 
account in time of war. With the forecast that distinguished his military adminis- 
tration. Napoleon had the sagacity to establish Haras, or studs, in the several 
departments of France, where thorough-bred stallions were placed at the service of 
the common farmer, on terms which barely paid ihe expense of their keep. But to 
come nearer home, while every one at all familiar with the incidents of our own Re- 
volution, knows how much was effected in the South, by Lee's famous " Legion ;' 
few, comparatively, may be aware to what that celebrated corps chiefly owed its 
efficiency — and yet it is undeniable that in a great measure the prevalence if blood in , 
his horses made it at once the scourge and the terror of the enemy. Wonderful ii 
their endurance of hunger, thirst, and fatigue ; prompt to strike a blow where it was 
.east expected, and, when forced, as quick to retreat; they may be said to have wel 
earned the description applied to the Parthian steed : — 

" Quot sine aqua Parthus nullia currat equus, 
How many miles can run the Parthian horse, 
Nor quench his thirst in the fatiguing course . " 

It was not, h-^wever, generally known, until the Repository offered by the " Turf 
Hegister" for the record of all extraordinary facts connected with these subjects 

B 



34 THE HORSE. 

thai to t]ie remarkably accidental importation of the celebrated Linasci/^s Arabian 
may be traced some brilliant exploits of the battle-field, as well as of the turf in 
America. The curious history of that renowned Arabian is worthy of preservation 
here, as it was thus related to the editor, by a meritorious Maryland officer of the 
Revolution, the venerable General T. M. Forman, a yet living monument of the 
"times that tried men's souls." 



LINDSEY'S ARABIAN. 

About tlie year 1777 or '78, General H. liCe, of the Cavalry, and his officers, had 
their attention drawn to some uncommonly fine Eastern horses emplo^-ed in the public 
service — horses of such superior form and appearance, that the above officers were led 
to make much inquiry respecting their history ; and this proved so extraordinary, that 
Captain Lindscy was sent to examine and make more particular inquiry respecting 
the fine cavalry, which had been so much admired, and with instructions, that if the 
sire answered the description given of him, the Captain was to purchase him, if to be 
sold. 

The Captain succeeded in purchasing the horse, who was taken to Virginia, where 
he covered at a high price and with considerable success. 

It was not until this fine horse became old and feeble that the Avriter of these recol- 
lections rode thirty miles expressly to see him. He was a white horse, of the most 
perfect form and symmetry, rather above fifteen hands high, and although old and 
crippled, appeared to possess a high and gallant temper, which gave him a lofty and 
commanding carriage and appearance. 

The history of this horse, as given to me during the Revolutionary war, by several 
respectable persons from Connecticut, at various times, is : — 

For some very important service, rendered by the Commander of a British frigate, 
to a son of the then Emperor of Morocco, the Emperor presented this horse (the mosi 
valuable of his stud) to the Captain, who shipped him on board the frigate, with the 
sanguine expectation of obtaining a great price for him, if safely landed in England. 
Either in obedience to orders, or I'rom some other cause, the frigate called at one of 
the Eiiglish West India islands, where being obliged to remain some time, the Cap- 
tain, in compassion to the horse, landed him for the purpose of exercise. No con- 
venient securely inclosed place could be found but a large lumber-yard, into which 
the horse was turned loose ; but delighted and playful as a kitten, his liberty soon 
proved nearly fatal to him. He ascended one of the piles, from which and with it he 
fell, and broke three of his legs. At this time in the same harbour, the English Captain 
met w'ith an old acquaintance from one of our now Eastern states. To him he offered 
the horse, as an animal of inestimable value could he be cured. The Eastern 
Captain gladly accepted the horse, and knowing he must be detained a considerable 
time in the Island before he could dispose of his assorted cargo, got the horse on 
board his vessel, secured liim in slings, and very carefully set and bound up his 
broken legs. It matters not how long he remained in the harbour, or if quite cured 
oefore he arrived on our shore ; but he did arrive, and he must certainly have covered 
several seasons, before he was noticed as first mentioned. 

When the writer of these remarks went to see the horse, his first attention was to 
examine his legs, respecting the reported fracture, and he was fully satisfied, not 
merely by seeing the lumps and inequalities on the three legs, but by actually feeling 
the irregularities and projections of broken bones. 

In Connecticut (I think) this horse was called Ranger ; in Virginia (as it should 
be) he was called Lindsey's Arabian. He was the sire of Tulip and many good 
runners ; to all his stock he gave great perfection of form ; and his blood flows in 
the veins of some of the best horses of the present day. Make what use you pleaso 
of this statement ; I will stand corrected in my narrative, by any person who can 
produce better testimony respecting Lindsey's Arabian. 

Your obedient servant, F. 

Septemler 10, 1827. 



THE HORSE. ^^ 

Although this dissertation has been already extended somewhat beyond the limits 
prescribed by our publisher and our own anticipation, we hope to render it more 
acceptable as well as more useful by appending to it, in tabular form for oreater con- 
venience, and for comparison hereafter, an account of some of the mosf remarkable 
achievemaUs, of compuraticely modern date, of the turf horse in Jimerica at all distances 
—In truth, we feel confident that every reflecting reader will regard but as the natural 
equel to all the observations which have preceded it, the following synopsis of 

THE BEST RACES IN AMERICA. 

It will yet be necessary however to premise a few obser^-dtions, lest the reade 
Kiiouid draw inaccurate conclusions from the statistics laid before liim. 

In the United States, owing not only to the great territorial extent of the country 
but to the natural obstacles which divide its remote sections, and the extreme diffe'r- 
ences of climate, there never has l)ccn, and probably never will be, established central 
race courses, where horses from all parts of the States may hahituuUy meet, and tesJ 
their relative superiority by actual contest. We are compelled therefore to adopt 
other criteria for the relative speed and stoutness of horses. But there is one whicli 
has almost swallowed up all others, and is most universal and most popular in its 
application. We allude to the time in which races are run. If it be admitted th?'t 
this IS the best single criterion we can have, it must equally be admitted that it is 
often fallacious. It is only necessary to name the different causes by which time is 
affected and modified. 

The most obvious is the difference in the soils of different courses. This is so well 
understood, that it would n«t be difficult to make a tolerably accurate scale of the 
comparative adaptation of our ditfcrent courses for speed. — Again, in comparin"- races 
at different periods, to arrive at accurate conclusions, it must not be foro-otten that 
"Teat improvements have been made in the old established courses within a°few years. 
This improvement commencing with the Union Course on Long Island, which by 
levelling it and grading the turns, has been made much faster than of yore, has been 
very generally introduced upon rival courses.— The more obvious consideration of the 
different condition, in wliich the same course may be on different days, will present 
Itself to every m.ind. Great regard should be paid, too, to the state of the atmosphere, 
\vhether clear, balmy and calm, or raw, damp and windy ; for this state notoriously 
affects in a great degree the speed of a horse. These are several of the considerations 
which must be taken into account in estimating the powers of horses by a comparison 
of the time, in which they have run different races ; indeed the test of mere time," 
however more popular and perhaps more unerring than anyone other, is not very 
niuch relied upon by a consummate judge of racing. And if a horse, who performed a 
given distance in remarkable time may foirly lay claim to distinction, it is undeniable 
that there will be other racers of equal powers in the eyes of the judicious, whom the 
nature of a course upon the day of a race will prevent from making great time. With 
one other suggestion we will come to the tables. 

The reader must not only note the period of the year in which a race is run, as 
affecting the age of the horse, but lie will recollect that in one portion of the United 
States, horses take their age Irom the first of January, and in otliers from the first of 
May. In these tables, for uniformity's sake, the English and Northern rule has been 
pursued, giving the ages from the first of January. Another consideration must be 
borne in mind — that the interval between the heats has been diminished, of late years; 
and at the present day, horses at the South have ten minutes more time for recovery 
between four-mile heats than on Northern courses. 



36 



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4C THE HORSE. 

P'fom the above tables have been excluded all races made over courses notoriously 
short of a mile in length. By adhering to this rule, very many excellent races at 
Norfolk have been omitted ; — as Andrevi^'s, Betsey Ransom's, Polly Hopkins', and 
others; Mercury's race in 7m. 40s. — 7m. 43s., at New Orleans, is omitted for the 
same reason. 

Afain, we have inserted in the tables only the winners of the different races ; 
winners of a single heat are omitted. But it would be unjust not to note one or two 
winners of single heats. 

Bee's-wing, by imported Leviathan, 5 years old, carrying 97 pounds, in March 
1840, won a first heat from Grey Medoc, in 7m. 38s. As she pulled up lame, she 
was drawn. Kate Aubrey, by Eclipse, 4 years old, carrying 83 pounds, in March 
184'2, won a three-mile heat in 5m. 39s., but was distanced the next heat. 

The reader will note that the great races made at New Orleans have been run 
generally in March; according to their rule, their horses taking their ages from May, 
have run a year under their true age, and carried weight accordingly. In the above 
tables their proper age has been given, and attention is called to the subject again, for 
the purpose of pointing to Sarah Bladen's race, which she lost with Jim Bell — the 
first heat by a length and a half, and the second by but eighteen inches ; time, 7m 
37s. — 7m. 40s. — The mare ran as aged, and carried 121 pounds — but two less than 
she would have to carry at the North. 

Again, the best time ever made at two and three miles, has been in four-mile races. 
Thus Boston and Charles Carter ran the first and third miles in 3m. 41s., and the 
first three miles of their great race in 5m. 36^s. ; Fashion and Boston ran the first 
two miles in 3m. 43s., and three miles in 5m. 37-^s. ; Wagner and Grey Eagle, it is 
said, ran the last three miles of their best heat in 5m. 35s. Gallatin is said to have 
run the two middle miles of a four-mile heat in 3m. 43s., and Trifle the last two 
miles of a four-mile heat in the same time. Mingo and Post Boy are believed by the 
writer to have run a mile of a four-mile heat at Trenton, in Im. 48s. ; the former and 
Mary Blunt ran their twelfth mile in Im. 47s., and a third four-mile heat in 7m. 46s. 
The higher estimation placed upon their great performances at the longer distance, 
renders it superfluous to note further the rate of speed in the different miles. 

Finally, it will not have escaped the observation of attentive readers, that while the 
horse may appear by these tables, exhibiting as they do, his utmost capacity for a 
series of years, to have been brought, by careful attention to blood, and by great 
skill and nicety in training, up to the probable maximum of his powers ; it is yet as 
clear as it is encouraging to see, that by unremitting recourse to the same means, 
and by that alone, he may be kept tip fully to the standard of capacity which these 
records have established as the measure (f his attainable speed and stouliuss. 

If with an eye to the fact, that "Me /as/" is '■'■ the frst ," and the fastest on the 
record, (Fashion and Boston at L. I.) the hope should spring up in the bosom of the 
sanguine, that the " end is no. yet," and that the thread may be drawn yet a little 
finer ; without wishing to repress an iota of exertion to make good that conclusion, 
it may be well to remember, that as before stated, according to the opinion of some 
whose judgments we are bound to respect, a few of our principal courses have been 
improved at the rate of more than a second to the mile! Thus it may be doubted 
whether, if we could meet again in the club-room, or at the social board which they 
were wont to ornament and enliven, the Fathers of the American turf, — the Sharpes, 
the Ogles, the Taskers, the Tayloes, Hamptons, Ridgelys, Lloyds, Spriggs, Bowies, 
Ducketts, Duvalls, Seldens, &c., they would not remind us of these our advan- 
laoes, and be prompt to match and freely back some of their favourite old nags 
against the best on these lists of more modern performers. 

To some of these ancestors of our present stock the tribute is due that their name 
be here recorded as well for their achievements as for having transmitted their powers 
to their descendants, viz. : Tasker's Selima, by the Godolphin Arabian, never beat; 
the dam of Galloway's Selim, the best Maryland horse of the last century ; Fitzhugh's 
Regulus, Semmes' Wildair, Goode's Brimmer, Tayloe's Virago, Bell Air, Grey Diomed, 
Black Maria, Leviathan, and Gallatin ; Hoomes' Fairj-, sister to Gallatin, Ogle's 
Oscar, Ridgely's Post Boy, Bond's First Consul, Willis's Maid of the Oaks, Edelin's 
F'loretta, Ball's Florizel, Sir Archy ; these last nine were at the head of the turf early 



THE HORSE. 4j 

in the piesent century. With these no competitor or rival deserves to be named, until 
the revival of the best days of the turf by the get of Sir Archy, as exhibited by the 
match of his son Henry with Eclipse. By every test of comparison Henry was 
no better race-horse than several of the get of Sir Archy, nor as good a one as Timo- 
leon, Virginian, Sir Charles, and Eertrand. In those days, Hoomes, Selden, Tayloe, 
Ridgely, and Bond were at the head of the turf. 

Though not strictly belonging to a work intended as this is, not for a particular 
class but for all owners of horses and for every day's reference and use, yet we have 
said so much of the race-horse, whose blood we consider it essential to preserve in 
its purity and to be used as occasion may require, as every good house-keeper pre- 
serves and uses good yeast to leven the mass, that we may as well add the lengths 
of the principal race-courses in England, and the rules of the jockey club lately 
established for the Long Island race-course. These will occupy but little space and 
may prove acceptable to those of our readers who take an interest in the amusements 
of the turf. 

Miles. Fur. Yards. 

The Beacon Course is . . 4 1 138 

The Round Course is 3 4 178 

Last three miles of Beacon Course 3 45 

Ditch in 2 97 

The last mile and a distance of Beacon Course ... 1 1 156 

Ancaster mile 1 18 

From the turn of the lands in 5 184 

Clermont Course, from the Ditch to the Duke's Stand 1 5 217 
Audley End Course, from the starting-post of the T.Y.C. 

to the end of the Beacon Course 1 6 

Across the flat 1 2 24 

Rowley mile 1 1 

Ditch mile 7 178 

Abingdon mile 7 211 

Two middle miles of Beacon Course • . 1 7 125 

Two-years-old Course (on the flat) 5 13G 

New ditto (part of the Banbury mile) 5 136 

Yearling Course • .... 2 47 

Banbury mile , 7 248 

"Previously to 1753 there were only two meetings in the year at Newmarket for 
the purpose of running horses, one in the Spring and another in October. At present 
there are seven. — The Craven, instituted in 1771, in compliment to the late Earl 
Craven, and commencing on Easter Monday; the First Spring, on the Monday fort- 
night following, and being the original Spring Meeting; the Second Spring, a fortnight 
after that, and instituted in 1753; the Jiili/, commonly early in that month, instituted 
also in 1753 ; the First October, on the first Monday in that month, being the original 
October meeting; the Second October, on the Monday fortnight following — instituted 
in 17G2; and tlie Third October, or Hmighlon, a fortnight after that, and instituted 
1770. With the last-mentioned meeting, which, weatlier permitting, generally lasts 
a week, and at which tliere is a great deal of racing, the sports of the Turf close for 
the year, with the exception of Tarporlcy, a very old hunt-meeting in Cheshire, now 
nearly abandoned ; and a Worcester autumn meeting, chiefly for hunters and horses 
f the gentlemen and farmers within the hunt." — Nimrod — The Turf, 152. 

ASCOT HEATH. 

The two-mile course is a circular one, of which the last half is called the old mile. 
The ncAV mile is straight and up-hill all the way. The T.Y.C. is five furlongs and 
136 yards. 

EPSOM. 

The old course, now seldom used except for the cup, is two miles of an irregular 
circular form, the first mile up-hill. The new Derby course is exactly a mile and a 
Uaif and somewh.at in the form of a horse-shoe : the first three-quarters of a mile may 
4* F 



42 THE HORSE. 

oe considered as straight running, tlie bend in the course being very trifling, and the 
width very great ; the next quarter of a mile is in a gradual turn, and the last half- 
mile straight; the first half-mile is on the ascent, the next third of a mile level, and 
the remainder is on the descent, till within the distance, where the ground again rises. 

The new T.Y.C. is six furlongs ; the old T.Y.C., or Woodcot course, is somewhat 
less than four. 

The Craven course is one mile and a quarter. 

DONCASTER 

Is a circular and nearly flat course of about one mile, seven furlongs, and seventy 
yards. 

The shorter courses are portions of this circle. 

LIVERPOOL. 

Tlie new course, now used for both meetings, is flat, a mile and a half round, and 
with a straight run-in of nearly three quarters of a mile, and a very gradual rise. 

MANCHESTER 

Is one mile, rather oval, with a hill, and a fine run-in. 

A Distance is the length of two hundred and forty yards from the winning post. 
In the gallery of the winning post, and in a little gallery at the distance post, are 
placed two men holding crimson flags. As soon as the first horse has passed the 
winning post, the man drops his flag ; the other at the distance post drops his at the 
same moment, and the horse which has not then passed that post is said to be dis- 
tanced, and cannot start again for the same plate or prize. 

A Feather-weight is the lightest weight that can be put on the back of a horse. 

A Give and Take Plate is where horses carry weight according to their height, 
Fourteen hands are taken as the standard height, and the horse must carry nine stone 
(the horseman's stone is fourteen pounds). Seven pounds are taken from the weight 
for every inch below fourteen hands, and seven pounds added for every inch above 
fourteen hands. A few pounds additional w^eight is so serious an evil, that it is said, 
seven pounds in a mile-race are equivalent to a distance. 

A Post Match is for horses of a certain age, and the parties possess the privilege 
of bringing any horse of that age to the post. 

A Produce Match is that between the produce of certain mares in foal at the 
'ime of the match, and to be decided when they arrive at a certain age specified. 



Rules and regulations approved and adopted hy the New York Jockey Club, on the 
liSth September, 1842; to continue in full force and effect until the close of the 
last Fall Meeting in the year 1844, sulv'ect to such alterations as may be made 
from time to time, according to the discretion of the Club. 

Rule Is/. — There shall be two regular meetings held by the New York .Tockey 
Club at the Union Course, on Long Island, to be called and known as the Spring and 
Fall Meeting. The Spring IMeeting shall commence on the second Tuesday of May, 
and the Fall Meeting shall commence on the first Tuesday of October, in each year. 

liule 2d. — There shall be a President, four Vice Presidents, a Secretary and Trea- 
surer, to be appointed annually by ballot. 

liule 3d, — It shall be the duty of the President to preside at all meetings of the 
Club ; to act as presiding Judge at each day's race; appoint his Assisthnt. Judges on 
the evening preceding each day's race, report and publish the results of each day's 
race, and act as Judge in all Sweepstakes, with such other persons as the parties 
may appoint. 

Rule ith. — It shall be the duty of the Vice Presidents to attend all meetings of the 
Club, and assist the President in the discharge of his duties. In the absence of the 
President, the first Vice President, and in his absence, the 2d, 3d, or 4th Vice Presi- 
dent, shall act as President pro tern. 



THE HORSE. ^3 

Rule 5th. — It shall be the duty of the Secretary to attend at all meetings of the 
Club, also to attend the Judges of each day's race, assist them with his counsel, and 
furnish them with all the requisite information connected with each day's race ; keep 
a book, in which he shall record the Members' names, the Rules and Orders of the 
Club, and add to them any Resolutions or Amendments which may ciiange the cha- 
racter of either; also record the proceedings at each meeting of the Club" whether h 
special or a regular meeting ; he shall also record all the entries of horses, Matches, 
and Sweepstakes, in which shall be set forth the names of the respective owners, the 
colour, name, age, sex, and name of sire and dam of each horse ; record an account 
of each day's race, including the time of running each heat, and after the races are 
over for a meeting, report the same to the President of the Club for his official publi- 
cation. He shall also put up, and keep up during every Meeting, at some convenient 
place, at or near the Judges' Stand, a copy of the Rules and Regulations of the Club 
then in force. 

Bule 6lk. — ^It shall be the duty of the Treasurer to collect all the money due the 
Club, whether from subscriptions of members, entries of horses, or from any other 
source, pay the same over from time to time upon the order of the President of the 
Club, and in case of his absence, upon the order of the acting Vice President ; and 
within thirty days after the closing of every regular meeting, he shall furnish the 
President, or in his absence, the acting Vice President, a full statement of the receipts 
and disbursements of the funds of the Club, from the date of the last statement up to 
the date of that which he then renders, showing the balance of money in hand, sub- 
ject to the order of the President, or acting Vice President, which statemen; shall be 
deposited with the Secretary of the Club, as one of the records of the Club, and so 
be entered by him. 

Rule 1th. — At each regular meeting there shall be appointed four Stewards, who 
shall serve for one meeting succeeding their appointment. They shall wear some 
appropriate badge of distinction, to be detonnined upon by themselves. It shall be 
the duty of the Stewards to attend on the Course, to preserve order, cleat the track, 
keep it clear, keep off the crowd of persons from the horses coming to the stand after 
the close of each heat, and they may employ in their discretion, at the expense of 
the Club, a sufficient number of able-bodied men to assist them in the effectual dis- 
charge of their duties. 

Rule 8th. — There shall be three Judges in the starting stand, consisting of the 
President and two Assistant Judges, assisted by the Secretary, and in case of the 
absence of the President of the Club, then the first Vice President, and in his absence, 
the second Vice President. The Judges shall keep the stand clear of any intrusion 
during the pendency of a heat, see that the Riders are dressed in Jockey style, weigh 
the riders before starting in the race, and after each heat, instruct the riders as to their 
duty under the niles before starting in the race, and proclaim from the stand the time 
and result of each heat, and also the result of the race. 

Rule 0th. — There shall be two Distance Judges, and three Patrol Judges, appointed 
by the Judges in the starting stand, who shall repair to the Judges' stand imme- 
diately after each heat, and report to the Judges the horses that are distanced, and 
foul riding, if there be any. 

Rule 1 Olh. — All the disputes shall be decided by the Judges of the day, from whose 
decision there shall be no appeal, unless at the discretion of the Judges, and no evi- 
dence of foul riding shall be received except from the Judges and Patrols. 

Rule llfh. — When in the opinion of the majority of the Officers of the Club, any 
good cause may require the postponement of a race, they may postpone any Purse 
race, but in case of a postponement of a race, no new entries shall be received for 
that race. A postponement of a Purse race shall give no authority to postpone any 
Sweepstake or Match made or advertised to be run on that day ; and in the event of 
the Club postponing a regular Meeting, it shall give them no power to postpone any 
Matches or Sweepstakes made to be run at that Meeting. 

Rule 12th. — All Sweepstakes and Matches advertised to be run on the Course on 
any day of a regular Meeting of the Club, shall be under the cofrnizance and control 
of the Club, and no change of entries once made shall be allowed after closino-. unless 
by consent of all parties.^ Sv/eepstakes and Matches made to be run it a particuiai 



44 THEHORSE. 

Meeting, without the parties specifying the day, the Secretary must give ten days 
notice of what days they will be run during the meeting, in case he is informed 
of it in time. And no Sweepstake or Match shall be run on the Course during a 
regular meeting without being first reported to the Secretary, to bring it under th<! 
cognizance and control of the Club. 

Itule I3th. — The age of horses shall be computed from the first day of Januarj' 
next, preceding their being foaled ; that is, a colt or filly foaled on any day in the 
year 1841, will be considered one year old on the first day of January, 1842. 

Jlule lAth. — No person shall start or enter a horse for any purse offered by, or 
under the control of, the Club, other than a Member of the Club, and producing, if 
required, satisfactory evidence or proof of his horse's age ; nor shall any Member 
start a horse if his entrance money, subscription money, and all forfeits incurred on 
the Union Course, are not paid before starting. Nor shall any person start a horse, 
during a regular meeting of the Club, who is in arrears to any member of the Club 
for a forfeit incurred on the Union Course. 

liule 15/A. — All entries of horses for a purse shall be made in writing under seal, 
addressed to the Secretary of the Club, and deposited in a box, kept for that purpose, 
at the usual place of Meeting of the Club, before five o'clock in the afternoon of the 
day of the race, for which the entry is made. Each entry shall contain the entrance 
money, and state the name, age, colour, sex, and pedigree, of the horse entered, and 
describe the dress of the rider of such horse. After five o'clock of the afternoon of 
the day preceding a Purse Race, no other or additional entry shall be allowed to be 
made for that race, and no entry shall be received or recorded, that does not contain 
the entrance money. The entries so received, shall be drawn from the box by the 
Secretary, and declared at five o'clock of the afternoon of the day preceding the day 
of the race, in the presence of at least three Members of the Club, and the horses so 
entered shall be entitled to the track in the order in which their names are drawn ; in 
Sweepstakes and Matches, the Judges shall draw for the track at the stand. 

Mnle IGlh. — Any person desirous of becoming a member only for the purpose of 
entering a horse, may do so, he being approved by the Club, and paying double 
entrance. 

Rule nth. — The distance to be nm shall be Two-mile heats. Three-mile heats, and 
Four-mile heats, and a purse shall be put up to be run for during each regular meet- 
ing, for each of the named distances. Not more than five per cent, shall be charged 
as entrance upon any amount that may be put up for a purse. 

Rule \%th. — Every horse shall carry weight, according to age, as follows : — 

A horse Two years old, A Feather. 

" Three years old, 90 Pounds. 

" Four years old, 104 " 

" Five years old, 114 " 

" Six years old, 121 " 

" Seven years old and upwards, 126 " 

A.n allowance of three pounds to mares, fillies, and geldings. The Judges shall see 
that each rider has his proper weight before he starts, and that each rider has within 
one pound, after each heat. 

Rule \dth. — Catch weights are, where each person appoints a rider without weigh- 
ing. Feather lueights signifies the same. A Post Stake is to name at the starting 
post. Handicap weights are weights according to the supposed ability of the horses. 
An Untried stallion, or mare, is one whose get or produce has never run in public 
\. maiden horse or mare is one that never won. 

Rule 20th. — No horse shall carry more than five pounds over his stipulated weighi 
without the Judges being informed of it, which shall be publicly declared by them, 
whereupon all bets shall be void, except those made between the parties who enter the 
horses. Every rider shall declare to the Judges who weighs him, when and how his 
extra weights, if any, are carried. The member of the Club who enters the horse 
shall be responsible for putting up, and bringing out the proper weight. He shall be 
bound to weigh the rider of his horse in the presence of the Judges before starting, 
ind if he refuses or neglects to do so, he shall be prevented from starting his horse? 



THE HORSE. 



45 



Bule 21si. — When in running a race, a distance is 

In one mile, 45 yards. 

In two miles, 70 „ 

In three miles, 90 „ 

In four miles, 120 „ 

Eule 22d. — In a Match Race of heats, there shall be a distance, but none in a 
single heat. 

Rule 23d. — The time between heats shall be 

For one mile heats, 20 minutes. 

For two mile heats, 25 „ 

For three mile heats, 30 „ 

For four mile heats, 35 „ 

Bule 24ik. — Some signal shall be given from the starting stand, five minutes before 
the period of starting, after the lapse of which time, the Judges shall give the word 
start to such riders as are then ready, but should any horse prove restive in being 
brought up to the stand, or in starting, the Judges may delay the word a short interval, 
at their own discretion. 

Rule 25lh. — Any horse winning a purse of this Club, shall not be allowed to start 
for any other purse during the same meeting. 

Rule 26th. — If a horse be entered without being properly identified, he shall not be 
allowed to start, but be liable to forfeit, or the whole, if play or pay, and all bets on 
a horse so disqualified, shall be declared void. 

Rule 21th. — Where more than one nomination has been made by the same indivi- 
dual, in any Sweepstake to be run on the Union Course, and it shall be made to 
appear to the satisfaction of the Club, that all interest in such nomination has been 
bona fide disposed of before the time of starting, and the horses have not been trained 
in the same stable, all may start although standing in the same name in the list of 
nominations. 

Rule 2Sth. — No conditional nomination or entry shall be received. 

Rule 2dtk Should any person who has entered a horse formally, declare to the 

Judges that his horse is drawn, he shall not be permitted to start his horse. 

Rule 30lh. — Any person entering a horse younger than he really is shall forfeit his 
entrance money, and if the horse wins a heat or race, the heat or race shall be given 
to the next best horse if the objection be made to the age of the horse after the heat 
or race is run. The disqualification must be proved by the person making the 
objection. 

Rule Sis/. — If an entered horse die, or a subscriber entering him, die, before the 
race, no forfeit shall be required. 

Rule 32d. — No compromise or agreement between any two persons entering horses, 
or by their agents and grooms not to oppose each other upon a promised division of 
the purse or stake, or for any other purpose, shall be permitted or allowed, and no 
persons shall run their horses in conjunction, that is with a determination to oppose 
jointly any other horse that mny run against them. In either case upon satisfactory 
evidence produced before the Judges, the purse or stake shall be awarded to the next 
best horse — and the persons so offending shall never again be permitted to enter a 
horse to run on the Union Course. 

Rule 33d. — When the tap of the drum is once given by the Starting Judge, there 
shall be no calling back, unless the signal flag shall be hoisted for that purpose, and 
when so hoisted it shall be no start. To remedy the inconvenience of false starts, 
there shall be a signal flag placed at a point which can be readily seen by the riders 
at from one to three hundred yards from the Judges' stand. When a start is given 
and recalled, a flag from the Judges' stand shall be displayed, and the person having 
m charge the signal flag shall hoist the same as a notice to pull up. It S'hall be the 
duty of the Starting Judge to give this rule in charge to the riders. 

Rule 3iih.—No two riders from the same stable shall be allowed to ride in the 
same race. No two horses trained in the same stable, or owned in whole or in 
part by the same person, shall be allowed to enter or start in the same race : both the 
entries shall be void and the entrance money forfeited to the Club. 

Rule 35lh.—No rider shall be permitted to ride unless well dressed i'.^ Jockey style 



46 THE HORSE. 

To A\it, Jockey cap, coloured jacket, pantaloons, and boots. Liveries to be recorded 
in the Secretary's Book, and not permitted to be assumed by. others. 

Rule 2Glh. — Every rider alter a heat is ended must repair to the Judges' stand, and 
not dismount from his horse until so ordered by the Judges, and then themselves 
carry their saddles to the scales to be weighed, nor shall any groom 'or other person, 
approach or touch any horse until after his rider shall have dismounted and removed 
his saddle from the horse by order of the Judges. A rider dismounting without such 
permission, or wanting more than one pound of his proper weight, shall be declared 
distanced. 

Bule Slth. — The horse who has won a heat shall be entitled to the track in the 
next heat, and the foremost be entitled to any part of the track, he leaving suilicieiil 
space for a horse to pass him on the outside. But he shall not when locked by another 
horse leave the track he may be running in to press him to the inside or outside, and 
having selected his position in a straight stretch, he shall not leave it so as to press 
his adversary to either side, the doing of either of which shall be deemed foul riding. 
Should any rider cross, jostle or strike an adversary or horse, or run on his heels 
intentionally, or do anything else that may impede the progress of his adversary, he 
will be deemed distanced although he may come out ahead, and the race av.arded to 
the next best horse. Any rider offending against this rule, shall never be permitted 
to ride over or attend any horse on this Course again. 

liule 38lh. — Every horse that shall fail to run outside of every pole, shall be deemed 
distanced, although he may come out ahead, and the race shall be awarded to the 
next best horse. 

Euk 39(h. — If a rider fall from his horse, and another person of sufficient weight 
rides the horse in to the Judges' stand, he shall be considered as though the rider had 
not fallen — provided he returns to the place where the rider fell. 

Bule iOlh. — A horse that does not win one heat out of three heats, shall not be 
allowed to start for the fourth heat, although he may have saved his distance, but 
shall be considered better than a horse that is distanced in the third heat. 

Bule 41s/'. — A distanced horse in a dead heat shall not be allowed to start again in 
the race. 

Bule 42d. — When a dead heat is made, all the horses not distanced in the dead 
heat, may start again, unless the dead heat be made by two horses, that, if either had 
been winner of the heat the race would have been decided ; in which case the two 
only must start to decide which shall be entitled to the purse or stake. Such horses 
as are prevented from starting by this Rule shall be considered drawn, and all bets 
made on them against each other shall be drawn, excepting those that are distanced. 

Bule 43c?. — A horse receiving forfeit, or walking over, shall not be deemed a 
winner. 

Bule Mfk. — A bet made after the heat is over, if the horse betted on does not start 
again, is no bet. 

Bule Abth. — A confirmed bet cannot be off without mutual consent. 

Bule 4Glh. — If either party be absent on the day of a race, and the money be not 
staked, the party present may declare the bet void in the presence of the Judges, 
before the race commences ; but if any person present offer to stake for an absentee, 
it is a confirmed bet. 

Bule Alth. — A bet made on a heat to come, is no bet, unless all the horses qualified 
to start shall nin, and unless the bet be between such named horses as do start. 

Bule iSI/i. — The person who bets the odds may choose the horse or the field : when 
he has chosen his horse, the field is what starts against him, but there is no field 
unless one starts against him. 

Bule 49th. — If odds are bet without naming the horses before the race is over, it 
must be determined as the odds were at the time of naming it. 

Bule both. — Bets made in running, are not df^termined till the purse is won, if the 
heat is not specified at the time of betting. 

Bule 5lst. — Bets made on particular horses are void, if neither of them be the 
winner of the race, unless specified to the contrary. 

Bule 52d. — Horses that forfeit are beaten horses, where it is play or pay, and no* 
otherwise. 



THE HORSE. 



47 



Hide 53c?, — All bets, matches, and engag-ernents are void on the decease of eithe: 
party before determined. 

Rule b\ih. — Horses drawn before the purse is won are distanced. 

Rule both. — A bet made on a horse is void if the horse betted on does not start. 

Rule 56lh. — When a bet is made on a heat, the horse that comes first to the endinjj; 
post is best, provided no circumstance shall cause him to be deemed distanced. 

Rule 51th. — All bets are understood to relate to the purse or stake, if nothino- is 
said to the contrary. 

Rule 58th. — When a bet is made upon two horses against each other for the purse. 
if each win a heat, and neither are distanced, they are equal — if neither win a heat, 
and neither distanced, they are equal. Eut if one wins a heat, and the other does not, 
the winner of the heat is best unless he shall be distanced, in which case the other, 
if he saves his distance, shall be considered best. If a horse wins a heat and is 
distanced, he shall be better than a horse that does not win a heat and is distanced; 
so too if one be distanced the second heat, he shall be better than one distanced the 
tirst heat. 

Rule 59lh. — The words "absolutely," or "play or pay," are necessary to be used 
to make a bet play or pay. " Done" and " Done" are also necessary to confirm a 
bet. If a bet be made, using the expression " play or pay," and the horse die, the 
bet shall stand. But if the person entering the horse, or making the engagement on 
him, dies, then the bet is void. 

Rule G^yih. — All members, and such of their families as reside Avith them, shall 
pass the gates free ; and the members themselves shall have free admission to the 
members' stand. 

Rule 61st. — New members can only be admitted on recommendation. Any person 
wishing to become a member, must be so for the unexpired term of the Club, and 
must be balloted for. Three l)lack balls shall reject. A non-resident of New York 
introduced by a member, can have the privilege of the inclosed space and members' 
stand, by paying j2ye dollars for the meeting. 

Rule G2d. — Ten members of the Club shall be deemed a quorum for the transac- 
tion of ordinary business and admission of members, but not less than twenty to alter 
a fundamental rule, unless public notice shall have been given ten days of such con- 
templated meeting. The President or Secretary may call a meeting, and the Presi- 
dent and Vice President failing to attend, a Chairman may be selected. Members 
of the Club privileged to invite their friends to the Jockey Club Dinners, by paying 
for the same. No ladies admitted to the Ladies' Pavilion unless introduced by a 
member. No citizen of the State of New York can be admitted to the privileges of 
the inclosed space. Members' Stand, or Ladies' Pavilion, unless he be a member. 

Rule G3d. — No person shall be permitted to pass into the inclosed space, on the 
Union Course, without showing his ticket at the gate, nor shall apy person be per- 
mitted to remain within the inclosure, or Members' Stand, unless he wears a badge, 
that the officers on duty may be enabled to distinguish those privileged. Officers 
who shall permit the infraction of this rule shall forfeit all claim to compensation, and 
must be employed on this express condition. 

Rule G4th. — Membership of the New York Jockey Club, shall be for three years, 
commencing Spring 1842 — subscription Ten Dollars per annum, payable each Spring 
— subscription to be paid whether present or absent. Members joining at any time, 
whether by original signature, or on nomination, will be bound for the unexpired tern 
of the Club from the period of joining. 

The following gentlemen comprised the Executive Officers of the New Yorh 
Jockey Club, at^the period (Sept. 13th, 1812,) when the foregoing Rules and Rcgn 
lations were adopted : — 

J. Prescott Hall, Esq., President. 

John C. Stevens, Esq., 1st Vice President. 

John A. King, Esq., 2d „ „ 

J. Hamilton Wilkes, Esq., 3d „ „ 

Gerard H. Coster, Esq., 4th „ „ 

Henry K Toler, Esq., Secretary and Treasurer. 



48 t THE HORSE. 

HavintT now with some care and, as we trust, with accuracy noted how the stock 
:)f English horses has been modified from time to time, being made heavier or lighter, 
\''ith more or less of bone and muscle ; according to the nature of their vehicles and 
ra&dd, the implements and modes of warfare in use, their national amusements and 
other uses to which the horse was applied ; we come now to speak of him very briefly 
'n one of his finest and most finished forms, and one in which, from influences to 
which we have before referred, England certainly does and must ever excel all rival 
— we allude to 

THE HUNTER, 

which is but a combination of the race-horse thorough-bred, with one of less blood 
possessing however more strength and substance with less length of body. His jaw 
should be clear and wide, nostrils large, broad thin shoulders, thighs long, strong and 
muscular, deep chest, affording free play for the lungs ; back short, ribs large and wide, 
large and strong, but hard and clean bone and sinew, tail coming out high and stiff, 
gaskins well spread, and hind-quarters lean and hard. The right sort of hunter, it 
has been further and more sententiously observed, should have as far as possible 
strength without weight, courage without fire or flasliiness, speed without labour, a 
free breath, a strong walk, a nimble, light but large gallop, and a swift trot, to give 
change and ease to the speedy muscles. 

"Firm let him tread, and just, and move along 
Upon a well-grown hoof, compact and strong ; 
Proud of the sport, with too much fire to yield, — 
Such be the horse to bear me to the field." 

And such an one the writer of this had once the pleasure to own — bred in Prince 
George's County, INIaryland ; a noble son of Ogle's Oscar, and the best saddle-horse 
we ever backed. Alas, old Rasper, we ne'er shall look upon your like again. 

" Pride of thy race ! with wortli far less than thine, 
Full many human leaders daily shine !" 

As in all things supply follows demand, it may here be noted that the high perfec- 
tion of the English Hunter, his great speed, stoutness and power of leaping, has been 
brought about in a great degree, by a chai-ige in the character of the English fox-hound. 
The old-fashioned, slow, big-headed, southern or Talbot hound, as described by 
Shakspeare, 

' ' With ears that sweep away the morning dew," 

has given way to a dog so fleet, that he who is not mounted on one among the fleetest 
and the strongest, dare not hope for the honour and delight of being " in at the death !" 
'j'he chase in modern style is in fact but a burst, sometimes running with the game in 
view to the death, and for which they have bred a hound with a light ear, a squealing 
note and a power of speed, to which the ancient hound bears no more resemblance 
than a cow to a courser. The reader may judge what sort of a nag is necessary to 
keep way with the fine-spun descendants of such a bitch as 3/crA-/7!, property of the cele- 
brated Col. Thornton, who challenged to run her against an}'' hound of her year, five 
miles ov' New Market, giving 220 yards, for $50,000 ! This famous bitch is said 
to have run a trial of four miles in seven minutes and a half second! Under the 
influence of this change in the face of the country, and in the qualities of the ancient 
fox-hound, and in the character of this most noble and splendid diversion, a corres- 
ponding modification has ensued in the hunter, and so the price for the best has 
advanced from forty, to three hundred guineas ! nor is it easy to imagine any show of 
animals like that of a stable of English hunters led out for " the mount," either foi 
the fox or the St. Albans Steeple-chase; every nag perfectly well conditioned and 
dressed dAT as nicely as a wedding party coming up to the altar. 



THE HORSE. • ^ 



THE AMERICAN TROTTER. 

Having, as it is believed, described and accounted for the successive modificationa 
and general improvement of the English horse, from many of the best of which ours 
liave been bred — and for the excellence especially of their high-bred courser and 
hunter; and having adverted incidentally to the high national importance to be 
attached to maintaining the horse in all his capabilities, as giving elasticity and 
vigour to one great arm of national defence — cavalry — the use of which has sometimes 
decided the issue of battles and the fate of empires, — we pass now to contemplate 
this interesting animal in a form in which Nimrod (Mr. Apperly) himself, one of the 
most voluminous and authentic writers on these subjects, and one not prone to make 
admissions of English inferiority in anything, does admit that we excel, to wit, in 
our Trotting Horses. 

Instances which will hereafter be given of the performance of American trotters, 
such as have been trained to that pace and timed with exactness, in trials instituted 
for that purpose by numerous trotting clubs, will leave no doubt of our having well 
established our claim for the excellence conceded to us in that class of horses — and 
as speed in that gait, combined with lastingness, is a desideratum in public stages, 
and for all kinds of light harness and quick travelling, it becomes an interesting 
inquiiy, and is deemed to be well worthy of the space here assigned it — whence has 
resulted the superiority illustrated by these examples / Is it that we possess a particular 
strain of horses not to be found in other countries, not thoruugh-bred, but yet of a 
specific breed, which has been found or made in America, and which may be kept 
separate and distinct from all others, the root whereof is not necessarily to be looked 
for, lil^ that of our thorough-bred stock, in the English Stud-Book, or in the blood of 
some Eastern ancestor — a breed to which, in a word, recourse may be had as a stock 
of horses sui generis, and one that may be relied upon to supply fast goers in i\\vi 
pace ] Or is it that we owe the number that can go their mile under 2.30, to 
tlie higher estimate which is placed on excellence in that way, in this country ; and 
to the greater pains taken and skill exercised in educating and training horses to go 
aiiead in the trot ] We confess that reflection and all the lights we possess, lead us 
to the adoption of this latter theory. 

There are various reasons why this property in the horse should be more attended 
to in this, than perhaps any other country. May it not be referred in some measure, 
to our political institutions, as we have already seen, in the review which has been 
taken of the progressive improvement of horses in England, how their qualities have, 
from time to time, been influenced and modified by their field-sports, the state of their 
roads, the form of their coaches, and changes in their warlike and agricultural habits 
and implements. Under the elfect of our political institutions, which create fre- 
quent division of estates, it is next to impossible that there should exist in America 
a class of men with sufficient and extended wealth, either hereditary or acquired, 
to maintain the costly and magnificent arrangements for the sports of tlie turf and the 
chase — such as have for centuries existed in England. Yet men must have amuse- 
ments, and those which are found a-field are at once the most attractive and salutary. 
If one may be allowed to quote himself, we may repeat from the introduction to the 
Sporting Magazine, the ideas there expressed that "the knowledge of mankind so 
essential in every practical pursuit, nay the yet more essential knowledge of ourselves, 
s not to be found alone in solitary labour, nor in solitary meditation ; neither is it in a 
state of isolation from society that the heart most quickly learns to answer to the calls 
of benevolence ; — sympathy springs from habits of association, and a sense of mu- 
tual dependence on each other ; and the true estimate of character, and friendly and 
generous dispositions, are under no circumstances more certainly acquired, nor inor»< 
assuredly improved and quickened, than by often meeting each other in the friendly 
contentions and rivalries that characterize field-sports." 

Recurring to the influence of political institutions and national amusements, it may 
be very safely affirmed, that while there can exist in this country no permanent class 
ai' men possessing the wealth which affords the time, and cherishes the taste for tlw 
5 G 



50 



THE HORSE, 



more expensive diversions of tlie Turf and the Chase ; it must yet alwjys abound lai 
beyond all other countries, under their existing governments, in citizens of middling, 
and yet easy circumstances, with means enough to indulge in other sports involving 
moderate outlay, including the ownership of a good old squirrel gun ; and the luxury 
of a good hurac ; and hence the use of both is as familiar to the great mass of American 
•people, from »heir childhood, as it is strange to the common people of any other 
country ; except as to the employment of the horse, in his lowest offices of field-labour 
and common drudgery. No southern boy at least, just entering his teens, desires 
Detter fun than to be allowed to catch and mount any horse in the most distant pas- 
ture, and ride him home at the top of his speed, without saddle or bridle — and as to 
the use of fire-arms, it was remarked to the writer during the late Avar with England, 
both by General Koss and Admiral Cockburn, that in no country had they ever wit- 
nessed any fire so deadly as that of the American militia, as lung as they would stand! 
In the towns, there is not a sober and industrious tradesman, who cannot manage to 
keep his hackney ; and these considerations sufficiently account for the number of 
regularly constituted Trotting Clubs of easy access, with courses that serve as so 
many nurseries, where the horse is educated exclusively for the trot, and his highest 
physical capacities drawn out in that form. These associations are composed, for 
the most part, of respectable and independent mechanics, and others, especially 
victuallers, among whom in all times there has existed a sort of esprit de corps, or 
monomania on this subject, which leads them to spare neither pains nor expense to 
erain a reputation for owning a crack goer. This sort of emulation so infects the class, 
as to have given rise to a common saying that " a butcher always rides a trotter." 

According to the theory here maintained, the great number of trotters in America 
that can go as before said, their mile under 3 minutes, and the many that do it under 
•2m. 40s. and even in some cases under 2m. 30s. — as for instance in the case of 
Ripton and Confidence, whose performances have given so much gratification tc 
sportsmen, is to be explained in the same way that we account for the great numbei 
of superb hunters that are admitted to abound in England above all countries, not 
excepting our own. There, in every county in the Kingdom, there are organized 
'■'■ Hufits," with their whippers-in, and huntsmen, and earth-stoppers, and costly 
appointments of every kind to accommodate some fifty or an hundred couple of high- 
bred hounds, whose pedigrees are as well preserved as those of Priam or Longwaist; 
and a wide district of country is reserved and assigned exclusively to each hunt. 
Fox-hunting is there termed par excellence, a princely amusement, and gentlemen of 
the most exalted rank and largest fortune, take pride in the office of " Master of the 
hounds," and assuredly in all the wide field of manly exercises, none can compare 
with an English fox or steeple-chase, for union of athletic vigour and daring skill, 
and magnificence of equitation ; unless perhaps it were some splendid charge de cavalrie, 
like those we used to read of, made by the gallant Murat at a critical moment of the 
battle, when he was wont in his gorgeous uniform and towering plumes to fall with his 
cavalry like an avalanche upon his adversary, confounding and crushing him at a 
blow ! Truly, it would well be worth a trip across the Atlantic, to see a single "turn 
out" of an English hunt, all in their fair tops, buckskin smalls, and scarlet coats, 
mounte<l on hunters that under Tattersall's hammer would command from one to two 
hundred guineas ! Imagine such a field with thirty couple of staunch hounds, heads 
tip and sterns down, all in full cry, and well away with their fox ! ! 

-Now, my brave youths, 



Flourish the wliip nor spare the galling spur; 
But in the madness of delight, forget 
Your fears. Far o'er the rocky hills we range, 
And dangerous our course ; but in the brave 
True courage never fails." 

To indicate more strongly the prevalence of this partiality for trotting-horses, and 
r.mulation to own the fastest goer, and the number and extent of associations and 
arrangements for this sort of trial and amusement, it need only be mentioned that the 
•'Spirit of the Times," published in New York, contains lists of hundreds of matches 
and purses, and of thousands on thousands of dollars in sn:all purses, won and lost 
9C these performances on trotting-courses ! A number of these performances will he 



THE HORSE. gj 

selected, enough to chow that the excellence which is conceded to American ti otters, 
s not founded on a solitary achievement or very rare cases, nor to Jje ascribed to the 
pos'iession of any distinct and peculiar breed of horses ; but is the natural and conmion 
fruit of that union of blood and bone, which forms proverbially the desideratum in a 
good hunter, with the superaddition of skilful training, much practice, and artful 
jockeying for the trotting course. Who can doubt that if Hiram Woodrufl' were to 
go to England, having the run of their hunting-stables, he might select nags cnouo-h 
which could soon be made under his training and consummate jockeyship, to go along 
with Edwin Forrest and Lady Suffolk, Ripton, Rattler, Confidence, and the Dutch- 
man ? On this point the following may be aptly extracted from the highest authority 
— our Bell's Life in London — To wit : Porter's Spirit of the Times. 

" Nimrod, in ' admitting the superiority of our Trotting-Horses to the ' English,' 
claims that the English ' approach very near to the Americans,' even in this breed 
of cattle. Possibly the characteristic national vanity would not allow him to make 
a farther concession. But there is no comparison v/hatever, between the Trottino-- 
Horses of the two countries. Mr. Wheelan, who took Rattler to England last season, 
and doubly distanced with ease every horse that ventured to start against him, as the 
record shows, informs us that there are twenty or more roadsters in common use in 
this city, that could con pete successfully with the fastest trotters on the English 
Turf. They neither understand the art of training, driving or riding, there. For 
example : some few years since, Alexander was purchased by Messrs. G. & B. of this 
city, for a friend or acquaintance, in England. Alexander was a well-knov/n roadster 
here, and was purchased to order, at a low rate. The horse was sent out and trials 
made. of him; but so unsuccessful were they, that the English importers considered 
him an imposition. Thus the matter stood for a year or more. When Wheelan 
arrived in England, he recognised the horse, and learned the particulars of his 
purchase and subsequent trials there. By his advice the horse was nominated in a 
Stake at Manchester (we believe) with four or five of the best trotters in England, 
he (Wheelan) engaging to train and ride him. When the horses came upon the 
ground, the odds were 4 and 5 to 1 against Alexander, who won by nearly a quarter 
of a ntile ! Wheelan says he took the track at starting, and widened the gap at his 
ease — that near the finish, being surprised that no horse was anywhere near him, as 
his own had not yet made a stroke, he got frightened, thinking some one might out- 
brush him — that he put Alexander up to his work, and finally won l)y an immense 
way, no horse, literally, getting to the head of the quarter stretch, as he came out at 
the winning stand ! The importers of Alexander, at any rate, were so surprised and 
delighted at his performance, that they presented Wheelan with a magnificent gold 
timing-watch, and other valuable presents, and sent Messrs. C. & B. a superb service 
of plate, which may be seen at any time at their establishment in Maiden Lane." 

Here it is clearly shown that the comparative speed of American horses is to be 
attributed not to breed, but to management, on which we the rather insist, as it is to 
be desired that American agriculturists and all breeders and trainers of horses, should 
understand and practise upon some fixed and rational principles, rather than rely for 
success on some imaginary strain of horses, of no certain origin or established 
blood. After all, we have accounts of performances in trotting, by English horses, 
that may be considered as extraordinary as those of our own, when allowance is 
made for the greater value placed, and the more attention and skill bestowed, upou 
trotters in this country than in that. 

The celebrated English trotter Archer, descended from old Shields, a remarkable 
strong horse and master of fifteen stone (two hundred and ten pounds), trotted his 
sixteen miles in a very severe frost in less than fifty-five minutes. In 1791, a brown 
mare, trotted in England on the Essex road, sixteen miles in fifty-eight minutes and 
some seconds, beino- then 18 years old — and while we are writing we learn from an 
official report that Lady Hampton on the 2d of May, 1842, in England, trotted seven- 
teen miles in 58m. 37s. in harness. She was driven by Burke, of great English 
trotting celebrity. On the 13th of October, 1799, a trotting match was decided over 
Sunbury Common between Mr. Dixon's brown gelding and Mr. Bishop's grey 
gelding, carrying twelve stone (one hundred and sixty-eight pounds) each, which 



52 THE HORSE. 

was won by the former in twenty-seven minutes an(J ten seconds. — A Mr. Stevtna 
made a bet \vhicli,was decided 5th October, 179G, that he would produce a pair of 
horses, his own property, that should trot in tandem from Windsor to Hampton 
Court, a distance of sixteen miles, within the hour ; notwithstanding the cross coun- 
try road, and great number of turnings, they performed it with ease in fifty-seven 
minutes and thirteen seconds. Phenomena trotted nineteen miles in an hour. — These 
examples are adduced to show the fallacy of that impression which would lead the 

Sublic to look to any but the true and rational sources of superiority — for mankind 
as ever been prone to the marvellous, preferring to look for all that does not lie on 
the surface, to some mysterious influence, unconnected with known and rational 
causes. The trotter, according to the distance prescribed as the measure of his 
capacity, needs the combination of form and blood — of bone and of muscle, which 
give distinction to the hunter ; and the reason, if it be asked, why the ihoroiigh-hred 
cannot be relied upon for a hard run over a rough country, is, that he rarely combines 
these requisites, and is moreover put to his work when iuo yuxmg ,• but does any one 
doubt that Sir Archy, or Timoleon, or Eclipse, or imported Tranby, or Leviathan 
would have made first-rate himlers or trotters, if, before they were put to hard work, 
their frames had been left to ripen, and their bones and joints and muscles to get firm 
and solid, and at the same time pliant and supple by gentle and moderately increasing 
exercise until five or six years old — for here it is to be noted, that as to the age at 
which the trotter should be put iii training, and that at which he reaches his maximum 
of power, though there would seem to be some difference of opinion, all agree that 
the trotter is not in his prime until he is eight or nine years old. The Abdallahs, 
great-grandsons of old Messenger, trot much younger; Hiram Woodruff, and there 
can be no better authority, would commence a horse's training for the trot at five or 
six years of age, giving him light work however, but going on increasing his work 
from year to year, and expecting increasing excellence up to nine or ten years, and 
with kind usage he might continue up to this mark for three or four years longer, and 
they often last to perform admirably until after twenty — for example, Columbus, Pain 
Pry, Topgallant, &c. 

The stoutest horses, of whatever kind or degree of blood, might be expected to 
give way if put at three or four, as the race-horse is, into severe training under heavy 
weights, for trotting stakes or the chase; but on the other hand, without blood to give 
him wind and courage, what would avail his " bag of bones," in a trial to trot his 
hundred miles in ten hours? Johnson, author of the Sportsman's Cyclopedia, justly 
esteemed high authority on such subjects, remarks that " thorough-bred horses, and 
particularly those of the best blood, are seldom possessed cf sufficient bone to render 
them pre-eminently calculated for the chase ; j-et I am free to confess that the very 
best hunters that have fallen under my observation have been remarkably ivell and 
very highly bred, but yet not absolutely thorough-bred." The same remark it is not 
doubted might be made as generally applicable to our first-rate trotters, at long dis- 
tances. The case of Abdallah and Messenger have been instanced to show, that 
great trotters not thorough-bred, may and do beget trotters, and hence some would 
argue that a distinct race of horses may or does exist. Eut it is to be remembered 
that both Abdallan and Messenger are sons of Mambrino, son of old Messenger, and 
of Messenger mares, though not thorough-bred ; and nothing is better known by all 
who have been in the habit of attending to these subjects, than that the IMessenger 
famil} is distinguished for making first-rate coach-horses — quick in light harness, and 
remarkable for endurance and long life. That Abdallah, therefore, himself deep in 
the Messenger blood, should be himself a trotter and a getter of trotters, only proves 
that like begets like, and that of a distinct breed, like the thorough-bred horse, cha- 
racterized by the possession of general properties belonging only to and constituting 
that breed, there may be particular families, distinguished for some peculiar qualities 
not possessed in the same degree by other families of the same breed. Thus we 
have the three classes of the English thorough-bred stock, to wit: the Herod, the 
Matchem, and the Eclipse, that have served as crosses for each other. In like manner, 
it may be said of the imp-.oved short-horn cattle — their general characteristic is early 
maturity and propenfaity to fat, without being generally remarkable as deep milkers, 
'hough there are families of the short-horns esteemed for thai quality; — a dash 



THE HORSE. 



53 



at the hijoi of old Messenger imparts high form and action for the state coach, und 
ihe eye of the connoisseur can detect the signs in a liorse in whose veins flow even 
one-eiglith of his blood ; so the fact is generally known to old gentlemen in the South, 
and especially avouched by the Sporting and Agricultural Society in South Carolina, 
that the stock of old Janus (there called Genius,) was so remarkable as road and 
saddle horses, as to have gotten to be considered a distinct breed ; so the Topgal- 
lant stock made fine saddle-horses, excelling in the canter. The blood horse, too, 
is remarkable for longevity — the Messenger stock particularly so. If the truth could 
oe known, it is probable it flowed in larger or smaller streams in each of the four 
thorough-breds which the late General Hampton, (sire of that paragon of sportsmen 
and gentlemen, Col, Wade Hampton,) drove in his coach all together for sixteen 
years. 

Here may be aptly introduced some extracts from a familiar letter received by the editor 
from Col. N. Goldsborough, of Talbot, Maryland, who has an eye for the line points 
of a horse, as quick as a hawk's for a fish — one who has thought much and with etfect 
on all matters that give dignity and attraction to rural life — himself of the pure old 
stock in fashion when it meant something to be called a " Maryland" or " Virginia 
gentleman.'''' He, in confirmation of our hypothesis, says, speaking of Tom Thumb — 
" But whence came his lastingness, his powers of endurance, as well as speed ? I 
have been in the habit of thinking, that no horse could long continue exertion, espe- 
cially at a rapid pace, without a good tincture of the bloud. At about the same time 
there went to England a horse called Rattler, of great speed as a trotter — he was 
represented as the cross of a full-bred horse on the Canadian mare. What a magni- 
ricent picture " Whalebone" makes in his trotting action, and how different from the 
abovenamed horses ! When a boy, I have seen Phil Hemsly mounted on his trotting 
mare, bred on the borders of Queen Anne's County. She was much in the style oi 
the famous Phenomena Mare of England — about fourteen and a half handr high. — 
He could keep up with a pack of hounds all day in a trot — and she could pass over 
the largest oak bodies lying in a v/ood, without breaking up. I was informed two 
years ago in Philadelphia by Mr. Allen, son-in-law of Badger of the Marshall House 
— that some of the best trotters then in New Jersey, were the offspring of Monnwuik 
Eclipse — the Messenger blood you see! I know of no other family of the pure blood 
horse which may be said emphatically to produce trotters — the exception confirms the 
rule. Col, Lloyd's Vingtun and old Topgallant got fine racking and cantering 
horses. > Is there more than one out of twenty thorough breds, that makes really a 
racer? And are there not as many trotters at the North, and more, than there are 
racers at the South, &c., where the most systematic efforts have been persevered in for 
years, exclusively for the production of racers ? I have often wondered where they 
of the North derived their horses — from what I have seen and heard, they have a 
peculiar family, different in appearance, in form strikingly from ours. They of the 
North have had some method in this matter — as well as the breeders of short-horns, 
Leicester sheep, &c. About the lakes they have a horse of great speed and power, 
as I am infornred, called the ' Frencher.' The English officers bring over from the 
mother country, fine blooded stallions for troopers and parade. It is the cross of these 
and the Canadian mares, which produces the ' Frencher,' — Hood is indispensable. 
But what is the Canadian'? undevenit? They are descended from the horses of 
Normandy carried over by the French settlers. Napoleon's coach when captured 
was being drawn by four Norman horses, and I guess the Emperor was not fond of 
sitting behind slow cattle. When the Spaniards were in possession of the Low 
Countries, they carried with them their Andalusian horses — these were crossed on 
tlie Normans, which produced great improvement. When the Spaniards were ex- 
pelled, the breeding in-and-in from this stock must have produced a distinct family, 
as BakeweA produced with other races of quadrupeds. Climate necessarily produced 
a change in the Norman horse, when transferred to the rigour of Canadian winters— 
hence the thick coat of hair, &c. The Andalusian, you know, is of Arabian descen.^. 
So far as I have been able to learn, Vermont is indebted to Canada for her distin- 
guished race of roadsters, as well as the neighbouring States. They have one dis- 
tinct family, the ' Morgan,' descended from a little Canadian, famous too for running 
(quarter races. This family has be^n cherished for years, and is as distinguistoa 
5* 



^ 



54 THE HORSE. 

among thom as old Archy was in Virginia. I have some indistinct lecollection lo 
liave seen, years ago, an account of a horse among them got by, or out of a mare by, 
Cock of tlie Rock — Messenger blood again." 

It is now in proof that this Morgan breed is descended from a horse that was stolen 
Trom General de Lancey, importer of Wildair, and there is every reason to believe 
that though he may not have been thorough-bred, he was well steeped in the best 
blood of the Anglo-American turf-horse. 

While it has been found impracticable to obtain any precise information as to the 
pedigree of some of our very best trotters, in other cases where more is known, they 
are found to be deep in the blood. — Awful, whose performances will be seen in the 
tables annexed, is known to have been gotten by a thorough-bred " American boy." 
Lady Suffolk is by Engineer, but what Engineer not known. Abdallah, as before 
mentioned, is by Mambrino, and he again, a great trotter, by Messenger ; but Butch- 
man, one of our best trotters, has no known pedigree, though we have some reason 
to think he was by Young Oscar, then at Carlisle. He was taken out of a clay-yard, 
and was transferred to the trotting-turf from a Pennsylvania wagon-team. — Wood- 
ruff thinks blood does not give them Itngih, or the power to go the long distances ; 
but in this it is believed he must be mistaken. These Canadian or Norman-French 
stallions, small and compact, which on well-formed large mares give such fine har- 
ness horses, and trotters, are, as before said, deeply imbued with the blood of the 
barb taken from Spain into Normandy. We have been told lately by an intelligent 
Englishman, that the infusion of blood into their coach-horses has enabled them to 
lengthen their stages, and in very observable proportion to the degree of blood. 
Finally, as where the blood of the trotter when known, is seen to flow in so many 
instances from a spring of pure blood, is it not fair to infer a similar origin in cases 
where the blood cannot be traced "] especially as the universal experience of all times 
proves that in other paces, the cases have been exircmely rare, in which a horse of 
impure blood has been known to keep up a great Jiight of speed? A horse of mixed 
blood may be a great trotter at a long distance, because his speed at his best is 
greatly behind that of the best speed on the turf; but it would, according to all prin- 
ciples of reasoning, be unreasonable to expect great excellence even as a trotter, in 
horses altogether free from the blood which gives foot and wind to the Eastern 
courser. Though we may not be able to trace it, and though in solitary cases a 
horse without it, may possess great speed and lastingness in the trot, from excellent 
accidental conformation, we repeat that the possession of the two, warrants the pre- 
sumption of the third, however obscure the traces, or remote the origin ; — this is our 
theory ! But the action to be cultivated in the racer and the trotter is of itself suffi- 
cient to explain why a racer should not succeed at once on the turf and on the trotting 
course. All reflecting and observant men will admit that " as there is no royal way 
to mathematics," so there is but one way for a horse to excell in his business ; and 
with rare exceptions there is but one in which any individual horse can excel. — 
Whatever that business may be, to be perfect in it he should he educated and kept to 
it — and to it only. A trotting-horsc should do nothing but trot. 

As what has been said may promote a disposition to form clubs in order to culti- 
vate more generally and certainly the powers of the trotting horse, witli the view of 
practical utility in the business of life, it is deemed well to submit at this pomt, the 
Rules o^ the Trotting Club at Neio York. The rules which prevail elsewhere are 
essentially the same, or so little variant that the difference is not deemed worthy of 
notice. 



Rules and Regulations adopted by the Neic York Trotting Club for the Beacon ana 
Centreville Courses. — September 1st, 1841. 

I. — All Matches or Sweepstakes which shall come off over a Course, under the 
jurisdiction of this Club, will be governed by these Rules, unless the contrary is 
mutually agreed upon by the parties making such match or stake. 

2. — All Purses, Matches, or Sweepstakes to which the Club or Proprietors contri- 
bute, they shall have the power to postpone, should the weather prove unfavourable 
on the day previously named for tlie trotting of the same. 



THE HORSE. 55 

3. — None but Members shall be allowed to trot a horse for any limiteil Purse civen 
by this Association. 

4. — Horses trained in the same stable or owned in part by the same purson, shall 
not start for a Purse; and horses so entered shall forfeit their entrance. A horse 
^starting alone shall receive but one-half the Purse. Horses deemed by the Judges 
not fair trotting horses, shall be ruled off previous to, or distanced at the termination 
of a heat. 

5. — All entries shall be n;ade under a seal, inclosing the entrance money, (ten per 
cent, on the Purse,) and addressed to the Secretary, at such time and place as may 
have been previously designated by advertisement. 

6. — Every Trotting horse starting for Match, Purse, or Stake, shall carry 145lbs. — 
if in harness, the weight of the vehicle not to be considered. Pacing horsos to be 
allowed 5lbs. ; Wagons to weigh 250lbs. 

7. — A distance for mile heats, best three in five, shall be one hundred yards ; for 
one-mile heats, eighty yards, and for every additional mile an additional eighty 
yards. 

8. — The time between heats shall be — for one mile, twenty minutes, and for every 
additional mile, an additional five minutes. 

9. — ^There shall be chosen by the Proprietors of the Course, or Stewards, Tliree 
Judges, to preside over a race for Purses, and by them two additional .Judges shall be 
appointed for the distance stand ; they may also, during, or previous to a race, appoint 
Inspectors at any part of the Course, whose report shall be received of any foul riding 
or driving. 

10. — Should a difference of opinion exist between the Judges in the starting stand, 
on any question, a majority shall govern. 

II. — The Judges shall order the horses saddled or harnessed, five minutes previous 
to the time appointed for starting, or at the expiration of the time allowed between 
heats. Any rider or driver causing undue detention, after being called up, by making 
false starts or otherwise, the Judges may give the word to start, without reference to 
the situation of the horse so offending, unless convinced such delay is unavoidable on 
the part of the rider or driver ; in which case not more than thirty minutes shall be 
consumed in attempts to start. 

12. — The Pole shall be drawn for by the Judges. The horse winning a heat, shall, 
for the succeeding heat, be entitled to a choice of the track. On coming out on the 
last stretch, each horse shall retain the track first selected ; any horse deviating shall 
be distanced. 

13. — In all cases of dispute, and not provided for by these Rules, the Judges for the 
day will decide finally. In case of a race or match being proved to their satisfaction 
to have been made or conducted improperly and dishonestly, on the part of the prin- 
cipals, they shall have the power to declare all bets void. They shall also have 
the power to mitigate the penalty of a rider or driver's disobeying these rules, by 
giving the next best horse a heat, instead of distancing the person so offending, should 
circumstances justify them in such mitigation. 

14. — Riders and drivers shall not be permitted to start unless dressed in Jockey 
style. 

15. — Riders and Drivers shall weigh in the presence of one or more Judges, pre. 
vious to starting ; and after a heat, are to come up to the starting stand, and not to 
dismount until so ordered by the Judges. Any rider or driver disobeying, shall, on 
weighing, be precluded from the benefit of the weight of his saddle and whip — anc 
if not full weight, shall be distanced. 

IG. — A rider or driver committing any act which the Judges may deem foul riding 
or driving, shall be distanced. 

17. — Should any horse break from his trot or pace, and gain by such break, twice 
the distance so gained shall be taken from him on coming out. A horse breaking or 
the score shall not lose the heat by so doing. 

18.— A horse must win two heats to be entitled to the Purse— unless he distance 
all other horses in one heat.— A distanced horse in a dead heat shall not start again 

VJ.—A horse not winnino- one heat in three, shall not stirtfor a fourth heat, unless 
trticb horse shall have made' a dead heat. When a dead heat is made between two 
I'orses, and if either had wen the heat, the race would have been decided, they T'-wf 



50 THE HORSE. 

-nly shall start again. Such horses as are prevented from starting by this Rule, snail 
be considered drawn and not distanced. 

20. — If two horses each win a heat, and neither are distanced in the race, they aro 
equal ; if neither win a heat, and neither distanced, they are equal ; but if one wins 
a heat, and the other does not, the winner of a heat is best, unless he shall be dis- 
tanced subsequently, in which case the other, if not distanced, shall be the best. A 
norse that wins a heat and is distanced, is better than one not making a heat and 
jeing distanced. A horse distanced the second heat, than one distanced the firs 
lieat, &c. 

21. — Horses drawn before the conclusion of a race, shall be considered distanced 

22. — Horses that forfeit, are the beaten horses, when it is pay or play. 
. 23. — All bets are understood to relate to the Purse, Match, or Stake, if nothing i 
said to the contrary. 

24. — A confirmed bet cannot be let off without mutual consent. If either party be 
absent at the time of trotting, and the money be not staked, the party present may 
declare the bet void, in the presence of the Judges, unless some party will stake the 
money betted for the absentee. 

25. — A bet made on a heat to come, is no bet, if all the horses qualified to start do 
not; unless the bet be between such horses as do start. A bet made after the heat 
is over, is void, if the horse bet upon does not start. 

^6. — Tlie person who bets the odds, has a right to choose the horse or the field. 
When he has chosen his horse, the field is what starts against him ; but there is no 
field unless one starts with him. If odds are bet without naming the horses before the 
trot is over, it must be determined as the odds were at the time of making it. Bets 
made in trotting are not determined till the Purse is won, if the heat is not specified 
at the time of betting. Bets made between particular horses are void, if neither of 
them be winner, unless specified to the contrary. 

27. — All bets made on horses precluded from starting, by (Rule No. 19,) being 
distanced in the race ; or on such horses against each other, shall be drawn. 

28. — All engagements are void upon the decease of- either party, before being de- 
termined. 

Under the preceding Rules, the following performances have been achieved, 
according to the ofiicial record — the New York Spirit of the Times. 

It may be proper, however, for the due appreciation of the performances included 
in these tables, to make some preliminary remarks upon weights carried by trotting 
horses, and on their comparative speed in harness and under the saddle, &c. The 
weight carried on the Northern courses, where a majority of our trotting takes place, 
is 145 pounds, without any distinction for age or sex ; and the same weight has to 
be carried by the driver, exclusive of the weights of his sulky or match-cart, as by 
the same jockey in the saddle. These match-carts are of the neatest construction, 
and weigh generally nearly ninety pounds, though they often weigh twenty pounds 
less, and there are one or two which weigh hut fifty-three pounds ! But the mere 
weight to be carried or drawn by a trolter, is much less regarded by the sportsman 
than in the case of the racc-Iiorse. On the Hunting Park Course, near Philadelphia, 
the weight was formerly 147 pounds in the saddle, and in harness catch-weights, but 
they have now adopted the New York scale. But in far the greater number of the 
cases below, unless the weight be expressly named, it may be presumed to be from 
145 to 155 pounds. Hiram Woodruff weighs without his saddle KiO pounds. On 
the Beacon and Centreville Courses, pacers are allowed five pounds, and wagons, in 
distinction from sulkeys or match-carts, must weigh 250 pounds. 

As a matter of course, from the difference of weights carried along by him, the 
trotter generally makes better time under the saddle than in harness, though there 
are some exceptions to this rule. Another consideration has great influence upon 
this difference in time. Under the saddle, the jockey can hug the pole of our oval- 
shaped courses more closely than in harness, and thus he actually goes over less 
ground. And for an obvious reason the speed of a horse in going " round the turns' 
is more retarded in a sulkey than under the saddle. As before stated, no allowance 
r»f weights is made for age, and in consequence no note is taken of the age of trotters' 
11 official reports of their performances. 



TROTTING TABLES, 



67 



TROTTINGAT IMILE HEATS. 



Name. 



iCdwin Forrest. .. 
Edwin Forrest- .. 

Bur.-;ter 

Dutchmati 

Dutcliinau 

Norman Leslie . . 

Confidence 

Lnconiotive 

Brooklyn Maid... 



Pally Mlll"r 

Charlotte leaiple . 



Colnup. 



bl.g.. 
M.S.. 
gr.g-- 
b.g... 
b.g... 
bl. g.. 
b.g... 
ch. g.. 
cli. 111. 

b. in., 
gr. m. 



saddle. . 
saddle. . 
saddle. . 
harness, 
saddle., 
saddle. . 
harness, 
saddle., 
saddle.. 

saddle., 
saddle. . 



1 3]i 2.33 

!!:i7— 2.30— 2.39— 2.40 



J 35 2.32—2 35 

l.3t)—2!35—2.'33— 2.33— 2.40. 
;.38-2.36i— 2.38— 2.39-2.38 

1.35-2.37-2.36 

!.38— 2.3G— 2.37 

1.42-2.41- 2.40— 2.40i— 2.40 

2.38 

!.37i— 2 37— 2 40— 2.42— 2.44 
!.39— 2.38— 2.39— 2.40 



Centreville, L. I 

Trenton, N. J 

Hunting Park, Pa.. .. 
Beacon Course, N. J. 

Trenton, N. J 

Do 

Beacon Course, N. J. 
Cenlreville, L. I 



Do. 

Hunting Park, Pa. 
Do. 



TROTTING AT TWO-MILE HEATS. 



Lady SufTolk 

Lady Suffolk 

Lady Suftblk 

Edwin Forrest 

Edwin Forrest 

D. D. Tompkins.... 

Riplon 

Kiptoii 

Diilcliiiian 

Dutchman 

Confidence 

Washington 

Dutchess 

Rattler 

Kattler 

Don Juan 

Modesty 

Greenwich Maid .. . 

Awful 

Henry 

Topgallant 

Bipton 

Americus 

Confidence 



g. m.. 


g. in.. 


g. m.. 
bl. g. . 
bl. g.. 
ch.g.. 


l-r.g.. 
br.g.. 
b.g... 
b. g... 
b. g... 


si-.f?-- 


Iir. in . 


b.g... 
b. g... 
ch, g.. 


gr. m.. 


b. in . . 


b.g... 
ch. g.. 
b.g... 


br. g . . 
b. g... 
b.g... 



saddle. . 
saddle. . 
harness, 
saddle. . 
harness, 
saddle. . 
harness, 
harness, 
saddle., 
harness, 
harness, 
harness, 
harness, 
saddle. . 
saddle. . 
sitddle. . 
saddle. . 
harness, 
saddle. . 
harness, 
saddle. . 
harness, 
harness, 
harness. 



4.5a 

5.05. 

5.J0- 

5.05- 

517- 

5.ir)i 

5. IDi 

5.07- 

5.16- 

5.11- 

5.16i 

5.18i 

.5.18- 

5.17- 

5.29- 

5 17- 

5.25 

5.20 

5.28 

5.20 

5.27 

5.07 

5.J4- 

5M 



— 5.03i 



-5.15 

-5.06 

-5.13-5.17 

-5.11 

-5.12i 

-5 15 

5.09 

5.IG 

-5.l6i-5.16-5.18-5.25 

-5.17-5.26 

5 20 

5.13i 

5.17—5.40 

5.14 

5.19-5.21 

5.22 

— 5.2U 



5.26 

5.19—5 23... 
-5.15—5.17!. 

5.20 

-5.27—5.37. . 



Contreville, L. I 

Beacon Course, N. J. 

Centreville.L. I 

Hunting Park, Pa.. . 

Do. 

Centreville, L. I 

Beacon Course, N. J. 

HuMting Park, Pa 

Beai on Course, N. J. 

Do. 
CentiDville, L. I 

Do 

Do 

Beacon Course, N. J. 

Do. 
Centreville.L. I 

Do. 

Beacon Course, N. J. 

Do 

Centreville.L. I 

Do 

Hunting Park, Pa.. . . 
Beacon Course, N. J. 
Centreville, L. I 



May, lS3t 
Spring, 183! 
Fall, lt;30. 
July, 1839. 
Sept. 1836. 
June, 1836 
June, 1841 
Oct. 1837. 

May, 1841. 
Nov. 1833. 
Nov. 1834. 



Sept. 1840. 
July, 1641. 
May, 1842. 
May, 1840. 
Oct. 1838. 
Oct. 1837. 
May. 1842. 
May, 1842. 
April, 1839. 
Oct. 1839. 
Mav, 184L 
Sept. 1840 
May, 1841. 
Oct'. 1838. 
July, 1838. 
Oct. 1839. 
Sept. J835. 
June, 1838. 
Oct. 1838. 
Oct. 1839. 
Oct. 1831. 
May, 1842. 
Sept. 1842. 
July, iSti. 



But the most e.vtraordinary performance is yet to be recorded. We should have omitted it. as being 
perhaps apochryphal, had it not been well avouched to us by a respectable looker-on. who may be 
beMeved— as follows : £>. Bnjan's Ladij Suffolk and Rifie— double-harness— Hanting Park— 31st May. 1842. 
two miles in 5.19 !1 



TROTTING AT THREE-MILE HEATS. 



Dutchman 

Dutchman 

Dutchman 

Dutchman 

Lady Suifolk 

Columbus 

Aaron Burr 

Battler 

Screwdriver 

D. D. Tompkins 

Laily Warrington. . 

Columbus 

Lady Victory 

Screwdriver 

Topgallant 

Sir Peter 

Sir Peter 

Whalebone 

Shaksi)pare 

Betsy Baker 

Caio 

Riptnn 

Ripton 



b. g... 


b. g... 


b. g... 


b. !£... 


gr. III.. 


b. g... 




b. g... 


b.g... 


ch. g.. 


cli. ni.. 


b.g... 


ch. m.. 


ch. g. . 


b. g... 


b. g... 


b.g... 


b. g... 


br. in.. 


bl. h.. 


br.g... 



I br.g. 



saddle . 
harness, 
saddle., 
saddle. - 
saddle., 
saddle., 
harness, 
saddle. . 
saddle. . 
saddle., 
saddle., 
saddle. . 
harness, 
harness, 
saddle. . 
harness, 
harness, 
harness, 
saddle. . 
saddle. . 
harness, 
harness, 
harness. 



7.32 

7.41 

7.54 

7.51 

7.40 

8.02 

8.02i 

8.11 

8.02 

8.07 

8.05 

7.58 

8.11 

8.18- 

8.23- 

8.32 

8.17- 

8 18 

8.16 

8.16 

8.02- 

8 00- 

8.03 



— 7..50-8.02— 8.34i 

-7.51 ....■ 

—7.56 

-8.05 

-8.03—8.03—8.16 . 

8.17 

8.10 



8.17- 
■8.07 



-8.19. 



8.38 

■8.00-8.17. 

-8.19 

8.13 



■8.18 . . 
7..56i.. 
-8.04 . . 



Beacon Course, N. J. 

Do. 

Do. 
Hunting Park, Pa 

Do. 

Centreville, L. I 

Beacon Course, N. J. 

Philadelphia, Pa 

Hunting Park, Pa 

Do. 

Trenton. N. J 

Iliintjni; Park, Pa.. .. 

Centreville.L. I 

Hunting Park, Pa 

Centreville, L. I 

Do. 

Do. 



Centreville. L. I 

Beacon Course, N. J. 
Do. 



TROTTING AT FOUR-MILE HEATS 



Dutchman | b. g.. . I saddle. 

Lady Suffiilk I gr. m.. i saddle. 

Lady Suf5jlk | gr. m.. saddle. 

Bir Peter b. g.. . harness, 

Ellen TJiompson ... | b. m . . I saddle 



n. 10— 10.51 I Centreville.L. I 

11.15—11.58 Do- 

11.22 — 11.34 Cambridge, Mass 

11.23 — 11.27 Hunting Park, Pa.. . . 

11.55—11.33 I Beacon Course. N. J. 

H 



Aug. 1839. 
July, 1839. 
Oct. 1838. 
Mav. 1840. 
May. 1841 
May. 1834. 
June. 1841. 
Oct. 18.38. 
About 1827. 
May. 183o. 
Nov. 1836. 
June. J834. 
June. 183i 
Oct. 1832. 
Oct. 1829. 
Oct. 182!-. 
Oct. 182:J 



May. ]8ji 
Aug. 1842, 
Oct. 1842. 



May. 183(> 
June. 1840 
Nov. 1639 
Oct. ISilt 
May, 184:; 



58 



THE HORSE. 



BEST PACING IN AMERICA ON RECORD 



Drover 

Tup Sawyer.. 
Oneida Chief. 

Volcano 

Billy 

Oneida Cliief 
Oneida Cliief. 
Oneida Chief. 
Bonny Boy. .. 
Stranger 



Saddle or 


DislaDce. 






saddle. . 


1 mile. 


saddle. . 


1 do. 


saddle : 


1 do. 


saddle. . 


1 do. 


saddle. . 


1 do. 


saddle- . 


Smiles 


saddle . 


3 do. 


harness. 


3 do. 


saddle. . 


2 do. 


saddle. ■ 


3 do. 



2.30—2.31—2.28 

2.31 

2.34—2.33—2.3] 

2.39— 2.311— 2.34i-2.38, 

2.32 

5.14—5 094 

7.50—8.04 

8.17—8.201 

5.00— 5.07i 

5.10—5.16 



Cour 



Beacon Course, N. J. 

Centreville, L. I 

Harlaem, N Y 

Beacon Course, N. J. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Centreville, L.I 

Do 



Dale. 



Oct. 1839 
Oct. 1835. 
Oct. 1835. 
June, 1841 
July, 1841. 
June, 1838 
Nov. 1841. 
June 1840. 
Sept. 1829. 
Oct. 1829. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES OF EXTRAORDINARY PERFORM- 
ANCES OF AMERICAN TROTTERS. 

On the 21st of October, 1841, a match came off on the Centreville Course, L. L, 
for $5500, five-mile heats, between Americus, a bay gelding, and Lady Suffolk, so 
often named in the preceding tables. Americus won in two heats, and in the follow- 
ing time, believed to be the best on record : 



FIRST HEAT. 

Time of first mile 2.5'U 

" " second " 2.50i 

" " third " 2.46^ 

" " fourth " 2.42i 

" " fifth " 2,44| 

Time of first heat 13,58 



SECOND HEAT. 

Time of first mile 2.51 

" " second " 2.50 

" " third " 2.46 

" " fourth " 2.47 

" " fifth " 2.44J 

Time of second heat 13.58^ 



21;j9g-a//a?i/, by Hambletonian, trotted in harness 12 miles in 38 minutes See 

Turf Register, vol. 1. p. 124. 

Ten miles have been repeatedly trotted in America within two or three seconds of 
tliirty minutes. 

A roan mare called Yankee. Sal trotted, as has been stated without contradiction, in 
a match against time, on the Course at Providence, R. I., which was at the time 
heavy and deep, fifteen miles and a half in 48m., 43s. — a rate of speed so pro- 
digious under ike circumstances, that we have often suspected there may have been an 
error as to the time. 

Lady Kate, a bay mare, 15 hands high, trotted on the Canton Course near Balti- 
more 16 miles in 56m. 13s., and the reporter adds "she could have done seveiiteeii 
with ease" . 

In Oi'tober, 1831, Jerry performed 17 miles on the Centreville Course, L. I., in 58 
minutes under the saddle. 

In September, 1839, 7\jm Thumb, an American horse, was driven in England 16^ 
miles in 56m. 45s. We shall have more to say of this phenomenon, when we come 
to his performance of 100 miles. 

In 1836, the grey gelding Muu7U Holly was backed at $1000 to $500, to trot twenty 
miles within the hour. The attempt was made on the 10th of October, on the Hunt- 
ing Park Course, Pa., but failed. He performed 17 miles in 53m. 18s., without the 
least distress. He was miserably jockeyed for the first five miles, doing no one of 
them in less than five minutes. 

Pelham, a large bay gelding, in a match to go 16 miles within the hour, performed 
that distance without any training in 5Sm. 28s. He went in harness seven miles in 
26m. 29s., when, the sulkey being badly constructed, he was taken out and saddled, 
and mounted by Wallace (riding 160lbs. without his saddle) and won his match. 

Paul Pry, a bay gelding, was backed to perform 17^ miles within the hour, undet 
the saddle. On the 9th of November, 1833, on the Union Course, L. I., he won the 
match, performing 18 miles in 58m. 52s. Hiram Woodruff, weighing then 138lbs., 
jockeyed him. Paul Pry was nine years old, bred on Long Island, and get bj 
Mount Holly, dam by Hambletonian. 



THE HORSE. gjj 

In 1831, Chancellor, a grey gelding, ridden by a small boy, perform'^d 32 miles on 
die Hunting Park Course, Pa., in 1 hour, 58m. 31s. The last mile, to save a bet, 
was trotted in 3m. 7s. 

In October of the same year, George Woodruff drove Whalebone on the same 
Course, the same distance in 1 hour, 58m. 5s. He commenced the mutch in a light 
sulkey, which broke down on the 14th mile, and was replaced by one much heavfer. 
This Course is fil'ty feet more than a mile in the saddle track, and much more than 
that in the harness track. 

On the nth of September, 1839, Mr. McMann's bay mare. Empress, on the Beacon 
Course, in a match against time, $600 a side, performed in harness 33 miles in 1 
hour, 58m. 55s. 

The American horse Rattler was ridden by Mr. Osbaldistone in England, in a 
match against Driver, 34 miles in 2 hours, 18m. 56s. — Mr. Osbaldistone rode 125 
lbs. ; Rattler was 15;^^ hands high. 

In July, 1835, Black Juke was driven in a match against time, on the Course at 
Providence, R. I., 50 miles in 3 hours, 57s. 

A gray roadster is reported to have performed the same distance on the Hunt'ng 
Park Course, Pa., in 3 hours, 40m. It was a private match. 

A grey mare. Mischief, by Mount Holly, out of a Messenger mare, 8 years old, in 
July, 1837, performed about M\ miles in 8 hours, 30m. in harness, on the road from 
Jersey City to Philadelphia. The owner would not allow a whip to be used. The 
day was excessively warm, and the mare lost her match (to perform 90 miles in 10 
hours) through the stupidity of a groom who dashed a pail of water over her with a 
view of cooling her. 

Tom Thumb, before mentioned, performed on 2d February, 1829, on Sunbury 
Common, England, 100 miles in 10 hours, 7m. in harness. He was driven by 
William Haggerty (weighing over 140 lbs.) in a match-cart weighing 108 lbs. This 
performance, so extraordinary, demands more than a passing notice, and we accord- 
ingly abridge from an English paper the following description: 

Tom Thumb was brought from beyond the Missouri, and is reported to have been 
an Indian pony, caught wild and tamed. Others again, allowing him to have been thus 
domesticated, think him to have been not the full-bred wild horse of the Western 
prairies, but to have had some cross of higher and purer blood. But too little is 
known of his breeding, savinfj- his western origin, to justify any satisfactory specu- 
lation. 

His height was 14^ hands, and his appearance, when standing still, rough and 
uncouth. From his birth, he had never been shorn of a hair. He was an animal of 
remarkable hardihood, a hearty feeder, and though accustomed to rough usage, was 
free from vice, playful and good-tempered. He was eleven years old when he per- 
formed his match, and had never had a day's illness. At full speed his action was 
particularly beautiful — he threw his fore-legs well out, and brought up his quarters 
in good style; he trotted square, though rather wide behind, and low. He was driven 
without a bearing rein, which is going out of use in England, and simply with a 
snaffle-bit and martingale. He pulled extremely hard — his head being, in conse- 
quence, well up and close to his neck, and his mouth wide open. He did his work 
with great ease to himself, and at 1 1 miles the hour, seemed to be only playing, 
while horses accompanying laboured hard. 

The whole time allowed for refreshments during his great performance, amounted to 
but 37 minutes, including taking out and putting to the cart, taking off and putting on 
the harness, feeding, rubbing down and stalling. The day before and the day after the 
match, he walked full twenty miles. His jockey provided himself with a whip, but 
made no use of it in driving him ; a slight kick on the hind-quarters was quite suffi- 
cient to increase his speed when necessary. 

In February, 1838, a pair of horses trotted against time 100 miles on th*- a^naica 
turnpike, on Long Island, and won in 11 hours, 54m. 

But in June, 1834, a pair of horses belonging to Mr. Theal, trotted that distance m 

harness on the Centreville Course, within 10 hours, and immediately after Mr. B 

offered to bet $5500 that he would produce a pair of horses that could trot 110 miles 
in harness within the same time ! — The bet was taken, but afterwards abandoned lit 



60 THE HORSE. 

the backers of time, who paid forfeit. — Another gentleman offered to produce for a 
wager a pair of horses that should trot 100 miles in nine hours in harness, but no 
iji-.e would back time against the performance. 

Havino- thus gone through witli these numerous details, let us dwell for a moment 
•ipon some of the most extraordinary performances noted in the tables. Probably the 
most remarkable trotting performance on record is Dutchman's match against time. 
But we will first give the report of his match with Rattler, which we compile from 
the " Spirit of the Times." 

EXTRAORDINARY TROTTING MATCH. 

A TROTTING MATCH, for $1000 a-side, Three mile heats, under the saddle, came off 
on Siturday,Oct. 6, 1838, at 4 o'clock, over the Beacon Course, opposite this city. The 
annals of the turf furnish no parallel to it; every foot of the ground was severely con- 
lested, and the time made is by far the best on record. 

Dutchinan and Rattler were the contending horses; the first is a handsome bay 
gelding, of great size and substance, about 16 hands high; he is what is termed " a 
meaty horse," and looks, when in fine condition, like an ordinary roadster in "good 
order." He was trained for the match and ridden by Hiram Woodruff. Rattler is 
a brown gelding, of about loj hands, and " a rum 'un to look at;" he was drawn very 
fine, though one of those that seldom carry an ounce of superfluous flesh; we hear that 
his feed of late has seldom exceeded six quarts per day, while Dutchman's has been 
between twelve and sixteen. Rattler was trained and ridden by William Wheelan. 
His style of going is superior to Dutchman's; he spreads himself well, and strikes out 
clear and even. Dutchman does not appear to have perfect command of his hind legs : 
instead of throwing them forward, he raises them so high as to throw up his rump, and 
consequently falls short in his stride. The main dependence of his backers was based 
upon his game ; and a gentleman who "put on the pot" to a heavy amount on Rattler, 
offered 2 to 1 on Dutchman before the start, provided the heats were broken. 

The odds before the horses came upon the track were 5 to 4 on Dutchman ; after the 
riders were up, 5 to 3 was current, and at length 2 to 1. As they were ridden up and 
down in front of the stand previous to starting, both appeared to be in superb condition, 
and to have their action perfectly. The track was so hard and smooth that the nails 
in the shoes of the horses could be seen every step they made. A great many beta 
were made on time ; even bets were made that it would be better than any on record. 
To determine v/hat the best time on record was, it was shown that in 1833, Columbus 
trotted a three mile heat, under the saddle, over the Hunting Park Course, Philadel- 
phia, in 7:57^, — but to prevent any dispute about the fractions of a second, 7:58 was 
declared to be the best time made. On the 10th of October, 1837, Daniel D. Tomp- 
kins, in a match, literally vs. the world, beat Rattler, over the Centreville Course, in 
7:-59 — 8:09, three mile heats, under the saddle. Both Dutchman and Rattler are 
owned by gentlemen of this city; the latter was ridden without a spur. 

The Race. — Rattler drew the track, but resigned it to Dutchman on the first 
quarter; he came in fronton the backside, and at the half-mile post led by two lengths: 
he soon after broke up, when Dutchman headed him and led past the stand (2:42) 
round to the straight stretch on the backside, where the ground being descending, and 
more favourable to him. Rattler passed. Dutchman waited upon him, close up, tc 
near the three-quarter mile post, where Rattler shook him off, and led past the stand 
(2:38) by four lengths; keeping up his rate, he led down the backside and round th 
turn to the straight stretch in front, where Hiram caught Dutchman by the head, and 
laid m the spurs up to the gaffs; the brush home was tremendous, but Rattler won by 
nearly a length, trotting the 3d mile in 2:34^, and the heat in 7:54^. 

Second heat. — Dutchman broke at starting, and 2 to 1 was offered against him. 
Down the backside the horses were lapped all the way ; on the ascending ground, 
within about ten rods of the half-mile post, Dutchman gained a little, and came first to 
the stand (2:37). He drew out two lengths ahead roimd the 1st turn on the 2d mile, 
but Rattler valiantly challenged him down the backside and lapped him; at the half- 
mile post Dutchman was again clear, but by a desperate effort Rattler lapped him 
when they got into straight work in front, and thus they came to the stand (2:33). 
On the backside Rattler, as usual, drew out clear, but for an instant only; the spurs 



THE HORSE. gj 

were well laid into D.,and tlie struggle was desperate ; Dutchman hung upon Rattler's 
quarter, and gradually gained to the half-mile post, when they were locked as perfectly 
as if in double harness. The contest was almost too much for Rattler, who skipped 
several times, and was only prevented from breaking by Bill's holding him up. 'They 
came up the quarter stretch at an immense pace, but opposite the four mile distance 
stand, Rattler unfortunately broke up, wlien nearly a lengin ahead, and Dutchman 
won the heat by six or eight lengths. When Rattler skipped, Wheelan should have 
taken him in hand, but he was so much alicad, and so near home, (within 180 "ards,) 
that under the intense excitement of the moment, he neglected doing so ; had he done 
so, however, at the rate Dutchman was going he would probably have won by a few 
feet, for Rattler could not have made up any lee-way, caused by pulling him up; 
nothing but his breaking lost him the heat. The instant Rattler broke, Hiram pulled 
up Dutchman, and he would have walked out had not the people in the stand called 
out to him to "come on." Tlie last mile was performed in 2:40, and the heat in 7:50; 
had Dutchman kept up his stroke, the time of the heat would have been 7:48. 

Third heat. — Dutchman went off with a fine stride (2 to 1 offered on him) and led 
about half-way down the backside, when Rattler caught him ; at the half mile post 
they were locked, and thus they canr^: to the stand (in 2:42); they made the turn in 
the same position, and nothing but repeated injunctions from the Judges to keep silent, 
prevented cheers from the stands that would have made the welkin ring; it was a 
beautiful sight ; both were going, D. under the spur, at a flight of speed, neck and 
neck ; half-way down the backside. Rattler got almost clear, but Dutchman soon after 
lapped, and when they came to the stand (2:38') was half a length aheau. When 
they got into straight work on the backside. Rattler again collared him, and they went 
locked to near the half mile post, when Dutchman once more got in front, Wheelan 
having taken Rattler in hand for a brush up the straight side. This he made soon 
after; they were lapped as they swung round the turn, and the struggle that ensued 
revived recollections of Bascombe and Post-Boy. Profound silence was preserved on 
the stand, that neither horse might be excited or frightened into a break, and the 
interest of the scene was so great, that each of the spectators seemed to hold his breath 
as the horses neared the stand; it was a brush to Ihe end, Dutchman coming out a 
throallatch in front, caused by Hiram's giving up his pull, and giving him a push a la 
Chifney, which made him clearly the winner by a foot. The excited feelings of the 
crowd in tlie stand could no longer be repressed, but burst out in a tumultuous cheer 
that might have been heard three miles ofi". The last mile was done in 2:41^, and 
the heat in 8:02. The Judges, after some discussion, pronounced it a dead heat. 

Great odds were now offered on Dutchman, though he exhibited more "signals of 
distress" than Rattler; his trainer, however, informed us that he "hung out" these 
after taking his ordinary exercise ; " it was a way he had," rather than any severe 
exertion which produced them. Both sweated freely, and came to the post a fourth 
time "about as good as now." The performance of the match commenced at 4 
o'clock; it was six, and almost dark, when they started on the 

Fourth heat. — Dutchman led off from the score to half-way down the backside, by 
three lengths; Rattler, however, lapped him at the half mile post, but Dutchman 
soon after drew out in front again ; Hiram kept him at his work from this point to the 
finish, and Rattler never got up to him afterwards, that we could see, for it was now 
so dark, neither horse nor rider could be distinguished ; Rattler subsequently fell ofl^in 
his stride, and was finally beaten handily by six lengths, after as game and honest a 
race as we ever saw, and by far the best, in point of time, on record. 

As a matter of reference, we give the time of each mile of this great performance: 
Saturday, Oct. 6, 1838. — Beacon Course, N. J. — Match, $1000 a side, under the 
Saddle ; weight 145 lbs. on each. Three mile heats. 

Mr. E. M.'sbr. g. Dutchman Hiram Wondrujff'. 2 10 1 

Messrs. Y. &,M.'sh. g. Rattler Wm. Wheelan. . . 12 2 

1st mile 2:42 . .1st mile 2:.37. .1st mile 2:42 ..1st mile... .2:53 

2d mile 2:38 ..2d mile 2:83.. 2d mile 2:38^.. 2d mile... .2:43 

3d mile 2:341.. 3d mile 2:40.. 3d mile 2^.. 3d mile.... 2:48 ^ 

First heat.. . .7:54^. .Second heat . .7:50. . Thirdheat . .8:02 . .Fourth heat .8:245 
6 



(J2 THE HORSE. 

From tho above it will be seen that the average time of the 2d heat was 2:36 and 
two-lhirds of a second per mile, and that of the four heajts 2:40 and iive-sixths of a 
second. 

A great number of people were assembled to witness the match, and we were struck 
with the number of gentlemen in attendance. Every one seemed delighted, and as 
they will no doubt be induced to turn out on any similar occasion, the match cannot 
fail to exercise a salutary and beneficial influence upon our "Associations for the 
Improvement of Road Horses." In closing our account, we must not omit to speak 
of the admirable condition in which Woodruff and Wheeian brought their horses to 
the post; they jockeyed them, too, "like a knife," displaying the most consummate 
skill and judgment; a superior exhibition of horsemanship has not been seen here 
since the day Purdy stripped to throw a leg over the saddle of old Eclipse. 

From the same paper we compile a report of the match against time which came 
otFin the following year, 1839. 

This match, for ."il^lOOO a side, vs. time, was made on the 11th July, on the evening 
of the day on whicii Dutchman beat Awful, three-mile heats, in harness, in a match 
of $.5000 vs. $2500. The backers of time slaked their money against Dutchman's 
trotting three miles in 7:49. He was allowed to perform the match in harness or 
under the saddle — to make two trials if necessary, and to have two hours intermission 
between them ; the match was appointed to come off on the 1st day of August, pro- 
vided the weather and track were unexceptionable ; weight according to the rules of 
the course, or 145 lbs. 

Fortunately the track was in pretty good order, though dusty; the weather all day 
had been excessively warm, but as the match came off late in the afternoon, the air 
was cooler and more bracing. After being walked for some time up and down in 
front of the stand in his match cart, with his hood and sheet on, he was taken out of 
harness and groomed; at a quarter to seven o'clock, was led to the judges' stand; 
and Hiram Woodruff, coming out of the weighing-room, threw his leg over the 
saddle. A fine thorough-bred grey mare was also mounted at the same time by Isaac 
Woodruff to keep him company, and at a steady racing pace. The Judge and the 
two official Timers now selected a third, who having taken his place in their stand, the 
horses were called up. Dutchman was the favourite at odds. 

The race. — At precisely 10 minutes to 7 o'clock the signal was given, and Dutch- 
man went off with a long, clean stroke, that kept the mare up to three parts racing 
speed; Dutchman went to the quarter mile post in 40 seconds, and did the 1st half 
mile in 1:17^; the mare was not allowed to pass him, but was kept well up; in com- 
ing down the quarter-stretch Dutchman pulled to the mare, doing the 1st mile in 2:34A, 
At the stand Hiram told her rider to "g-o along,''^ and as she locked him, old Dutch- 
man, like a trump as he is, made a tremendous burst, doing the 1st quarter of the 2d 
mile in 38 seconds, and the half mile in 1:15. Going down the backside Hiram bade 
Isaac "Zet the mare out,^'' and so immense was Dutchman's rate for a few hundred 
yards, that it seemed as if the mare could not have passed had she tried. From the 
half mile post to the stand there was no faltering, and but little falling off in the pace, 
the mile being done in 2:28 — the best time on record. Dutchman was kept at his 
work from tho stand, and came to the quarter mile post on the 3d mile in 39 seconds, 
■ and to the half mile post in 1:16, which showed a falling off but of a second from the 
time of the previous 1st quarter and Isl half mile. Hiram feeling confident now that 
ne had won the match, and all bets against time, came home at an easier pace, finish- 
ing the third and last mile in 2:30, having performed the last two miles m 4:58, and 
the heat in 7:32^ — being sixteen and a half seconds inside of his time. 

Dutchman, in this match, has made the best time on record, at one, two, and three 
miles. He was in superb condition, and never broke up from the start to the end, 
we need hardly add, he was jockeyed most admirably. We add, for convenience of 
reference, a summary of this wonderful performance : — 

Thursday, Aug. 1, 1839-^ Match, $1000 a side, Dutchman vs. Time — Three miles 
in 7:49, in harness or under the saddle; weight 145 lbs. 

Won by Messrs. 's b. g. Dutchman. . . .ridden by Hiram Woodruff, as follows."^ 

First mile, 2:34^— Second, 2:28— Third, 2:30— Time of the three miles, 7:32-J. 



THE HORSE, g3 

We will conclude the details of fiast trotting with the performances of the extra 
ordinary animals in the current year. They are, it will be seen, the best on record 
at the distance of two miles in harness. 

TROTTING ON THE BEACON COURSE. 

Saturday, May 7. — Purse $300, of which $50 to go to the second best horse in the 
race. Two-mile heats, in harness. 

Hiram Woodruff's br. g. Ripton II. Woodruff 1 1 

D. Bryan's gr. m. Lady Suffolk 2 2 

Wm. Wheelan's b. g. Confidence 3 3 

Time, 5:10i— 5:12^. 

This was the great event. As they were driven up and down in front of the stand 
previous to starting, they all appeared to be in superb condition, and to have their 
action perlectly. Confidence had the call in betting. Ripton drew the 'track, Confi- 
dence second, and the Lady outside. After two or three false starts they got off 
well together, but on making the first turn Confidence broke. Ripton drew out two 
lengths ahead around the first turn, the Lady close up. Confidence soon got into his 
work again, made up his lost ground, and taking the inside down the back stretch, he 
soon drew out in front. They all swung into the straight side well together, coming 
up the quarter stretch at an immense pace, Confidence passing the Judges' stand a 
little ahead, Ripton close upon his wheel, making the first mile in 3:34. As they 
swung around the turn, into the back stretch in the second mile, Ripton gallantly 
challenged him down the backside at a flight of speed, neck and neck ; at the half 
mile post Ripton drew out a length in front. Confidence subsequently fell off in his 
stride, but the Lady taking up the running the remaining part of the heat, made Rip- 
ton come home in 2:36|. 

Second Heat. — They all came up to the scratch for mischief. Confidence broke 
again on the turn, Ripton taking the lead for the first quarter, and then resigning it to 
the Lady, who kept it, passing the Judges' stand about a length ahead, Ripton well 
up, and Confidence considerably in the rear. As they entered the back stretch, Hiram 
made play for the lead, and the Lady having broke, he soon took it, closely followed 
by the mare. On making the turn for the straight side home, Ripton made a skip, and 
lost about two lengths ; the mare came up and took the track on the inside, and got 
about a length ahead, but Hiram soon get Ripton into his work again, and caught the 
mare near the draw gate, passed her, and won the heat in 5:12^ ! 

CENTREVILLE (L. I.) TROTTING COURSE. 

Tuesday, May 10, 1842. — Purse $300. Two-mile heats, in harness. 

D. Bryan's gr. m. Lady Suffolk Owner 1 1 

H. Woodruff's br. g. Ripton 2 3 

Time, 5:10—5:15. 

Wonders will never cease — the grey mare has proved the better horse, md no mis- 
take. No longer ago than last Saturday, Ripton popt it to the mare and Confidence 
over the Beacon Course in the quick time of 5:10| — 5:12t^-. 

On the present occasion Ripton was the favourite at 100 to 70. At the start tuey 
went off well together at the top of their rate, making play from the score ; on reach- 
ing the first turn Ripton broke, and the mare took the lead by several lengths, going 
finely. Hiram made several efforts to make up his loss, but all was of no avail, the 
mare kept snugly to her work, and led throughout the heat, making the quick time of 
5:10. 

Second //ea/.— They both cooled off well, and came up ripe for mischief. They got 
off well together at a flight of speed; Ripton broke, as usual, on the first turn, and 
lost several lengths, the mare taking the lead. Hiram got Ripton «,nugly to his work 
again, and caught the mare in the last quarter of the first mile, both mming down tbf 



64 THE HORSE. 

straight side at a tremendous flight of speed ; on making the turn Ripton broke, and 
lost about fifty yards, and before the mare got out Hiram made up his lost ground, 
lapt the mare coming down the quarter stretch, but was unable to win the heat, for 
Hiram had taken the kink out of his horse to make up the lost ground. Ripton was 
very restless, and broke several times during each heat. 

Same Day. — Sweepstakes of $50 each. Mile heats, in harness. 

Henry Jones' gr. g. Grey Eagle //. Jones 1 1 

Mi. Bennett's b. g. Game Chicken 2 2 

Time, 2:56—2:56. 
Thursday, May 12. — Purse $-: — • Mile heats, best 3 in 5, under the saddle. 

Hiram Woodruff's bl. g. Brandywine H. Woodruff 1 1 

Wm. Wheelan's gr. g. Fourth of July dist 

N. Carroll's gr. m. Han'z dist. 

Mr. Carll's b. m. Betsey Baker dist 

Time, 2:30. 
Fourth of July was the favourite at 2 to 1 at the start. Brandywine took the lead 
and distanced the field the first heat. 

FmoAY, May 13. — Match for $200, to which the proprietor will add a purse of $50. 
Two-mile heats, under the saddle. 

Wm. Wheelan's ch. m. Brooklyn Maid Owner I 1 

A. Conklin's b. g. Homer 2 2 

Time, 5.16—5:22. 

Brooklyn Maid won both heats with ease. 

Same Day. — Purse $ . Mile heats, best 3 in 5, in harness. 

C. Carll's Pocahontas 1 1 1 

J. M. McMann's John Anderson 2 2 2 

Time, 2:50^—2:49-2:50^. 
It is not a little singular, that within three weeks after the last mentioned perform- 
ance, the same paper should have to report another trial between these horses, more 
extraordinary than either of the previous ones, and which restores to Ripton his su- 
premacy. 

TROTTING ON THE HUNTING PARK COURSE. 

On Tuesday last a splendid trot came off over the Hunting Park Course, two-mile 
lieats, between Ripton and Lady Suffolk, in which they made the best time on record 
at this distance, in harness. Hiram Woodruff on Ripton won the last heat by six 
inches only ! 

Hiram Woodruff's br. g. Bipton Owner 12 1 

David Bryan's gr. m. Lady Suffolk 2 1 2 

Time, 5:07—5:15—5:17. 

The following table has been made with care, and we should despair of command- 
ing the attention of the reader to the general subject, who will not consider it worthy 
of insertion. It will be seen that while in this list of about thirty great performers, 
not one is over 10 hands, only two are under 15. 

HEIGHT OF TROTTING HORSES. 

The annexed list gives the height of many celebrated horses, estimated onlj', but by 
two most experienced men, one of whom had groomed or ridden almost every one 
named, and the other is an old amateur, who has the quickest eye for a horse, and 
who rode after most of those named, and has seen them all repeatedly. Of the 
thirty in the list, they differed only about eight, and of these only by one inch, save 
in A single case. In the eight cases we have given the estimate of the jockey who 
had '■■'^den or driven them, and have great faith in its accuracy. 



THE HORSE. 



65 



Names. 

Dutchman 

Lady Suffolk 

Columbus 

Aaron Burr 

Rattler (the latest) . 
Screwdriver (old) . . 
Do. (latest) 
D. D. Tompkins. . . 
Lady Warrington.. 

Lady Victory 

Toptrallant 

Sir Peter 

Whalebone 

Shakspeare 

Betsy Baker 



liands 


inclis. 


15 


31 


15 


■3 


16 


1 


15 


1 


15 


2 


16 





15 





15 


— 


15 


1 


15 


2 


15 


3 


15 


2 


15 


3 


15 


2 


15 


3 



Names. 

CatO 

Edwin Forrest . . . 

Burster 

Norman Leslie . . . 
Confidence (latest) 

Locomotive 

Sally Miller 

Charlotte Temple. 

Washington 

Modesty 

Greenwich Maid . . 

Awful 

Henry 

Paul Pry 



hands inchs 



16 




15 




15 




15 


3 


15 


2 


16 




15 


3 


15 




16 




14 


2 


15 




15 


3 


15 


1 


16 





The acknowledged superiority of the performances of the American over English 
trotters, or to speak w^ith more precise accuracy, extraordinary performances in a 
greater number of cases, has been already attributed to superior skill in training, but 
on that we must not be understood as laying so much stress, as upon superior juckey- 
ship in this particular department; for the training of the trotting horse, so far as we 
can learn, requires no considerable skill, save as it is connected with the skill of the 
jockey who usually acts in both capacities. For training, the whole code is said to 
consist of three words — air, exercise, and food. The work given him in training is 
severe according to his constitution, and consists in walking him from twelve to 
twenty miles daily, and giving him " sharp work" three or four times a week. This 
" sharp work" is usually a distance of two miles, or sometimes three. The horse is 
not put to his speed this entire distance, but taught to rouse himself at intervals, at 
the call of his jockey, who encourages him and brings out his utmost capacity by hia 
voice, not less scarcely than by the usual persuasion of whip and spur. This feature 
of trotting jockey ship is peculiar and not a little amusing. The jockey is continually 
talking or rather growling to his horse, and at times he bursts out into shouts and 
yells, that would be terrific if not so ludicrous. The object would appear to be two- 
fold — first, to encourage his horse to the utmost possible exertion of his powers when 
called upon, and again, so to accustom him to this harsh shouting, that he may not 
break up when he hears it from the opposing jockey — for it is deemed not unsports- 
manlike for one jockey to break up the pace of another's nag by thus actually fright- 
ening him. Many a victory has Hirarn Woodruff won by thus rousing his own horse 
and breaking up his opponent's on the last quarter. These two-mile drives are not 
repeated as is usual in training the race-horse. Nor is the work of the trotter given 
at intervals so regular as in the case of the other, nor is he kept in such habitual 
quiet; the trainer consults his own convenience to a great degree as to the time when 
he will give his nag exercise, and he never hesitates about taking him out and show- 
ing him at any hour. 

In other respects too, the treatment of the trotting-horse differs from that of the 
more high-bred racer. Less delicate in constitution and form, he is less delicately 
fed and groomed. Allowed to eat when and what they please, trotting horses are 
groomed with much the same care as well-kept town coach-horses, or perhaps the 
English hunter. In the two grand points of keeping them in robust health and giving 
them hard work enough, the training of the trotter and the racer is identical. But for 
the trotter from six to eight weeks' training is deemed sufficient. We are inclined to 
believe that very much of the superiority of the American trotter and roadster is 
attributable to the skill of the jockey. Our mode of driving them differs essentially 
fiom the English, and though neither easy nor elegant, it succeeds admirably in de- 
veloping the^capabilities of a horse at this pace. The case already cited of Wheelan 
and theliorse Alexander in England, is in point, and it is practically illustrated everj 
6* 1 



66 



THE 110 RSE. 



day in New York, many English residents of which city are trotting amateurs ; ihej 
one and all, after a little experience, adopt the Yankee mode of driving. 

It has long been a question exciting much interest, whether twenty miles has been, 
or can be, trotted in one hour. There is no record of any such performance, although 
there hive been many attempts to do it. But men of great judgment and long ex- 
perience, are so fully confident of the ability of our horses to go that distance at the 
required rate, that large odds would be laid that it can be done. The difficulty is to 
find an individual who will at this day back him to an adequate amount; for it will 
readily occur that a horse that can accomplish the feat must be of great value, and 
the risk of injury to him is of course very considerable. It is believed that $10,000 to 
$5,000 would readily be laid that Dutchman can do it, and probably Americus would 
be backed at less odds likewise to do it. The trotting amateurs in New York pro- 
fess to entertain no doubt at all upon the subject, and it is believed they have suffi- 
cient reason for the opinion. 

Here, most patient reader, we close these our remarks, preliminary to what we 
may fairly denominate the great work on the Horse. It is for you to say if they 
have served either to instruct or timuse ; but whatever may be your judgment as to 
this our Introduction, let it not affect your inclination to make yourself acquainted 
with the principal work, to which it is no more essential, than a handle to a pitcher, 
and that you know may long continue useful though the handle be broken off. This 
work on the Horse, however, is not a book to be read for entertainment, like a novel, 
and then to be thrown aside. It is one uhich every man who owns "the hair of a 
horse," should have at his elbow to be turned to for useful instruction, and to be con- 
sulted like your family physician in every case of need for the means of under- 
standing the anatomy, mitigating the disorders, and prolonging the life, of the most 
interesting and useful of all domestic animals. 

. J. S. S. 



THE HORSE, 



HIS ANATOMY— WITH HIS DISEASES AND 
REMEDIES. 



CHAPTER I. 
THE ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE HORSE. 

There are so many thousand species of living beings, some so much resembling 
each other, and others so strangely and altogether different, that it would have been 
impossible to have arranged tliem in any order, or to have given any description that 
could be understood, had not naturalists agreed on certain peculiarities of form which 
should characterise certain classes, and other lesser peculiarities again subdividing 
these classes. 

The first division of animals is into vertebrated and invertebrated. 

Vertebrated animals are those which have a cranium, or bony cavity containing the 
brain, and a succession of bones called the spine, and the divisions of it named vertebras, 
proceeding from the cranium, and containing a prolongation of the brain, denominated 
the spinal marrow. 

Invertebrated animals are those which have no vertebrae. 

The horse, then, belongs to the division vertebrated, because he has a cranium oi 
skull, and a spine or range of vertebraj proceeding from it. 

The vertebrated animals are exceedingly numerous. They include man, quadru- 
peds of all kinds, birds, fishes, and many reptiles. We naturally look for some sub- 
division, and a very simple line of distinction is soon presented. Certain of those 
vertebrated animals have mammse or tea.ts, with which the females suckle their young. 
The human female has two, the mare has two, the cow four, the bitch ten or twelve, 
and the sow more than twelve. 

This class of vertebrated animals having mammas or teats is called mammalia; and 
the horse belongs to the division vertebrata, and the class mammalia. 

The class mammalia is still exceedingly large, and we must again subdivide it. 
It is stated (Library of Entertaining Knowledge, vol. i. p. 13,) that "this class of 
quadrupeds, or mammiferous quadrupeds, admits of a division into two Tribes. 

" I. Those whose extremities are divided into fingers or toes, scientifically called 
unguiculata, from the Latin word for nail,- and II. Those whose extremities are 
hoofed, scientifically called ungulala, from the Latin word for honf. 

" The extremities of the first are armed with claws or nails, which enable them to 
grasp, to climb, or to burrow. The extremities of the second tribe are employed 
merely to support and move the body."" 

The extremities of the horse are covered with a hoof by which the body is supported, 
and with which he cannot grasp anything ; and therefore he belongs to the tribe ungu- 
lata or hoofed. 

But there is a great variety of hoofed animals. The elephant, the rhinoceros, the 
hippopotamus, the swine, the horse, the sheep, the deer, and many others, are ungu- 
luted or hoofed; they admit, however, of an easy division. Some of them masticate, 
or chew their food, and it is immediately received into the stomach and digested ; but 
in othert the food, previous to digestion, undergoes a very singular process. It is 
returned to the mouth to be remasticated, or chewed again. These are called rumi- 

(67, 



68 



THE SKELETON OF THE HORSE. 



nantta, or ruminants, from the food being returned from one of the stomachs (for they 
have four), called the rumen or paunch, for the purpose of remastication. 

The ungxdala that do not ruminate are, somewhat improperly, called pacJiydermata, 
from the thickness of their skins. The horse does not ruminate, and therefore belongs 
to the order puchydcrmata. 

The pachydermata, who have only one toe, belong to the family solipeda — single- 
footed. Therefore, the horse ranks under the division vertebrata — the class mammalia 
—the tribe ungulata — the order pachydermata — and the family solipeda. 

The solipeda consist of several species, as the horse, the ass, the mule, and th 
quagga. 

First stands the Equus Caballus, or Common Horse. 

Annnals are likewise distinguished according to the number, description, and situa 
lion of their teeth. The horse has six incisors or cutting teeth in the front of each 
jaw ; and one canine tooth or tusk. 

On each side, above and below — at some distance from the incisors, and behind the 
canines, and with some intervening space — are six molar teeth, or grinders ; and these 
molar teeth have flat crowns, with ridges of enamel, and that enamel penetrating into 
the substance of the tooth. 

The whole is thus represented by natural historians : — 



1—1 
1=1' 



molar 



6—6 
6^' 



Total, forty teeth. 



To this short chapter we may properly append The Skeleton of the Horse. 




A The Head. 

a The posterior maxillary or under jaw. 

h The superior maxillary or upper jaw. A little lower down than the letter is a foramen 

through which pass the nerves and blood-vessels which chiefly supply the lower 

part oi the face. 
c The orbit, or cavity containing the eye. 
(/ The nasal bones, or bones of the nose. 
e The suture dividing the parietal bones below from the occipital bones above. 



THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. 



69 



/ The inferior maxillary bone, containing tlie upper incisor teeth. 

B The Seven Cervical Vertebra?, or bones of the neck. 

C The Eighteen Dorsal Vertebree, or bones of the back. 

D The Six Lumbar Vertebree, or bones of the loins. 

E The Five Sacral Vertebra, or bones of the haunch. 

F The Caudal Vertebrae, or bones of the tail, generally about fifteen, 

G The Scapula, or shoulder-blade. 

H The Sternum, or fore-part of the chest. 

I The Costae or ribs, seven or eight articulating with the sternum, and called the true ribs, 

and ten or eleven united together by cartilage, called the false ribs. 
J The Humerus, or upper bone of the arm. 
K The Radius, or upper bone of the arm. 

L The Ulna, or elbow. The point of the elbow is called the Olecranon. 
M The Carpus, or knee, consisting of seven bones. 
N The metacarpal bones. 'I'he larger metacarpal or cannon or shank in front, and the 

smaller metacarpal or splint bone behind. 
g The fore pastern and foot, consisting of the Os Suffraginis, or the upper and larger pastern 

bone, with the sesamoid bones behind, articulating with the cannon and greater 

pastern ; the Os Coronae, or lesser pastern ; the Os Pedis, or coffin bone ; and 

the Os Naviculare, or navicular, or shuttle-bone, not seen, and articulating with 

the smaller pastern and coffin bones. 
h The corresponding bones of the hind-feet. 

O The flaunch, consisting of three portions, the Ilium, the Ischium, and the Pubis. 
P The Femur, or thigh. 
Q The stitle joint with the Patella. 

R The Tibia, or proper leg bone — behind is a small bone called the fibula. 
S The Tarsus, or hock, composed of six bones. The prominent pan is the Os Calcia, ot 

point of the hock. 
T The Metatarsals of the hind leg. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. 

Beautiful as is the horse, and identified so much with our pleasure and our profit, 
ne has been the object of almost universal regard ; and there are few persons who do 
not pretend to be somewhat competent judges of his form, qualities, and worth. From 
the nobleman, with his numerous and valuable stud, to the meanest helper in the 
stable, there is scarcely a man who would not be offended if he were thought alto- 
gether ignorant of horse-flesh. There is no subject on which he is so positive; there 
is no subject on which, generally speaking, he is so deficient ; and there are few 
horses, on some points of which these pretended and self-sufficient judges would not 
give a totally opposite opinion. 

The truth is, that this supposed knowledge is rarely founded on principle, or the 
result of the slightest acquaintance with the actual structure of the animal — the form 
and connexion of parts on which strength, or fleetness, or stoutness, must necessarily 
depend. 

In speaking of the structure of this animal, and the points which guide the opinion 
of real judges of him, we shall, as briefly and as simply as we are able, explain those 
fundamental principles on which his usefulness and beauty must depend. \\'e require 
one kind of horse for slow and heavy draught, and another for lighter and quicker 
work ; one as a pleasant and safe roadster — another, with more speed and equal con- 
tinuance, as a hunter — and another still is wanted for the race-course. What is the 
peculiarity of structure — what are the particular points that will fit each for his proper 
business, and, to a certain degree, unfit him for everything else 1 The fanner will 
require a horse of all-work, that can carry him to market and take him round his farm 
— on which he can occasionally ride for pleasure, and which he must sometimes 
degrade to the dung-cart or the harrow. "What combination of powers will enable 
the animal to discharge most of these duties well, and all of them to a certain extern 
profitably \ 



70 



THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. 



Mucn nine spent among horses, an acquired love of them, and a little, sometimes 
possibly too dearly-bought experience, may give the agriculturist some insight into 
these matters. We will try whether we cannot assist him in this affair — whether we 
cannot explain to him the reason why certain points must be good, and why a horse 
witho\it them must of necessity be good for nothing. Perhaps some useful rules may 
thus be more deeply impressed upon his memory, or some common but dangerous 
prejudices may be discarded, and a considerable degree of error, disappointment, and 
expense avoided. , 

If we treat of this at considerable length, let it be remembered that the horse is our j 
noblest servant, and that, in describing the structure and economy of his frame, we ' 
are in a great measure describing that of other domestic quadrupeds, and shall here- 
after have to speak only of points of difference required by the different services and 
uses for which they were destined. And further, let it be remembered, that it is only 
by being well acquainted with the structure and anatomy of the horse, that we can 
appreciate his shape and uses, or understand the different diseases to which he is 
liable. It is from the want of this that much of the mass of ignorance and prejudice 
which exists as to the diseases to which he is subject is to be referred. 

The nervous system will first pass in review, for it is the moving power of the | 
whole machine. It consists of the brain, to which all sensation is referred or carried, 
and from which all voluntary motion is derived — the spinal cord, a prolongation of 
the brain, and thus connected with sensation and voluntary motion, governing all the 
involuntary motions of the frame, and by power from which the heart beats, and the 
lungs heave, and the stomach digests ; and one other system of nerves — the ganglionic 
■^presiding over the functions of secretion and of nutrition, and the repair and the 
welfare of the frame generally. 

The following cut represents the head of the horse divided into the numerous bones 
of which it is composed, and the boundaries of each bone clearly marked by the 
sutures which connect it with those aroimd. 

The upper and broadest part is the cranium or skull in which the brain is con- 
tained, and by which it is protected. It is composed of nine bones : the two frontals, 
a a; the two parietals, c c; the two temporals, d d ,■ the occipital g, and the ethmoid 
and sphenoid, which will be found delineated at figures k and /, and will be better 
seen in the cut on page 72. 




a a The frontal bones, or bones of the forehead. 

6 6 The supra-orbital foramina or holes above the orbit, through 
which the nerves and blood-vessels supplying the fore- 
head pass out. The small hole beneath receives the ves- 
sels which dip into and supply the bone. 

c c The parietal bones, or walls of the skull. 

d d The temporal bones, or bones of the temples. 

e e The zygomatic, or yoke-shaped arch. 

// The tempofal fossa, or pit above the eye. 

g g The occipital bone, or bone of the hinder part of the head. 

h h The orbits containing and dei'ending the eye. 

i i The lachrymal bones belonging to the conveyance of the 
tears from the eyes. 

jj The nasal bones, or bones of the nose. 

k k The malar, or cheek-bones. 

1 1 The superior maxillary, or that portion of the upper jaw 
containing the molar teeth or grinders. 

m m The infra-orbital foramen — a hole below the orbit, through 
which pass branches of nerves and blood-vessels to supply 
the lower part of the face. 

n n The inferior maxillary, the lower part of the upper jaw 
bone — a separate bone in quadrupeds, containing the 
incisor or cutting teeth, and the upper tushes at the 
point of union between the superior and inferior maxil- 
lories. 
o The upper incisor or cutting teeth. 

p The openings into the nose, with the bones forming the 
palate. 



THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. jt 

There is an evident intention in this division of the head into so many bones. 
When the foetus — the unborn foal — first begins to have life, that which afterwards 
becomes bone, is a mere jelly-like substance. This is gradually changed into a 
harder material — cartilage ; and, before the birth of the animal, much of the cartilage 
is taken away by vessels called absorbents, and bone deposited in its stead. In flat 
bones, like those of the head, this deposit takes place in the centre, and rays oi radia- 
tions of bone extend thence in every direction. Then, by having so many bones, 
there are so many centres of radiation ; and, consequently, the formation of bone is 
carried on so much the more rapidly, and perfected at the time when the necessities 
of the animal require it. At the period of birth, however, this process is not com- 
pleted, but the edges of the bones remain somewhat soft and pliant, and therefore, 
in parturition, they yield a little and overlap each other, and thus, by rendering 
the birth more easy, they save the mother much pain, and contribute to the safety of 
the foal. 

The first of these bones, or the first pair of them, occupying the broad expanse of the 
forehead, are called the fnmfal bones, a a. They are united together by a most curious 
and intricate dove-tailing, to defend from injury the brain which lies beneath the 
upper part of them. Lower down, and where the cavity of the nose is to be defended, 
their union is suflicient, but far less complicated. Thus, at first starting, there is an 
evident proof of design, an illustration of that adaptation to circumstances which will 
again and again present itself in the most interesting points of view. Peculiar 
strength of union is given where a most important organ is to be defended — the suture 
is there intricate and laboured. Where less important parts are covered, it is of a 
far simpler character. 

Few things more clearly indicate the breed or blood of the horse than the form of 
the frontal bones. Who has not remarked the broad angular forehead of the blood 
horse, giving him a beautiful expression of intelligence and fire, and the face gradu- 
ally tapering from the forehead to the muzzle, contrasted with the large face of the 
cart or dray-horse, and the forehead scarcely wider than the face ? 

At/, between the frontal bones, is the pit or cavity above the eye, and by the depth 
of which we form some idea of the age of the horse. There is placed at the back of 
the eye, a considerable quantity of fatty substance, on which it may revolve easily 
and without friction. In aged horses, and in diseases attended with general loss of 
condition, much of this disappears; the eye becomes sunken, and the pit above it 
deepens. It is said that some of the lower class of horse-dealers puncture the skin, 
and, with a tobacco pipe or small tube blow into the orifice, until the depression is 
almost filled up. This, with the aid of a bishopped tooth, may give a false appear- 
ance of youth, that will remain during some hours, and may deceive the unwary, but 
the trickery may easily be detected by pressing on the part. 

These bones, however, are not solid, but a considerable portion of them is composed 
of two plates receding from each other, and leaving numerous and large vacuities or 
cells. These vacuities are called the frontal sinuses. They are shown in the following 
cut. 



72 



THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. 

SECTION OF THE HEAD. 




I 



o The nasal bone, or bone of the nose. 

b The frontal bone. The cavities or cells beneath are called the frontal sinuses. 

c The crest or ridge of the parietal bones. 

d The tentorium or bony separation between the cerebrum and cerebellum. 

e The occipital bone. 

/ The ligament of the neck, or pack-wax, by which the head is chiefly supported. 

g The atlas, sustaining or carrying : the first bone of the neck. 

h The dentata, tooth-like, or second bone of the neck. 

t The cuneiform, or tvcdge- shaped process, or base of the occipital bone. Between it and 
the other portion of the occipital bone e, lies the great foramen or aperture througn 
which the prolongation of the brain — the spinal marrow — issues from the skull. 

; The sphenoid, vwdge-like, bone, with its cavities. 
The ethmoid, sieve-like, bone, with its cells. 

m The cerebrum, or brain, with the appearance of its cortical and medullary substance. 

« The cerebellum, or little brain, with its beautiiul arborescent appearance. 

A portion of the central medullary, marrow-like, substance of the brain, and the prolonga- 
tion of it under the name of the crus cerebri, leg of the brain, and from which many 
of the nerves take their origin. 

p The medulla oblongata — the prolongation of the brain after the medullary substance of the 
cerebrum and cerebellum have united, and forming the commencement of the spinal 
marrow. The columnar appearance of this portion of the brain is represented, and 
the origins of the respiratory nerves. 

7 The spinal marrow extending through a canal in the centre of the bones of the neck, back, 
and loins, to the extremities of the tail, and from which the nerves of feeling and 
of motion, that supply every part of the frame except the head, arise. 

r The septum narium, or cartilaginous division between the nostrils. 

s The same cut off at the lower part, to show the spongy turbinated, turban-shaped, bones 
filling the cavity of the nostril. 

t The palate. 

u The molar teeth, or grinders. 

V The inferior maxillary bone, containing the incisor teeth or nippers. The canine tooth, oi 
tush, is concealed by the tongue. 

w The posterior maxillary, or lower jaw with its incisors. 

X The lips. 

y The tongue. 

* A portion of the os hyoides, or bone of the tongue, like a Greek u, v. 



THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. 73 

1 The thyroid, hslmet-shaped, cartilage, inclosing and shielding the neighbouring pans. 

2 The epiglottis, or covering of the glottis, or aperture of the wmd-pipe. 

3 The arytenoid, fun?iel-shaped, cartilages, having between them the aperture leading into 

the trachea or wind-pipe. 

4 One of the chordae vocales, cords or ligaments concerned in the formation of the voice. 

5 'I'he sacculus laryngis, sac or ventricle of the larynx, or throat, to modulate the voice. 

6 The trachea, or wind-pipe, with its different rings. 

7 The soft palate at the back of the mouth, so constructed as almost to prevent the possibility 

of vomiting. 

8 The opening from the back part of the mouth into the nostril. 

9 The cartilage covering the entrance into the eustachian tube, or communication between 

the mouth and internal part of the ear. 

10 The oesophagus, or gullet. 

11 The cricoid, ring-like, cartilage, below and behind the thyroid. 

12 Muscle of the neck, covered by the membrane of the back part of the mouth. 

The sinus on the different sides of the forehead do not communicate with each 
other, but with other sinuses in the ethmoid, and spenoid, and upper jaw-bones, and 
also with the cavities of the nose on their respective sides. These sinuses afford a 
somewhat increased protection to the brain beneath; and by the continuous and 
slightly projecting line which they form, they give beauty to the forehead ; but their 
principal use probably is, like the windings of the French horn, to increase the clear- 
ness and loudness of the neighing. It will be remarked that they are very irregular 
in depth, which at one place is an inch or more. 

In the sheep, and occasionally in the ox — rarely in the horse — the larvae of maggots 
produced by certain species of flies, crawl up the nose, lodge themselves in these 
sinuses, and produce intolerable pain. 

Veterinary surgeons have availed themselves of these sinuses, to detect the exist- 
ence of glanders, that disease so infectious and so fatal. They may suspect that a 
horse respecting which they are consulted is glandf red. It is of great consequence to 
be sure about this. The safety of the whole teai!i may depend upon it. It may be 
a puzzling case. There may be no ulceration of the nose within sight. The glands 
under the jaw may not be close to and seemingly sticking to the bone, which is a 
common symptom, yet for a considerable time there may have been a discharge from 
the nostril, and the horse is out of condition. On the other hand, some slight ulcera- 
"nn may be detected in the nostril, but the horse eats well, works well, and is in 
good plight. It is possible that from the closest examination of the animal, no horse- 
man or veterinary surgeon can give a decided opinion. 

If, however, tne horse is glandered, there will probably be considerable ulceration 
in the upper part of the cavity of the nose, and a collection of matter there. To 
ascertaiu this the veterinary surgeon sometimes makes an opening into these sinuses. 
He may do it with perfect safety. On that part of the frontal bone, which lies between 
the eye and the pit above it, and above the inner corner of the eye, there is, on either 
side, a small depression or hole (see fig. i, cut, page 70), which may be easily felt in 
the living horse. It is what anatomists call afi>ramen — the supra-orbital foramen. It 
gives passage to the blood-vessels and nerves of the forehead. 

Supposing a line to be drawn across the forehead, from one of these depressions to 
the other on that line, and about half an inch from the centre of it — it matters not on 
which side — the frontal sinuses will be found an inch in depth (compare fig. h, pp. 
70 and 72. There a perforation may be easily and safely made, A little way above, 
the brain would be endangered, and a little below this line, the cavity of the nose 
would be pierced. Some warm water may be injected into this hole, with a common 
squirt, and it will nln out at the nose. If there is matter in the frontal sinuses, or 
any part of the cavity of the nose, below the indirect opening from the sinus into tht? 
nose under the superior turbinat ;d tone, it will appear mixed with the water, and the 
owner may be assured that the horse is glandered; but if the water flows uncoloured, 
or simply mixed with blood ot inucus, the horse may be considered as free from this 
disease. The thick creamy c jnsis';ence of pus, its sinking in water, and its capability 
of bemg perfectly, although not readily, mixed with water, will distinguish it suffi- 
ciently from tne natural discharge from the nose, which is ropy, lighter than water, 
and, when mixed witn it, f till preserves a kind of ?triuginess. 
7 K 



74 TiIESENSORIALFUNCTlUlN. 

It was formerly the practice to inject various liquids into the nostrils in this \ray, 
for the cure of irlanders. (Some of them were harmless enough, but others were cruelly 
acrid. This practice is now, however, abandoned by the scientilic practitioner; for 
it would only l)c a portion of the cells of the head, and a portion only of the cavity of 
the nose, and that least likely to be diseased, with which the fluid could be brought 
into contact. 

As the frontal sinuses are lined by a continuation of the membrane of the nose, 
tliey will sympathise with many of the aflections of that cavity; but the membrane 
of the sinuses is susceptible of an inflammation peculiar to itself. The disease is 
rare, and the cause of it has not been fully ascertained. It is oftencst metastasis of 
inflammation of the brain, — shifting of inflammation from the brain to the mem- 
brane of the sinus, or communication of inflammation from the brain by proximity of 
situation. 

The attack is usually sudden — the horse is dull, lethargic, and almost as comatose 
as in stomach-staggers. The flrst thing that excites suspicion of the actual character 
of the disease, is heat in the situation of the frontal sinus, when the hand is placed 
on the forehead. The lethargy soon passes over, and a state of the highest excitation 
succeeds. The conjunctiva and the membrane of the nose are injected — the pulse is 
quick and hard — the horse becomes violent and dangerous ; he kicks, plunges, and, 
half conscious and half unconscious, he endeavours to do all the mischief that he can. 
The disease is now evidently combined with, or is essentially, inflammation of the 
brain. It is distinguished from madness by this half-consciousness, and also by his 
being more disposed to bite than he is in pure phrenitis. 

The disease is usually fatal. It rarely lasts more than eight-and-forty hours. 

The post-mortem appearances are, great inflammation of the brain, Avith frequent 
effusions of blood. The sinuses are sometimes filled with coagulated blood. The 
brain seems to be affected just in proportion to the violence which the animal has 
exhibited. 

The treatment should consist of copious bleeding, application of ice to the head, 
blistering the head, and physic. The trephine is scarcely admissible, from the danger 
of producing greater irritation. 

Sometimes the disease assumes a more chronic form. There is ulceration of the 
membrane, but not cerebral aflcction. A purulent discharge then appears from the 
aose, evidently not of a glanderous character, and none of the submaxillary glands 
•are enlarged. In both the acute and chronic form, it is usually confined to one sinus. 
We are indebted to the late Mr. John Field for the principal knowledge that we have 
of this disease.* The inner plate of the frontal bone covers a considerable portion of 
Ihe anterior part of the brain, and it is studded with depressions corresponding witli 
irregularities on the surface of the brain. 

Immediately above the frontal, and extending from the frontal to the poll, are the 
parietal bones. They are two, united together by a suture when the animal is young, 
but that suture soon becoming obliterated. They have ttie occipital, g, p. 72, above, 
the fro7itals, a cr, below, and the temporals, d d, on either side. They are of a closer 
and harder texture than the frontals, because they are more exposed to injury, and 
more concerned in defending the brain. 

A very small portion only of the parietals is naked, and that is composed of bone 
even harder than the other part, and with an additional layer of bone rising in the 
form of a crest or ridge externally. Every other part of these bones is covered by a 
thick mass of muscle, the temporal muscle, which is principally concerned in chewintr 
the food, but which likev.ise, by its yielding resistance, speedily and effectually 
breaks the force of the most violent blow, A wool-pack hung over the wall of a for- 
tress, when the enemy is battering to effect a breach, renders the heaviest artillery 
almost hannless. So the yichlinsi resistance of the temporal muscle affords a sure 
defence to the brain, however sudden or violent may be the blow which falls on the 
parietal. These benevolent provisions will not be disregarded by the reflecting 
mind. 
On the side of the head, and under the parietals {d d, p. 72) are the temporal bones, 

• The Veterinarian, vol. iv. p. 198. 



THE SENSORIAL FUN CTION. »»5 

one on each side,//. These again are divided into two parts, or consist of two dis- 
tinct bones ; the petrous portion, so called from its great or stony hardness, and con- 
taining the wonderful mechanism of the ear, and the sf/uamows portion from the appear- 
ance of its union with the parietal, overlapping it like a great scale. 

From the latter there projects a portion of bone, e, which unites with the frontal, 
and forms a strong arch — the zygomatic — distinctly to be felt at the side of the head 
immediately above the eye. This arch is designed to protect the upper part of the 
lower jaw, the motion of which may very plainly be seen beneath it when the horse 
is feeding. It is very strong, and it ought to be, for if it were depressed or forced 
inward, the horse would starve. There is one species of violence which causes this 
arch to require no common strength ; and that is, the brutal manner in which the 
collar is often forced over the head. 

At the base of the arch is an important cavity not visible in the cut, receiving into 
it, and forming a joint with, the head of the lower jaw — it will be presently described. 
Having reached the base of the temporal bone, it is found united to the parietal, 
not by a simple suture, as the lower part of the frontals, or the bones of the nose (see 
fig. a andy, p. 70), nor by a dove-tailed suture, as the upper part of the frontals (see 
the same cut), but it is spread over the parietal in the form of a large scale, and hence, 
as before observed, called the squamous portion of the temporal bone. In fact, there 
are two plates of bone instead of one. Was there design in this T Yes, evidently 
so. In the first place, to increase the strength of the base of the zygomatic arch. 
This extensive union between the temporal and parietal bones, resembles the buttress 
or mass of masonry attached to the base of every arch, in order to counteract its lateral 
pressure. The concussion, likewise, which might be communicated by a blow on the top 
of the arch, is thus spread over a large surface, and consequently weakened and ren- 
dered comparatively harmless ; and that surface is composed of the union of two 
bones of dissimilar construction. The hard stony structure of the parietal is very dif- 
ferent from the tougher material of the temporal ; and thus, as a finger acts on a 
sounding-glass, the vibration communicated to the temporal is at once stopped, and 
the brain receives no injury. 

There is another proof of admirable design. Where is this squamous portion of 
the temporal bone situated ? On the side of the head. And what is the figure of 
the cranium or skull, and principally that part of it which contains the cerebrum or 
brain ■? It is an elliptical or oval arch (see fig. m, n, o, p. 72). If pressure is made 
on the crown of that arch — if a blow is received on the suture between the parietals 
sufficient to cause the elastic materials of which the skull is composed to yield — the 
seat of danger and injury is at the side. If a man receives a violent blow on the 
crown or back part of the head, the fracture, if there is any, is generally about the 
•temple, and the extravasation of blood is oftenest found there. The following figure 
will explain this : — 

Let the line ABC represent an elliptical arch, 
composed of elastic materials. Some force shall 
be applied at B, sufficient to cause it to yield. 
We cannot compress it into smaller compass ; 
but just in proportion as it yields at B, will it 
spur or bulge out at D, and give way sometimes 
as represented at E. In a dome the weight of 
the materials constantly acting may be considered 
as representing the force applied at B ; and so 
great is the lateral pressure, or tendency to bulge 
out {vide D and E), that it is necessary either to 
dove-tail the materials into one another, or to pass strong iron chains round them. 
For want of sufficient attention to this, " the dome of St. Sophia, iri Constantinople, 
built in the time of the Emperor Justinian, fell three times during its erection ; and 
the dome of the cathedral of Florence stood unfinished an hundred and twenty years, 
for want of an architect." 

Nature, in the construction of the horse's head, has taken away the pressure, or 
removed the probability of injury, by giving an additional layer of bone, or a mass of 
muscle, where alone there was danger, and has dove-tailed all the materials. Farther 




76 



THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. 



than this, in order to make assurance doubly sure, she has placed this effectual girdei 
at the base, in the overlapping of the squamous portion of the temporal bone. 

Above the parietak, and separated from them by a suture (fig. g, p. 70, and fig. e, 
p. 72), is the occipital bone. Superiorly it covers and protects the smaller portion of 
the brain, the cerebellum ; and as it there constitutes the summit or crest of the head, 
and is particularly exposed to danger, and not protected by muscles, it is interesting 
to see what thickness it assumes. The head of the horse does not, like that of the 
human being, ride upright on the neck, with all its weight supported by the spinal 
column, and the only office of the muscles of the neck being to move the head forward, 
or backward, or horizontally on its pivot ; but it hangs in a slanting position from the 
extremity of the neck, and the neck itself projects a considerable distance from the 
chest, and thus the whole weight of the head and neck is suspended from the chest, 
and require very great power in order to support them. In addition to the simple 
weight of the head and neck, the latter projecting from the chest, and the head hanging 
front the extremity of the neck, act with enormous mechanical force, and increase more 
than a hundred-fold the power necessary to support them. 

The head and neck of the horse, and particularly of some horses of a coarse breed, 
are of no little bulk and weight. It will hereafter be shown in what breeds and for 
what purposes a light or heavy head and neck are advantageous ; but it may be safely 
affirmed, that, projecting so far from the chest, and being consequently at so great a 
distance from the fulcnim or support, the lightest head will act or bear upon the joint 
between the last bone of the neck and the first rib with a force equal to many thousand 
pounds. 

How is this weight to be supported 1 Is muscular power equal to the task 1 The 
muscles of the animal frame can act for a certain time with extraordinary force ; but 
as the exertion of this power is attended with the consumption of vital energy, the 
period soon arrives when their action is remitted or altogether suspended. A pro- 
vision, however, is made for the purpose, simple and complete. 

From the baclc of the occipital bone (fig./, p. 72), and immediately below the crest, 
proceeds a round cord of considerable bulk, and composed of a ligamentous substance, 
which reaches down and is securely attached to the spines of the vertebrae, or bones 
of the back ; and by this ligament — the ligamentinn colli, ligament of the neck, com- 
monly called the pack-wax — the head is supported. 

There are, however, some admirable contrivances connected with this ligament. 
As it proceeds from the head, it is in the form of a round cord. It passes over the 
atlas, or first bone of the neck, without touching it, and then, attaching itself strongly 
to the second bone, principally supports the head by its union with this bone. The 
mechanical disadvantage is increased ; but the head is turned more freely on the first 
and second bones. The principal stress is on the dentata or second bone, so much so, 
that, in poll-evil, this ligament may be divided without serious inconvenience to the 
horse. It then suddenly sinks deeper, and communicates with all the other vertebrae. 
Each of these communications becomes a separate point of support, and as they 
approach nearer to the base, the mechanical disadvantage, or the force with which the 
weight of the head and neck presses and acts, is materially lessened. 

The head, then, while the animal is in a state of rest, is supported by this ligament, 
without any aid from muscular energy. 

There is, however, something yet wanting. The head must not be always elevated. 
The animal has his food to seek. In a state of nature this food lies principally on 
the ground, and the head must be lowered to enable the horse to get at it. How is 
this effected 1 This ligament, as it has been called, because it resembles in appear- 
ance the other ligaments of the body, possesses a property which they have not, and 
which they must not have, or they would be useless. No well-knit joint could exist 
if it had tins property. It is elastic. It will yield to a force impressed upon it, and 
will resume its natural dimensions when that force is removed. It sustains perfectly 
the weight of the head. That portion of tenacity or strength is given to it which will 
not give way to the simple weight of the head, but which will yield to a very little 
additional weight. Its resisting power is so admirably adjusted to that which it has 
tt) sustain, that when certain muscles, whose action is to depress or lower the head, 
beo-in to act, and add their power to the previous weight it had to bear, the ligament 



THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION 



77 



stretches, and when the horse is browsing it is full two inches longer than when the 
head is erect. 

When the animal has satisfied himself, these depressing muscles cease to act, and 
other muscles, which are designed to assist in raising the head, begin to exert them- 
selves ; and by their aid — but more by the inherent elasticity of the ligament — the 
head is once more elevated, and remains so without the slightest exertion of muscular 
power. This is one of the many applications of the principle of elasticity which will 
be discovered and admired in ihe construction of the animal frame. 

Tlie ligament of the neck is inserted into the centre of the back part of the occipital 
bone, and immediately below the vertex or crest of that bone ; and therefore the bone 
is so thick at this part (see fig. e, p. 72). 

Many large and powerful muscles are necessary to turn the head in various direo- 
tions, as well as to assist in raising it when depressed. The occipital bone, as will 
be seen in the cut, presents a spine running down the centre, B, and a large roughened 
surface for the attachment of these muscles, C C. 

Lower down, and still at the back of the occi- 
pital bone, are two rounded protuberances D D, 
by which the head is connected with the atlas, 
or upper or first vertebra, or bone of the neck; 
and these are called the coitdyloid, cup-shaped, 
processes of the occipital bone. All the motions 
of the head are partly, and many of them wholly, 
performed by this joint. 

Between them is a large hole, the foramen 
viagnum, or great aperture, E, through which 
the continuation of ihe brain, termed the spinal 
cord or marrow, passes out of the skull. 

As an additional contrivance to support the 
enormous weight of the head, are two other pro- 
jections of the occipital bone, peculiar to animals 
whose heads are set on in a slanting direction, and into which powerful muscles are 
inserted. They are called the coracuid, beak-like, processes or prolongations, F F, 
of the occipital bone. 

Running forward, and forming outwardly a part of the base, and inwardly a portion 
of the floor of the skull, is what, from its wedge-like shape, is called the cuneiform 
process of the occipital bone (fig. z, p. 72). It is thick, strong, and solid, and placed 
at the bottom of the skull, not only to be a proper foundation for, and to give additional 
strength to, the arch on either side, but speedily to stop all vibration and concussion. 
At the base of the skull, and anterior to or below the occipital, lies the sphenoid, 
wedge-like bone (fig. k, p. 72). Its body, likewise called the cuneiform or wedge- 
shaped process, is a continuation of the same process of the occipital, and, like it, is 
thick and solid, and for the same important purpose. This bone branches out into 
four irregular bodies or plates, two of which are called the wings, and two running to 
the palate, the legs. They could not be represented in the cut, and there is nothing 
important belonging to them, so far as this work is concerned. Internally (fig. k), 
the sphenoid forms a portion of the cavity of the skull. 

Of the ethmoid, sieve-like, bone, little can be seen outwardly. A small portion is 
found in the back part of the orbit, and in the cavity of the cranium ; but the most 
important part of it is that which is composed of a great number of thin plates, form- 
ing numerous cavities or cells (fig. /, p. 72), lined with the membrane of the nose, 
and entering into its cavity. Tlie upper portion is called the cribriform or sieve-shaped 
plate, from its being perforated by a multitude of little holes, through which the nerve 
connected with smelling passes and spreads over the nose. 

Altogether these bones form a cavity of an irregular oval shape, but the tentorium 
penetrating into it, gives it the appearance of being divided into two {d, p. 72). 

The cavity of the skull may be said to be arched all round. The builder knows 
the strength v.'hich is connected with the form of an arch. If properly constructed, it 
♦ft e^ual to a solid mass of masonry. The arch of the horse's skull has not much 
7* 




78 THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. 

weight to Bupport, but it is exposed to many injuries from the brutality of those by 
whom he should be protected, and from accidental causes. 

The roof of the skull is composed of two plates of bone : the outer one iiard and 
tough, and the different parts dove-tailed together, so as not to be easily fractured; 
uhe inner plate being elastic. By the union of these two substances of different con- 
struction, the vibration is damped or destroyed, so far as safety requires. 

On raising any part of the skull of the horse, the dense and strong membrane 
which is at once the lining of the cranium and the covering of the brain — the dura 
mater — presents itself. It is united to the membranes below by numerous little cords 
or prolongations of its substance, conveying blood and communicating strength to the 
parts beneath. Between this membrane, common to the cranium and the brain, and the 
proper investing tunic of that organ, is found that delicate gossamers' web, appropri- 
ately called the arachnoid — the spider's membrane — and which is seen in other 
animals, designed either to secrete the fluid which is interposed, for the purpose of 
obviating injurious concussion, or, perhaps, to prevent the brain from readily sympa- 
thising with any inflammatory action produced by injury of the skull. 

Beneath is the proper investing membrane of the brain — the pia mater — which not 
only covers the external surface of the brain, but penetrates into every depression, 
lines every ventricle, and clothes every irregularity and part and portion of the brain. 

We now arrive at the brain itself. The brain of the horse corresponds with the 
cavity in which it is placed (m, p. 72). It is a flattened oval. It is divided into two 
parts, one much larger than the other — the cerebrum or brain, and the cerebellum oi 
little brain (n, p. 72). In the human being the cerebrum is above the cerebellum, in 
the quadruped it is below ; and yet in both they retain the same relative situation. 
Tlie cerebellum is nearer to the foramen through which the brain passes out of the 
skull («, p. 72), and the continuation of the cerebrum passes under the cerebellum 
(p, p. 72), in order to arrive at this foramen. In the human head this foramen is al 
the base of the skull ; but in the quadruped, in whom the head is placed slanting, it 
is necessarily elevated. 

He who for the first time examines the brain of the horse will be struck with its 
comparative diminutive size. The human being is not, generally speaking, more 
than one-half or one-third of the size and weight of the horse ; yet the brain of the 
biped is twice as large and as heavy as that of the quadruped. If it had been the 
brain of the ox that had been here exposed, instead of that of the horse, it would not 
have been of half the bulk of that of the horse. If the dog had been the subject, it 
would have been very considerably larger, comparing the general bulk of each animal. 
This is singular. The human brain largest in comparative bulk ; then the brain of 
the dog, the horse, the ox. Thus would they be classed in the scale of intclli genet. 

If the brain is more closely examined, it will be found that there is none of the 
roundness and the broadness of that in the human being ; it is comparatively tame 
and flat. Tliere is some irregularity of surface, some small projections and depres- 
sions ; but they, too, are comparatively diminutive and inexpressive. Were the 
brain of the beaver, of the hare, or the rablMt, or of almost any bird, substituted for it, 
there would be no convolutions or irregularities at all. 

These irregularities are not so bold and so deep in the ox as in the horse, nor in the 
horse as in the*' dog. We do not know enough of the functions of any part of the 
brain to associate these convolutions with any particular powers of mind, or good oi 
bad propensities, although some persons, who arc wise above that which is written, 
have pretended to do so. It would occupy too great a portion of this volume to ente. 
into these questions ; but there are some diseases to which the horse is subject, and a 
very useful operation — the division of some of tlie nerves for certain purposes, and 
which could not be understood without a previous slight account of tliis important 
organ. 

When the brain is cut, it is found to be composed of two substances very unlike in 
appearance (w, p. 72) ; one, principally on the outside, grey, or ash-coloured, and 
therefore called the cortical {bark-like) from its situation, and cineritious (ashen) from 
its colour ; and the other, lying deeper in the brain, and from its pulpy nature callea 
the medullary substance. Altliough placed in apposition with each other, and seeni- 



TPIE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. 



79 



mgly minglinfT, tliey never run into the same mass, or change by degrees into ono 
another, but are essentially distinct in construction as well as in function. 

The medullary portion is connected witli the nervous system. The nerves are pro- 
longations of it, and are concerned in the discharge of all the offices of life. They 
give motion and energy to the limbs, the heart, the lungs, the stomach, and every 
part connected with life. Tliey are the medium through which sensation is conveyed ; 
and they supply the mind with materials to think and work upon. 

The cinerilious part has a dilferent appearance, and is differently constituted. Some 
have supposed, and with much appearance of truth, that it is the residence of the 
mind — receiving the impressions that are conveyed to the brain by the sensitive nerves, 
and directing the operation and action of those which give motion to the limbs. In 
accordance with this, it happens that, where superior intelligence is found, the cineri- 
tious portion prevails, and where little beside brute strength and animal appetite 
exist, the medullary portion is enlarged. There is, comparing bulk with bulk, less 
of the medullary substance in tiie horse than in the ox, and in the doo- than in llie 
horse. The additional bulk of brain is composed of cineritious matter; and how dif- 
ferent is the character of these animals ! — the sluggish, stupid ox, and the intellio-ent 
horse ; the silly sheep, and the intellectual, companionable doo- ! 

In a work like this, it would be somewhat out of place to enter deeply into any 
metaphysical speculation; but the connexion between the cineritious part of the brain 
and the intellectual principle, and that between the medullary portion and the mere 
animal principle, do seem highly probable. The latter is the medium through which 
the impression is conveyed, or the motion is effected ; the former is the substance to 
which that impression is referred — where it is received, registered, and compared, and 
by which the operation of the motor nerves is influenced and governed. 

The cortical substance is small in the quadruped ; for in their wild state brutes have 
no concern and no idea beyond their food and reproduction; and in their domesticated 
state they are destined to be the servants of man. The acuteness of their senses, and 
the preponderance of animal power, qualify them for this purpose ; but were propor- 
tionate intellectual capacity added to this — were they made conscious of their strength, 
they would burst their bonds, and man would, in his turn, be the victim and the slave. 
The cortical part is found in each in the proportion in which it would seem to be 
needed for our purposes, in order that intelligence should be added to animal power. 
Almost every mental faculty, and almost every virtue, too, may be traced in the brute. 
The difference is in degree, and not in kind. The one being improved by circum- 
stances, and the other contaminated, the quadruped is decidedly the superior. 

From the medullary substance — as already stated — proceed certain cords or pro- 
longations, termed nerves, by which the animal is enabled to receive impressions from 
surrounding objects, and to connect himself with them ; and also to possess many 
pleasurable or painful sensations. One of them is spread over the membrane of the 
nose, and gives the sense of smell ; another expands on the back of the eye, and the 
faculty of sight is gained ; and a third goes to the internal structure of the ear, and 
the animal is conscious of sound. Other nerves, proceeding to different parts, give 
the faculty of motion, while an equally important one bestows the power of feeling. 

One division of nerves, {h, p. 72) springing from a prolongation of the brain, and 
yet within the skull, wanders to different parts of the frame, for important purposes 
connected with respiration or breathing. The act of breathing is essential to life, and 
were it to cease, the animal would die. These are nerves of involuntary motion ; so 
that, whether he is awake or asleep, conscious of it or not, the lungs heave and life is 
supported. Lastly, from the spinal cord q — a farther prolongation of the brain, and 
running through a cavity in the bones of the neck, back, and loins, and extending tc 
the very tip of the tail — other nerves are given off at certain intervals. The cut at the 
top of the following page delineates a pair of them. The spinal cord a, is combined 
of six distinct columns or rods, running through its whole length — three on either side. 
The two upper columns — the portion of spinal marrow represented in our cut, is sup- 
posed to be placed with its inner or lower surf\ice toward us — proceed from those 
tracks of the brain devoted to sensation. Numerous distinct fibres spring abruptly 
from the column, and which collect together, and, passing through a little ganglion or 
enlargement, d — an enlargement of a nervous cord is called a ganglion — become a 



80 



THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. 





nerve of sensation. From the lower or inner side, — a prolongation of the track 
devoted to motion, — proceed other fibres, wliich also collect gradually together, and 
form a nervous cord, c, giving the power of motion. Beyond the ganglion the two 
unite, and form a perfect spinal nerve, b, possessing the power both of sensation and 
motion ; and the fibres of the two columns proceed to their destination, enveloped in 
the same sheath, and apparently one nerve. Each portion, however, continues to be 
wrapped in its ow-n membrane. They are united, yet distinct; they constitute one 
nerve, yet neither their substance nor their office is confounded. Our cut, closely 
examined, will give at b some idea of the manner in which these distinct fibres are 
continued; — each covered by its own membrane, but all enveloped in a common 
envelope. 

All these nerves are organs of sensation and motion alone ; but there are others 
whose origin seems to be outside of and below tlie brain. These are the sympathetic, 
so called from their union and sympathy with all the others, and identified with life 
itself. They proceed from a small ganglion or enlargement in the upper part of the 
neck, or from a collection of little ganglia in the abdomen. They go to the heart, tmd 
it beats, and to the stomach, and it digests. They form a net-work round each blood- 
vessel, and the current flows on. They surround the very minutest vessels, and the 
frame is nourished and built up. They are destitute of sensation, and they are per- 
fectly beyond the control of the will. 

The reader, we trust, will now comprehend this wonderful, yet simple machinery, 
and be able, by and by, to refer to it the explanation of several diseases, and particu- 
larly of the operation to which we have referred. 

Two of the senses have their residence in the cavity of the cranium — those of hear- 
ing and sight. 

They who know anything of the horse, pay much attention to the size, setting on, 
and motion of the ear. Ears rather small than large — placed not too far apart — erect 
and quick in motion, indicate both breeding and spirit; and if a horse is frequently in 
the habit of carrying one ear forward, and the other backward, and especially if he 
does so on a journey, he will generally possess both spirit and continuance. The 
stretchinsf of the ears in contrary directions shows that he is attentive to everything 
that is taking place around him, and, while he is doing this, he cannot be much 
fatigued, or likely soon to become so. It has been remarked that few horses sleep 
without pointing one ear forward and the other backward, in order that they may 
receive notice of the approach of objects in every direction.* 

The ear of the horse is one of the most beautiful parts about him, and by few things 
is the temper more surely indicated than by its motion. The ear is more intelligible 
even than the eye, and a person accustomed to the horse, and an observer of him, can 

* " When horses or mules march in company at night, those in front direct their ears for- 
wards ; those in the rear direct them backward ; and those in the centre turn them laterally 
ui across ; the whole troop seemin£r thus to be actuated by one feeling, which watches the genera, 
safety." — Arnoti's Elements of Physic, vol. i., p. 478. 



THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. 8» 

tell by the expressive motion of that organ, almost all that he thinks or means, It is 
a common saying-, that when a horse lays his ears flat back upon his neck, and keeps 
them so, he most assuredly is meditating mischief, and the stander-by should bewaro 
of his heels or his teeth. In play, the ears will be laid back, but not so decidedly, or 
60 lono-. A quick change in their position, and more particularly the expression of 
the eye at the time, will distinguish between playfulness and vice. 

The external ear is formed by a cartilage of an oval or cone-like shape, .lexible, 
yet firm, and terminating in a point. It has, directed towards the side, yet ^somewhat 
pointing forward, a large opening extending from the top to the bottom. The inten- 
tion of this is to collect the sound, and convey it to the interior part of the ear. 

The hearing of the horse is remarkably acute. A thousand vibrations of the air, 
too slio-ht to rnake any impression on the human ear, are readily perceived by him. 
It is well known to every hunting-man, that the cry of the hounds will be recognised 
by the horse, and his ears will be erect, and he will be all spirit and impatience, a 
considerable time before the rider is conscious of the least sound. Need anythin(» 
more be said to expose the absurdity of cropping ? 

This custom of cutting the ears of the horse originated, to its shame, in Great 
Britain, and for many years was a practice cruel to the animal, depriving him of 
much of his beauty ; and so obstinately pursued, that at length the deformity became 
in some hereditary, and a breed of horses born without ears was produced. Fortu- 
nately for this too-often abused animal, cropping is not now the fashion. Some 
thoughtless or unfeeling young men endeavoured, a little while ago, again to intro- 
duce°it, but the voice of reason and humanity prevailed.* 

This cartilage, the conch or shell, is attached to the head by ligaments, and 
sustained by muscles, on which its action depends. It rests upon another cartilage, 
round without, and irregular within, called the annular, ring-like, cartilage, and con- 
ducting to the interior of the ear ; and it is likewise supp jrted and moved by a third 
small cartilage, placed at the fore part of the base of the conch, and into which 
several muscles are inserted. ^ , i, j j i 

The ear is covered by skin thinner than in most other ]>arts of the body, and alto 
gether destitute of fat, in order that it may not be too bi, iky and heavy, and may be 
more easily moved. Under the skin lining the inside of the cartilage are numerous 
glands that secrete or throw out a scaly white greasy matter, which may be rubbed 
off with the finger and is destined to supple this part of the ear and to keep itsofl 
and smooth. Below this are other glands which pour out a peculiar, sticky, bitter 
fluid— the wax— probably displeasing to insects, and therefore detening them from 
crawling down the ear and annoying the animal, or by its stickiness arresting their 

The internal part of the conch is covered with long hair which stands across the 
passao-e in every direction. This likewise is to protect the ear from insects, that can 
with difficulty penetrate through this thick defence. The cold air is likewise pre- 
vented from reachino- the interior of the ear, and the sound is moderated, not arrested 
— penetratino- readily but not violently— and not striking injuriously on the mem- 
brane coverintr the drum of the ear. Can these purposes be accomplished, when it 
is the custom^of so many carters and grooms to cut out the hair of the ear so closely 
and industriously as they do ? The groom who singes it to the root with a candle 
must either be very ignorant or very brutal. It can scarcely be accomplished without 
sincreino- the ear as well as the hair. Many a troublesome sore is occasioned by this ; 
and" many a horse, that was perfectly quiet before, rendered difficult to handle or to 
halter, and even disposed to be otherwise vicious, from a recollection ot the pain 
which he suffered during the absurd and barbarou s operation. 

* Professor Grognier, in his excellent work, " Precis d'un Cours d'Hygiene Vcterinaire," 
speaking of this abominable custom, says, " And thus the English completely destroy or dis 
figure two organs which embellish the head of the most beautiful of a 1 ^"'™f ' f"'^^^''^^'' 
by their various motions, indicate the thoughts that are passing 'trough h.sm.nd-thep^^^^^^^ 
which agitate him, and, especially, the designs which he may be meditating, and wh ch u is 
Sen of great importance to learn, in order to guard against the danger which may be at 
hand." i^ 



f52 THESE NSORIALFUNCTION. 

The sound collected by the outer ear, passes through the lower or nnnular ring 
shaped, cartilage, and through irregularities which, while they break and modify it, 
convey it on to another canal, partly cartilaginous and partly bony, conducting 
immediately to the internal mechanism of the ear. This canal or passage, is called 
the external auditory passage, and at the base of it is placed, stretching across it, and 
closing it, a thick and elastic membrane, memhrana tympani, called the membrane of 
the drum. This membrane is supplied with numerous fibres, from the fifth pair, or 
sensitive nerve of the head, for it is necessary that it should possess extreme sensi 
bility. 

Between this membrane and a smaller one almost opposite, leading to the still 
3nterior part of the ear, and on which the nerve of hearing is expanded, are four little 
bones, united to these membranes, and to each other. Their office is to convey, 
more perfectly than it could be done through the mere air of the cavity, the vibrations 
that have reached the memhrana tympani. 

These bones are highly elastic ; and covered by a cartilaginous substance, elastic 
also in the greatest degree, by means of which the force of the vibration is much 
increased. 

It is conveyed to a strangely irregular cavity, filled with an aqueous fluid, and the 
substance or pulp of the portio mollis or soft portion of the seventh pair of nerves, the 
auditory nerve, expands on the membrane that lines the walls of this cavity. 

Sound is propagated far more intensely through water than through air; and there- 
fore it is that an aqueous fluid otcupies those chambers of the ear on the walls of 
which the auditory nerve is expanded. By this contrivance, and by others, which 
we have not space now to narrate, the sense of hearing is fully equal to every possible 
want of the animal. 

The Eye is a most important organ, and comes next under consideration, as inclosed 
in the bones of the skull. The eye of the horse should be large, somewhat but not 
too prominent, and the eyelid fine and thin. If the eye is sunk in the head, and 
apparently little — for there is actually a very trifling dift'erence in the size of the eye 
in animals of the same species and bulk, and that seeming difference arises from the 
larger or smaller opening between the lids — and the lid is thick, and especially if 
there is any puckering towards the inner corner of the lids, that eye either is diseased, 
or has lately been subject to inflammation ; and, particularly, if one pye is smaller 
than the other, it has at no great distance of time, been inflamed. 

The eye of the horse enables us with tolerable accuracy to guess at his temper. 
If much of the white is seen, the buyer should pause ere he completes his bargain ; 
because, although it may, yet very rarely, happen that the cornea or transparent part 
is unnaturally small, and therefore an unusual portion of the white of the eye is seen, 
experience has shown that this display of white is dangerous. Tlie mischievous 
horse is slyly on the look out for opportunities to do mischief, and the frequent back- 
ward direction of the eye, when the white is most perceptible, is only to give surer 
effect to the blow which he is about to aim. 

A cursory description of the eye, and the uses of its different parts, must be given. 

The eyes are placed at the side of the head, but the direction of the conoid cavity 
which they occupy, and of the sheath by which they are surrounded within the orbit, 
gives them a prevailing direction forwards, so that the animal has a very extended 
field of vision. We must not assert that the eye of the horse commands a whole 
sphere of vision ; but it cannot be denied that his eyes are placed more forward thaa 
those of cattle, sheep, or swine. He requires an extensive field of vision to warn him 
of the approacli of his enemies in his wild state, and a direction of the orbits ccn- 
Biderably forward, in order to enable him to pursue with safety the headlong course 
iO which ^^■e sometimes urge him. 

The eye-ball is placed in tlie anterior and most capacious part of the orbit, nearer 
to the frontal than the temporal side, with a degree of prominence varying with 
different individuals, and the will of the animal. It is protected by a bony socket 
■)eneath and on the inside, but is partially exposed on the roof and on the outside. It 
.s, however, covered and secured by thick and powerful muscles — by a mass of 
adipose matter which is distributed to various parts of the orbit, upon which the eyfl 



THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. 5J3 

may be readily moved without friction, and by a sheath of considerable density ana 
firmness, and especially where it is most needed, on the external and superior 
portions. 

The adipose matter exists in a considerable quantity in the orbit of the eye of the 
horse, and enables that organ readily to revolve by the slightest contraction of the 
muscles. By the absorption of this fatty matter in sickness or old age, the eye is not 
only to a certain degree sunk in the orbit, but the roof of the orbit posterior to the 
frontal bone, being deprived of its support, is considerably depressed. Our work 
shall not be disgraced by any farther reference to the rascally contrivance by which 
this indication of age is in some degree removed. 

In front the eye is supported and covered by the lids, which closing rapidly, pro- 
tect it from many an injury that threatens — supply it with that moisture which is 
necessary to preserve its transparency — in the momentary act of closing give a certain 
and sufficient respite to a delicate organ, which would otherwise be fatigued and 
worn out by the constant glare of day — defend it when the eye labours under inflam- 
mation from the stimulus of light, — and, gradually drooping, permit the animal to 
enjoy that repose which nature requires. 

Extending round both lids, and, it may be almost said, having neither origin nor 
insertion, is a muscle called the orbicularis, or circular muscle. Its office is to close 
the lids in the act of winking or otherwise, but only while the animal is awake. 
When he sleeps, this is etfected by another and very ingenious mechanism. The 
natural state of the eyelids is that of being closed ; and they are kept open by the 
energy of the muscles whose office it is to raise the upper lid. As sleep steals upon 
the animal, these muscles cease to act, and the lids close by the inherent elasticity 
of the membrane of which they are composed. 

The skin of the lid is, like that of the ear, exceedingly fine, in order to prevent 
unnecessary weight and pressure on such a part, and to give more easy and extensive 
motion. The lids close accurately when drawn over the eye, and this is effected by 
a little strip of cartilage at the edge of each of them, which may be easily felt with 
the finger, and preserves them in a hoop-like form, and adapts them closely to the 
eye and to each other. The lower cartilage, however, does not present, towards the 
inner corner of the eye, the whole of its flat surface to the upper, but it evidently 
slopes inward, and only the outer edge of the under lid touches the upper. By this 
means, a little gutter is formed, through which the superfluous moisture of the eye 
flows to the inner corner, where there is a canal to convey it away. By this con- 
trivance it neither accumulates in the eye, nor unpleasantly runs down the cheek. 

Along the edges of the lids are placed numerous little hollows, which can be 
plainly distinguished even in the living horse by slightly turning down the lid. 
These are the openings into numerous small cells containing a thick and unctuous 
fluid, by means of which the eyes are more accurately closed, and the edges of the 
lids defended from the acrimony of the tears. 

The horse has no eyebrows, and the eyelashes are very peculiarly arranged. The 
rows of hair are longest and most numerous on the upper lid, and especially towards 
the outer or temporal corner, because the light comes from above ; and, as the animal 
stands, particularly when he is grazing, and from the lateral situation of his eyes, the 
greater portion of the light, and the attacks of insects, and the rolling down of 
moisture, would chiefly be from the outside or temples. Towards the inner corner 
of the upper lid there is little or no eyelash, because there is no probable danger or 
nuisance in that direction. Only a small quantity of light can enter from below, and 
therefore the lashes are thin and short ; but as, in the act of grazing, insects may 
more readily climb up and be troublesome to the eye, towards the inner an^le, there 
the principal or only hair is found on the lower lia. These apparently trifling cir- 
cumstances will not be overlooked by the careful observer. 

They who are unacquainted with the absurdities of stable management, or who 
have not carefully examined the abuses that may exist in their own establishments, 
can scarcely believe the foolish and cruel practices of some carters and grooms. 
When the groom is anxious that his horse should be as trim and neat all over as art 
can make him, the very eye-lashes are generally sacrificed. What has ihe poor 
animal suflTered, when, travelling in the noon of day, the full blaze of the sun ha* 



fl.| THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. 

fallen upon his eyes ; and how many accidents have probably happened from his 
being dazzled by the light, which have been attributed to other causes ! 

If the horse has no eyebrow, there are several hairs or bristles scattered on the 
upper eyelid, and there is a projecting- fold of the lid which discharges nearly the 
same office. It is more conspicuous in old horses than in young ones. Some horse- 
men do not like to see it, and associate the idea of it with weakness or disease of the 
eye. This is perfectly erroneous. It is a provision of nature to accomplish a certain 
purpose, and has nothing to do either with health or disease. 

On the lower lid is a useful provision to warn the horse of the near approach oi 
any object that might incommode or injure him, in the form of long projecting haii 
or bristles, which are plenteously embued with nervous influence, so that the slightes 
touch should put the animal on his guard. We would request our readers to touch 
very slightly the extremity of one of these hairs. They will be surprised to observe 
the sudden convulsive twitching of the lid, rendering the attack of the insect abso- 
lutely impossible. The grooms, however, who cut away the eye-lashes, do not spare 
these useful feelers. 

The eye is exposed to the action of the atmospheric air, and the process of evapora- 
tion, destructive of its transparency, is continually going on. The eye of the horse, 
or the visible part of the eye, is, likewise, more prominent and larger than in the 
human being, and the animal is often subject to extreme annoyance from dust and 
insects, while he has no hands or other guard to defend himself from the torture which 
they occasion. What is the provision of nature against this ] Under, and a little 
within, the outer corner of the upper lid, is an irregular body, the lacrymal gland 
comparatively larger than in the human being, secreting an aqueous fluid, which, 
slowly issuing from the gland, or occasionally pressed out of it by the act of winking, 
flows over the eye, supplies it with moisture, and cleanses it from all impurities. 
Human ingenuity could not have selected a situation from which %q fluid could be 
conveyed over the eye with more advantage for this purpose. 

When this fluid is secreted in an undue quan*^'ty, and flows over the eye, it is 
called tears. An increased flow of tears is prefaced by anything that irritates the 
eye, and, therefore, a constant accompaniment and symptom of inflammation. A 
horse with any degree of weeping should be regarded with much suspicion. In the 
human being an unusual secretion of tears is often caused by bodily pain, and emo- 
tions of the mind ; and so it is occasionally in the horse. We have seen it repeatedly 
under acute pain or brutal usage. John Lawrence, speaking of the cruelty exercised 
by some dealers in what they call " firing" a horse before he is led out for sale, in 
order to rouse every spark of mettle, says, " more than fifty years have passed away, 
and I have before my eyes a poor mare stone blind, exquisitely shaped, and showing 
all the marks of high blood, whom I saw unmercifully cut with the whip a quarter 
of an hour before the sale, to bring her to the use of her stiflTened limbs, while the 
tears were trickling down her cheeks^ 

Having passed over the eye, the fluid is conveyed by the little canal to which we 
have alluded, formed by the sloping of the under lid, towards the corner of the eye ; 
and there are two little orifices that conduct it to a small reservoir within, and at the 
■upper part of the lacrymal bone, (fig. ?, p. 70). A little protuberance of a black or 
pied colour, called the caruncle, placed in the very comer of the eye, and to be seen 
without opening the lids, is situated between these orifices, and guides the fluid into 
them. From this reservoir the tears are conveyed by a long canal, the lacrymal duct^ 
partly bony, and partly membranous, to the lower part of the nose. A little within 
the nostril, and on the division between the nostrils, is seen the lower opening of this 
canal ; the situation of which should be carefully observed, and its real use borne in 
mind, for not only horsemen, but even some careless veterinary surgeons, have mis- 
taken it for a glanderous ulcer, and have condemned a useful and valuable animal 
It is fouad just before the skin of the muzzle terminates, and the more delicate mem 
orane of the nostril commences. The opening of the canal is placed thus low becaiisfc 
the membrane of the nose is exceedingly delicate, and would be irritated and made 
«ore by the frequent or constant running down of the tears. 

Tliere is, however, something yet wanting. We have a provision f >r supplying 
the eye with requisite moisture, and for washing from off the transparent part of it 



THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. gr, 

itisects or dust that may annoy the animal. What becomes of these impurities when 
thus washed oflf? Are they carried by the tears to the corner of the eye, and so pass 
down this duct, and irritate and obstruct it ; or do they accumulate at the inner ano-le 
of tiie eye 1 There is a beautiful contrivance for disposing of them as fast as they 
acccumulate. Concealed within the inner corner of the eye, or only the margin of it, 
black or pied, visible, is a triangular-shaped cartilage, the haw, with its broad part 
forwards. It is concave within, exactly to suit the globe of the eye; it is convex 
without, accurately to adapt itself to the membrane lining the lid ; and the base of it 
is reduced to a thin or almost sharp edge. At the will of the animal this is suddenly 
protruded from its hiding-place. It passes rapidly over the eye, and shovels up every 
nuisance mixed with the tears, and then, being speedily drawn back, the dust or 
insect is wiped away as the cartilage again passes under the corner of the eye. 

How is this managed 1 The cartilage has no muscle attached to it; and the limbs 
and the different parts of the body, when put into motion by the influence of the will, 
are moved invariably by muscles. The mechanism, however, is simple and etfectual. 
There is a considerable mass of fatty matter at the back of the eye, in order that this 
organ may be easily moved ; and this fat is particularly accumulated about the inner 
corner of the eye, and beneath, and at the point of this cartilage. The eye of the 
horse has likewise very strong muscles attached to it, and one, peculiar to quadrupeds, 
of extraordinary power, by whose aid, if the animal has not hands to ward off a 
danger that threatens, he is at least enabled to draw the eye back almost out of the 
reach of that danger. 

Dust, or gravel, or insects, may have entered the eye, and annoy the horse. This 
muscle suddenly acts: the eye is forcibly drawn back, and presses upon the fatty 
matter. That may be displaced, but cannot be reduced into less compass. It is 
forced violently towards the inner corner of the eye, and it drives before it the haw ; 
and the haw, having likewise some fat about its point, and being placed between the 
eye and an exceedingly smooth and polished bone, and being pressed upon by the 
eye as it is violently drawn back, shoots out with the rapidity of lightning, and, 
guided by the eyelids, projects over the e3'e, and thus carries off the ofi"ending matter. 

In what way shall we draw the haw back again without muscular action 1 Another 
principle is called into play, of which mention has already been made, and of which 
we shall have much to say, — elasticity. It is that principle by which a body yields 
to a certain force impressed upon it, and returns to its former state as soon as that 
force is removed. It is that by which the ligament of the neck (p. 75), while it sup- 
ports the head, enables the horse to graze — ^liy which the heart expands after closing 
on and propelling forward the blood in its ventricles and the artery contracts on the 
blood that has distended it, and many of the most important functions of life are 
influenced or governed. This muscle ceases to act, and the eye resumes its natural 
situation in the orbit. There is room for the fatty matter to return to its place, and it 
immediately returns by the elasticity of the membrane by which it is covered, and 
draws after it this cartilage with which it is connected, and whose return is as rapid 
as was the projection. 

The old farriers strangely misunderstood the nature and design of the haw, and 
many at the present day do not seem to be much better informed. When, from 
sympathy with other parts of the eye labouring under inflammation, and becoming 
itself inflamed and increased in bulk, and the neighbouring parts likewise thickened, 
it is either forced out of its place, or voluntarily protruded to defend the eye from the 
action of light and cannot return, they mistake it for some injurious excrescence or 
tumour, and'^proceed to cut it out. The " haw in the eye" is a disease well known 
to the majority of grooms, and this sad remedy for it is deemed the only cure. It is 
a barbarous practice, and if they were compelled to walk half a dozen miles in a thick 
dust, without being permitted to wipe or to cleanse the eye, they would fe«l the tor- 
ture to which they "doom this noble animal. A little patience having been exercised, 
and a few cooling applications made to the eye while the inflamniation lasted, and 
afterwards some mild astringent ones, and other proper means being employed, the 
tumour would have disappeared, the haw would have returned to its place, and the 
animal would have discharged the duties required of him without moonven.ence Ui 
8 



8t, 



THE SENSORIAL FUN 3 ""TON. 



himself, instead of the agony to which an unguarded and unprotected eye must now 
expose him. 

The loss of blood occasioned by the excision of the haw may frequently relieve the 
inflammation of the eye ; and the evident amendment which follows induces these 
wise men to believe that they have performed an excellent operation ; but the same 
loss of blood by scarification of the overloaded vessels of the conjunctiva would be 
equally beneficial, and the animal would not be deprived of an instrument of admi 
rable use to him. 

The eye is of a globular figure, yet not a perfect globe. It is rather composed of 
parts of two globes ; the half of one of them smaller and transparent in front, and of 
the other larger and the coat of it opaque, behind. We shall most conveniently begia 
with the coats of the eye. 




A B a supposed object viewed by the animal, and an inverted image of which, a, h, is thrown 

on the retina at the back of the eye. 
: c The points where the rays, having passed the cornea and lens, converge by the refractive 

power of I he lens. 
d e The rays proceeding from the extremities of the object to the eye. 
f The cornea, nr horny and transparent part of the eye, covered by the conjunctiva, uniting 

differe'iii parts together. 
g The crystfilline (crystal or glassy) lens, behind the pupil, and in front of the vitreous 

humour. 
h h Muscles of the eye. 
i The optic nerve, or nerve of sight. 
Jc The sclerotica (hard firm coat) covering the whole of the eye except the portion occupied 

by the cornea, and being a seeming prolongation of the covering of the optic nerve. 
{ The choroides (receptacle or covering), or choroid coat, covered with a blacli secretion 

or paint. 
m m The iris or rainbow-coloured circular membrane under the cornea, in front of the ey6, 

and on which the colour of the eye depends. The duplicature behind is the uvea, 

from being coloured like a grape. The opening in the centre is the pupil. 
« n The ciliary (hair-like) processes. 

o The retina, or net-like expansion of the optic nerve, spread over the whole of the cho- 
roides as far as the lens. 
p The vitreous (glass-like) humour filling the whole of the cavity of the eye behind the 

lens. 
q The aqueous (water-like) humour filling the space between the cornea and the lens. 

The conjunctiva, f, is that membrane which lines the lids, and covers the fore part 
of the eye. It spreads over all that we can see or feel of the eye, and even its trans- 
parent part. It is itself transparent, and transmits the colour of the parts beneath. 
It is very susceptible of inflammation, during which the lining of the lids will become 
intensely red, and the white of the eye will be first streaked with red vessels, and then 
covered with a complete mesh of them, and the cornea will become cloudy and 
opa(}ue. It is the seat of various diseases, and. particularly, in it commences that 
sad inflammation of the horse's eye which bids denance to the veterinary surgeon's 
fildll and almost invariably terminates in blindness. 

The examination of the conjunctiva, by turning down the lid, will enable us to 
^onTi an accurate judgment of the degree of inflammation which exists in the ej'e. 

Covering the back part of the eye, and indeed four-fifths of the globe of it, is the 



THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. 97 

sclerotica, k. It is an exceedingly strong membrane, composed of fibres interweavintr 
with each other, and ahnost defying the possibility of separation. An oro-an so 
delicate and so important as the eye requires secure protection. 

It is a highly elastic membrane. It is necessary that it should be so, when it 13 
considered that the eye is surrounded by several and very powerful muscles, which 
must temporarily, and even for the purposes of vision, alter its form. The elasticity 
of the sclerotica is usefully exhibited by its causing the globe of the eye to resume 
its former and natural shape, as soon as the action of the muscle ceases. 

The sclerotica has very few blood-vessels — is scarcely sensible — and its diseases, 
except when it participates in general disturbance or disorganisation, are rarely 
brought under our notice. 

The cornea is, or we should wish it to be, the only visible part of the horse's eye, 
for the exhibition of much white around it is a sure symptom of wickedness. The 
cornea fills up the vacuity which is left by the sclerotica in the fore part of the eye, 
and, although closely united to the sclerotica, may be separated from it, and will 
drop out like a watch-glass. It is not round, but wider from side to side than from 
top to the bottom ;' and the curve rather broader towards the inner than the outer 
corner of the eye, so that the near eye may be known from the oft' one after it is taken 
from the head. 

The convexity or projection of the cornea is a point of considerable importance. 
The prominence of the eye certainly adds much to the beauty of the animal, but we 
shall see presently, when we consider the eye as tlie organ of sight, that by beinc 
too prominent the rays of light may be rendered too convergent, and the vision indis- 
tinct ; or, if the cornea is small and flat, the rays may not be convergent enough, and 
perfect vision destroyed. In either case the horse may unpleasantly start, or sud- 
denly and dangerously turn round. An eye neither too prominent nor too flat will be 
nearest to perfection. 

It should be perfectly transparent. Any cloudiness or opacity is the consequence 
of disease. It is an exceedingly firm and dense membrane, and can scarcely be 
pierced by the sharpest instrument. The cornea is composed of many different plates, 
laid over one another ; and between each, at least in a stite of health, is a fluid that 
is the cause of its transparency, and the evaporation of which, after death, produces 
the leaden or glazed appearance of the eye. When it appears to be opaque, it is not 
often, and never at first, that the cornea has undergone any change. 

There is notiiing that deserves attention from the purchaser of a horse more than 
the perfect transparency of the cornea over the whole of its surface. The eye should 
be examined for this purpose, both in front, and with the face of the examiner close 
to the cheek of the horse, under and behind the eye. The latter method of looking 
through the cornea is the most satisfactory, so far as the transparency of that part of 
the eye is concerned. During this examination the horse should not be in the open 
air, but in the stable standing in the doorway and a little within the door. If any 
small, faint, whitish lines appear to cross the cornea, or spread over any part of it, 
they are assuredly the remains of previous inflammation ; or, although the centre and 
bulk of the cornea should be perfectly clear, yet if around the edge of it, where it 
unites with the sclerotica, there should be a narrow ring or circle of haziness, the 
conclusion is equally true, but the inflammation occurred at a more distant period. 
Whether however the inflammation has lately existed, or several weeks or months 
have e-lapsed since it was subdued, it is too likely to recur. 

There is one caution to be added. The cornea in its natural state is not only a 
beautiful transparent structure, but it reflects, even in proportion to its transparency, 
many of the rays which fall upon it; and if there is a white object immediately before 
the eye, as a light waistcoat, or much display of a white neckcloth, the reflection may 
puzzle an experienced observer, and has misled many a careless one. The coat 
should be buttoned up, and the w^hite cravat carefully concealed. 

Within the sclerotica, and connected with it by innumerable minute fibres and 
vessels, is the choroid cont, I. It is a very delicate membrane, and extends over the 
whole of the internal part of the eye, from the optic nerve to the cornea. It secretes 
a dark-coloured substance or paint, by which it is covered ; the intention of which, 
ik". the inside of our telescopes and microscopes, is probably to absorb any wander. 



es THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. 

ing rays of light which might dazzle and confuse. The black paint, pigmentum 
nigrum, seems perfectly to discharge this function in the human eye. It is placed 
immediately under the retina or expansion of the optic nerve. The rays of light fall 
on the retina, and penetrating its delicate substance, are immediately absorbed or 
destroyed by the black covering of the choroides underneath. For the perfection of 
many of his best pleasures, and particularly of his intellectual powers, man wants 
the vivid impression which will be caused by the admission of the rays of light into 
a perfectly dark chamber ; and when the light of the sun begins to fail, his superior 
intelligence has enabled him to discover various methods of substituting an artificial 
day, after the natural one has closed. Other animals, without this power of kindling 
another, although inferior light, have far more to do with the night than we have. 
Manj^ of them sleep through the glare of day, and awake and are busy during the 
period of darkness. The ox occupies some hours of the night in grazing; the sheep 
does so when not folded in his pen ; and the horse, worked during the day for our 
convenience and profit, has often little more than the period of night allotted to him 
for nourishment and repose. Then it is necessary that, by some peculiar and adequate 
contrivance, these hours of comparative or total darkness to us should be partially 
yet sufficiently illuminated for them ; and therefore in the horse the dark brown or 
black coat of the choroides does not extend over the whole of the internal part of the 
eye, or rather it is not found on any part on which the rays proceeding from the 
objects could fiill. It does not occupy the smallest portion of what may be called the 
field of vision ; but, in its place a bright variegated green is spread, and more over 
the upper part than the lower, because the animal's food, and tlie objects which it is 
of consequence for him to notice, are usually below the level of his head — thus, by 
suffering the impression to remain longer on the retina, or by some portion of light 
reflected from this variegated bed on which the retina reposes, or in some other inex- 
plicable but efficient way, enabling the animal, even in comparative darkness, to 
possess the power of vision equal to his wants. 

The reader may see in the dusk, or even when duskiness is fast yielding to utter 
darkness, the beautiful sea-green reflection from the eye of the horse. It is that 
lucid variegated carpet of wliich we are now speaking. 

Who is unaware that in the fading glimmering of the evening, and even in the 
darker shades of night, his horse can see surrounding objects much better than hia 
rider; and who, resigning himself to the guidance of that sagacious and faithful 
animal, has not been carried in safety to his journey's end, when he would otherwise 
have been utterly bewildered 1 

If the reader has not examined this beautiful pigment in the eye of the horse, he 
should take the earliest opportunity of doing so. He will have a beautiful illustration 
of the care which that Being who gave all things life has taken that each shall be 
fitted for his situation. The horse has not the intelligence of man, and may not want 
for any purpose of pleasure or improvement the vivid picture of surrounding objects 
which the retina of the human being presents. A thousand minute but exquisite 
beauties would be lost upon him. If, therefore, his sense of vision may not be so 
strong during the day, it is made up to him by the increased power of vision in the 
night. ^ 

Perfectly white and cream-coloured horses have a peculiar appearance of the eyes. 
The pupil is red instead of black. There is no black paint or brilliant carpet. It is 
the choroid coat itself which we see in them, and not its covering; and the red 
appearance is caused by the numerous blood-vessels which are found on every part 
of that coat. 

When we have to treat of other domestic animals, we shall see how this carpet is 
varied m colour to suit the situation and necessity of each. In the ox it is of a dark 
green. He has not many enemies to fear, or much difficulty in searching for nourish- 
ment, and the colour of the eye is adapted to his food. In the cat and all his varieties, 
it is yellow. We have heard of the eyes of the lion appearing like two flamin« 
torches in the night. There are few of our readers who have not seen the same 
singular glare from the eyes of the domestic cat. In the wolf, and likewise in the 
dog, who, in his wild state, prowls chiefly at night, it is grey. In the poor unjustly- 
persecuted badger, who scarcely dares to crawl forth at night, although sheltered by 



THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. 59 

the thickest darkness, it is white ; and the ferret, who is destined to hunt his prey 
through all its winding retreats, and in what would be to us absolute darkness, has 
no paint on the choroides. 

Tracing the choroides towards the fore part of the eye, we perceive that it ia 
reflected from the side to the edge of the lens, 71, and has the appearance of several 
plaits or folds. They are actually foldings of the membrane. It is not diminished 
in size, but it has less space to cover, and there must be duplicatures or plaits. They 
are usefully employed in the place in which we find them. They prevent tlie passage 
of any rays of light on the outside of the lens, and which, proceeding forward in 
various directions, and uncondensed by the power of the lens, would render vision 
confused or imperfect. These folds of the choroides are called the ciliary processes. 

Within the cornea, and occupying the fore part of the eye, is the aqimnis humour, 
p, so termed from its resemblance to pure water. It is that by which the cornea is 
preserved in its protuberant and rounded form. It extends to the crystalline lens q, 
and therefore a portion of it, although a very small one, is behind the iris (w, p. 86). 
Floating in this fluid is a membrane, with an oblong aperture, called the Iris. It is 
that which gives colour to the eye. The human eye is said to be black, or hazel, or 
blue, according to the colour of this membrane or curtain ; and it is denominated the 
iris, or rainbow, from its beautiful, intermingling hues. The colour varies little in 
the horse, except that it always bears some analogy to that of the skin. We rarely 
see it lighter than a hazel, or darker than a brown. Horses perfectly white, or cream- 
coloured, have the iris white and the pupil red. When horses of other colours, and 
that are usually pied, have a white iris and a black pupil, they are said to be wall- 
eyed. Vulgar opinion has decided that a wall-eyed horse is never subject to blind- 
ness, but this is altogether erroneous. There is no difference of structure that can 
produce this exemption ; but the wall-eyed horse, from this singular and unpleasant 
appearance, and his frequent want of breeding, may not be so much used and exposed 
to many of the usual causes of inflammation. 

The aperture in the iris is termed the pupil, and through it light passes to the inner 
chamber of the eye. The pupil is oblong, and variable in size. It diflers with the 
intensity or degree of light that falls upon the eye. In a dark stable the pupil is 
expanded to admit a great proportion of the light that falls upon the cornea ; but when 
the horse is brought towards the door of the stable and more light is thrown upon the 
eye, the pupil contracts in order to keep out that extra quantity which would be pain- 
ful to the animal, and injurious to vision. When opposed directly to the sun, the 
aperture will almost close. 

This alteration of form in the pupil is effected by the muscular fibres that enter 
into the composition of the iris. When these fibres are relaxed, the pupil must pro- 
portionably diminish. The motions of the iris are not at all under the control of the 
will, nor is the animal sensible of them. They are produced by sympathy with the 
state of the retina. When, however, a deficient portion of light reaches the retina, 
and vision is indistinct, we are conscious of an apparent effort to bring the object more 
clearly into view, and the fibres then contract, and the aperture enlarges, and more 
Ught is admitted. 

This dilatation or contraction of the pupil gives a useful method of ascertaining the 
existence of blindness in one eye or in both. The cornea and crystalline lens remain 
perfectly transparent, but the retina is palsied, and is not affected by light; and many 
persons have been deceived when blindness of this description has been confined to 
one eye. A horse blind in both eyes will usually have his ears in constant and rapid 
motion, directing them in quick succession to every quarter. He will likewise hang 
back in his halter in a peculiar way, and will lift his feet high as if he were stepping 
over some obstacle, when there is actually nothing to obstruct his passage, and there 
will be an evident uncertainty in the putting down of his feet. In blindness of one 
eye, little or nothing of this characteristic gait and manner can be perceived. Although 
a one-eyed horse may not be absolutely condemned for the common business of the 
carriage or the road, he is generally deteriorated as a hunter, for he cannot measure 
his distances, and will run into his leaps.* Many a sportsman, puzzled and angry 

* Mr. W. Percivall, however, in his excellent Lectures on the Veterinary Art, vol. iii. p. 

Q* M 



90 THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. 

at the sudden blundering of his horse, or injured by one or more stunning falls, has 
found a very natural although unexpected explanation of it in the blindness of one 
eye, and that perhaps produced througli his own fault, by over-riding his willing and 
excellent servant, and causing a determination of blood to the eye, which proved fatal 
to the delicate texture of the retina. Even for the carriage or the road he is considera- 
bly deteriorated, for his field of observation must be materially lessened. 

Let the size of both pupils be carefully noticed before the horse is removed from the 
stable, and, as he is led to the door, observe w-hether they both contract, and equally 
so, with the increase of light. If the horse should be first seen in the open air, let it 
be observed whether the pupils are precisely of the same size ; then let the hand be 
placed over each eye alternately and held there for a little while, and let it be observed 
whether the pupil dilates with the abstraction of light, and equally in eacl) eye. 

Hanging from the upper edge of the pupil of the horse, are two or three round 
black substances, as large as millet seeds. When the horse is suddenly brought into 
an intense light, and the pupil is closed, they present a singular appearance, as they 
are pressed out from between the edges of the iris. An equal number, but much 
smaller, are attached to the edge of the lower portion of the iris. Their general use 
is probably to intercept rays of light which would be troublesome or injurious, and 
their principal function is accomplished during the act of grazing. They are larger 
on the upper edge of the iris, and are placed on the outer side of the pupil, evidently 
to discharge the same function which we have attributed to the eyelashes, viz., to 
obstruct the light in those directions in which it would come with greatest force, both 
from above and even from below, while, at the same time, the field of view is per^ 
fectly open, so far as it regards the pasture on which the horse is grazing. 

In our cut, m gives a duplicature of the iris, or the back surface of it. This is called 
the uvea, and it is covered with a thick coat of black mucus, to arrest the rays of 
light, and to prevent them from entering the eye in any other way than through the 
pupil. The colour of the iris is, in some unknown way, connected with this black 
paint behind. Wall-eyed horses, whose iris is white, have no uvea. 

We now arrive at a body on which all the important uses of the eye mainly depend, 
the crystalline lens, g, so called from its resemblance to a piece of crystal, or trans- 
parent glass. It is of a yielding jelly-like consistence, thicker and firmer towards the 
centre, and convex on each side, but more convex on the inner than the outer side. It 
is enclosed in a delicate transparent bag or capsule, and is placed between the aqueous 
and the vitreous humours, and received into a hollow in the vitreous humour, with 
which it exactly coiresponds. It has, from its density and its double convexity, the 
chief concern in converging the rays of light which pass into the pupil. 

The lens is very apt to be affected from long or violent inflammation of the con- 
junctiva, and either its capsule becomes cloudy, and imperfectly transmits the light, 
or the substance of the lens becomes opaque. The examination of the horse, with a 
view to detect this, must either be in the shade, or at a stable door, w'here the light 
shall fall on the animal from above and in front ; and in conducting this examination 
we would once more caution the intended purchaser against a superfluity of white 
about his neck. Holding the head of the animal a little up, and the light coming in 
the direction that has been described, the condition of the lens will at once be evident. 
The confirmed cataract, or the opaque lens of long standing, will exhibit a pearly 
appearance, that cannot be mistaken, and will frequently be attended with a change 
of form — a portion of the lens being forced forwards into the pupil. Although the 
disease may not have proceeded so far as this, yet if there is the slightest cloudiness 
of the lens, either generally, or in the form of a minute spot in the centre, and with 
or without lines radiating from that spot, the horse is to be condemned ; for, in ninety- 
nine cases out of a hundred, the disease will proceed, and cataract, or complete opacity 
of the lens, and absolute blindness, will be the result. 

201, says, " The loss of one eye does not enfeeble sight, because the other acquires greater 
energy, though it much contracts the field of vision. It is said to render the conception erring, 
and the case of misjudgment of distances is the one commonly brought forward to show this. 
All I can say on this point is, that the best hunter I ever possessed, a horse gifted with extra- 
ordinary powers for leaping, was a one-eyed horse, arid this animal carried me through a huutiuj} 
neason, without, to my recollection, making one single blunder in leaping." 



THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. 91 

Catamct in t.ie human being may, to a very considerable extent, be remedied. The 
opaque lens may be extracted, or it may be forced into the vitreous humours, and 
ihere existing as a foreign body, it will soon be absorbed and disappear. These 
operations are impossible in the horse ; for, in the first place, there is a muscle of 
which we have already spoken, and to be presently more particularly described, that 
is peculiar to quadrupeds, and of such power as generally to draw back the eye too 
far into its socket for the surgeon to be enabled to make his incision ; or could the 
incision be made, the action of tins muscle would force out the greater part of the 
contents of the eye, and this organ would speedily waste away. If, however, the 
opaque lens could be withdrawn or depressed, and the mechanism of the eye were not 
otherwise injured, the operation would be totally useless, for we could not make the 
horse wear those convex glasses whose converging power miglit compensate for the 
loss of the lens. 

Behind the lens, and occupying four-fifths of the cavity of the eye, is the vitreous 
humour (glassy, or resembling glass). It seems, when first taken from the eye, to be 
of the consistence of a jelly, and of beautiful transparency ; but if it is punctured a 
9uid escapes from it as limpid and as thin as water, and when this has been suffered 
completely to ooze out, a mass of membraneous bags or cells remains. The vitreous 
humour consists of a watery fluid contained in these cells ; but the fluid and the 
cells form a body of considerably greater density than the aqueous fluid in the front 
of the eye. 

Last of all, between the vitreous humour and the choroid coat, is the retina, o, oi net- 
like membrane. It is an expansion of the substance, g, of the optic nerve. When 
that nerve has reached the back of the eye, and penetrated through the sclerotic and 
choroid coats, it first enlarges into a little white prominence, from which radiations or 
expansions of nervous matter proceed, which spread over the whole of the choroid 
coat, and form the third investment of the eye. The membrane by which this nervous 
pulp is supported, is so exceedingly thin and delicate, that it will tear with the 
slightest touch, and break even with its own weight. The membrane and the pulp 
are perfectly transparent in the living animal. The pupil appears to be black, because 
in the daytime it imperfectly reflects the colour of the choroid coat beneath. In the 
dusk it is greenish, because, the glare of day being removed, the actual green of the 
paint appears. 

On this expansion of nervous pulp, the rays of light from surrounding objects, con- 
densed by the lens and the humours, fall, and, producing a certain image correspond- 
ing with these objects, the animal is conscious of their existence and presence. 

It may, however, so happen that from the too great or too little convexity of the eye 
or a portion of it, the place of most distinct vision maj' not be immediately on the 
retina, but a little before or behind it. In proportion as this is the case, the sight will 
be indistinct and imperfect ; nor shall v/e be able to offer any remedy for this defect 
of sight. There is a shying, often the result of cowardice or playfulness, or want 
of work, but at other times proving, beyond contradiction, a defect of sight even more 
dangerous than blindness. A blind horse will resign himself to the guidance of his 
rider or driver; but against the misconception and starting of a shying horse there is 
no defence. That horses grow shy as they grow old, no one accustomed to them will 
deny; and no intelligent person will be slow in attributing it to the right cause — a 
decay in the organ of vision, — a loss of convexity in the eye, lessening the con- 
vergency of the rays, and throwing the perfect image beyond, and not on, the retina. 
There is a striking difference in the convexity of the cornea in the colt and the old 
horse ; and both of them, probably, may shy from opposite causes — the one from a 
cornea too prominent, and tlie other from one too flat. In the usual examination of 
the horse previously to purchase, sufficient attention is not always paid to the con- 
vexity of the cornea. 

Tlie remedy for shying will be considered when we speak of the vices of horses. 

There is a provision yet wanting. The horse has a very extended field of view, but 
many persons are not perhaps aware how little of it he can command at a time 
There is not one of our readers who can make out a single line of our treatise without 
changing the direction of the eye. It is curious to follow the motion of the eyes of a 
rapid reader. Nature has given no less than seven muscles to the hrrsc, in order to 



92 



THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION, 



M^. 




turn this little but important orCTan ; and, that they may act with sufficient power and 
quickness, no fewer than six nerves are directed to the muscles of the eye generally, 
or to particular ones — while the eye rests on a mass of fat, that it may be turned with 
little exertion of power, and without friction. 

MUSCLES OF THE EYE. 

There are four straight muscles, 
three of which, rf, e, and/, are repre- 
sented in our cut, rising from the 
back of the orbit, and inserted into 
the ball of the eye, opposite to, and 
at equal distances from each other. 
' One, £?, runs to the upper part of the 
eye, just behind the transparent and 
visible portion of it, and its office is 
clearly to raise the eye. When it 
contracts, the eye must be drawn 
upward. Another,/, is inserted ex- 
actly opposite, at the bottom of the eye ; and its office is as clearly to depress the 
eye, or enable the animal to look downwards. A third, e, is inserted at the outer 
corner, and by means of it the eye is turned outward, and, from the situation of the 
eye of the horse, considerably backward ; and the fourth is inserted at the inner 
corner, turning the eye inward. They can thus rotate or turn the eye in any direction 
the animal wishes, and by the action of one, or the combined power of any two of 
them, the eye can be immediately and accurately directed to every point. 

These muscles, however, have another duty to discharge. They support the eye 
n its place. In the usual position of the head of the horse, they must be to a certain 
jegree employed for this purpose ; but when he is grazing or feeding, the principal 
weight of the eye rests upon them. Another muscle is therefore added, peculiar to 
quadnipeds, called the retractor {dratucr-bacfr), or the suspensoriits (suspensory) muscle, 
0-. It arises from the edge of the foramen through which the optic nerve enters the 
orbit — surrounds the nerve as it proceeds forward, and then, partially dividing into 
four portions, is attached to tlie back part of the eye. Its office is evidently to support 
tlie eye generally, or, when suddenly called into powerful action, and assisted by the 
straight muscles, it draws the eye back out of the reach of threatening danger, and in 
the act of drawing it back causes the haw to protrude, as an additional defence. 

The power of this muscle is very great. It renders some operations on the eye 
almost impossible. It is an admirable substitute for the want of hands, to defend the 
eye from many things that would injure it; and, being partially separated into four 
divisions, it assists the straight muscles in turning the eye. 

These muscles discharge another and a most important office. If we examine near 
and distant objects through a telescope, we must alter thefucris; i. e., we must increase 
or diminish the length of the tube. We must shorten it a little when we examine dis- 
tant objects, because the rays, coming to us from them in a less divergent direction, 
are sooner brought to a point by the power of the lens. Thus the straight and retractor 
muscles drawing back the eye, and forcing it upon the substance behind, and in a 
slight degree flattening it, bring the lens nearer to the retina, and adapt the eye to the 
observation of distant objects. 

Still, however, being constantly employed in supporting the weitrht of the eye, these 
muscles may not be able to turn it so rapidly and so extensively as the wishes or 
wants of the animal require ; therefore two others are superadded which are used 
solely in turning the eye. They are called oblique muscles, because their course is 
obliquely across the eye. The upper one is most curiously constructed, a, b. It 
comes from the back part of the orbit, and takes a direction upwards and towards the 
inner side, and there, just under the ridge of the orbit, it passes through a pajrfcct me- 
chanical pUiiey, and, turning round, proceeds across the eye, and is inserted rather 
beyond the middle of the eye, towards the outer side. Thus the globe of the eye is 
evidentlj' directed inward and upward Something more, however, is accom])lished 
liy this singular mechanism. The eye is naturally deep in the orbit, tha* it may b# 



INJURIES AND DISEASES OF THE SKULL, &c. 93 

more perfectly defended ; but it may be necessary occasionally to bring it forward, 
and enlarge the field of vision. The eye is actually protruded under the influence of 
fear. Not only are the lids opened more widely, but the eye is brought more forward. 
How is this accomplished 1 There are no muscles anterior to, or before the eye — 
there is no place for their insertion. The object is readily effected by this singular 
pulley, b, c. By the power of this muscle — the irochlearis, or pulley-muscle — and the 
straight muscles at the same time not opposing it, or only regulating the direction of 
the eye, it is really brought somewhat forward. The lower oblique muscle rises just 
within the lacrymal bone (i, p. 70), and, proceeding across the eye, is fixed into the 
part of the sclerotica opposite to the other oblique muscle, and it turns the eye in a 
contrary direction, assisting, however, the upper oblique in bringing the eye forward 
from its socket. 



CHAPTER III. 

INJURIES AND DISEASES OF THE SKULL— THE BRAIN — THS 
EARS — AND THE EYES. 

We have now arrived at a convenient resting-place in our somewhat dry but neces- 
sary description of the structure of the horse, and we willingly turn to more practical 
matter. We will consider the injuries and diseases of the parts we have surveyed. 
In entering, however, on this division of our work, we would premise, that it is impos- 
sible for us to give the farmer such an account of the nature and treatment of the dis- 
eases of horses as will enable him with safety to practise for himself, except in the 
commonest cases. The causes of most diseases are so obscure, their symptoms so 
variable, and their connexion with other maladies so complicated and mysterious, that 
a life devoted to professional study will alone qualify a man to become a judicious 
and successful practitioner on the diseases of the horse and other domestic animals. 
Our object will be to communicate sufficient instruction to the farmer to enable hira 
to act with promptness and judgment when he cannot obtain professional assistance, 
to qualify him to form a satisfactory opinion of the skill of the veterinary surgeon 
whom he may employ, and, more especially, to divest him of those strange and absurd 
prejudices which in a variety of cases not only produce and prolong disease, but bring 
it to a fatal termination. 

FRACTURE. 

We have described the cavity of the skull of the horse as being so defended by the 
hardness of the parietal bones, and those bones so covered by a mass of muscle, and 
the occipital bone as so exceedingly thick (see page 92), that a Fracture of the skull 
is almost impossible. It can only occur from brutal violence, or w^hen a horse falls 
in the act of rearing. When, however, fracture of the skull does occur, it is almost 
invariably fatal. A blow of sufficient violence to break these bones must likewist; 
irreparably injure the delicate and important organ which they protect. 

The ridge, or outer and upper part of the orbit of the eye, is occasionally fractured. 
It happens from falling, or much oftener from violent blows. The slightest examina- 
tion will detect the loosened pieces ; but a professional man alone can render effectual 
assistance. 

Mr. Pritdhard, in the second volume of the " Veterinarian," relates an interestmg 
case of fracture of the orbit of the eye. " A chestnut mare," he says, " received a 
blow which fractured the orbit from the superciliary foramen, in a line through the 
zygomatic processes of the temporal and malar bones to the outer angle of the eye 
The detached bone, together with the divided integument, hung over the eye so as tt 
intercept vision. On examining the place where the accident occurred, two portion^ 
t)f bone were found belonging to the orbital arch. After carefully inspecting the 
wound, and finding no other detached portions, nor any spiculae which might irritate 



94 INJURIES AND DISEASES OF THE SKULL, &.c. 

or wound, the adjacent portions of the skin were carefully drawn together, and secured 
by a silver wire, which closed the wound, and confined the detached portion of bone 
in its proper place. A mash diet was ordered. 

" On the following day there was considerable inflammation. The eye was bathed 
with warm water, and a dose of physic administered. On the third day the inflam- 
mation and swelling had still more increased. Blood was abstracted from the vein 
at the angle of the eye. The swelling and inflammation now speedily abated ; and 
on the fifteenth day the wound had quite healed." 

If a fracture of this kind is suspected, its existence or non-existence may be easily 
determined by introducing the thumb under, and keeping the fore-finger upon, the 
edge of the orbit, 

EXOSTOSIS. 

Bony enlargements of the orbital arch sometimes arise from natural predisposition 
or local injury. They should be attacked in the earliest stage, for they are too apt 
rapidly to increase. Some preparation of iodine, as described in the account of medi- 
cines, will be useful in this case. 

CARIES. 

Inflammation and enlargement of the injured bones, followed by abscess and the 
production of certain bony growths, are of occasional occurrence. A skilful practi- 
tioner can alone decide whether a cure should be attempted, or the sufferings of the 
animal terminated by death. 

COMPRESSION OF THE BRAIN. 

Hydatids are often found within the cranial cavity, and lying upon or imbedded in 
the brain of oxen and sheep. Their existence is usually fatal to the animal. There 
is no well-authenticated account of the existence of an hydatid in the cranial cavity 
of the horse; but cysts, containing a serous or viscid fluid, are occasionally observed. 
The following is the history of one : — A horse exhibited symptoms of vertigo, or stag- 
gers, which disappeared after copious bleeding and purgatives. About twelve months 
afterwards the same complaint was evident. He carried his head low and inclined to 
the right side. He staggered as he walked, and the motion of his limbs was marked 
by a peculiar convulsive action, confined to the fore extremities. He moved by a suc- 
cession of spasmodic boundings. He was completely deaf; and rapidly lost flesh, 
though he ate and drank voraciously. He remained in this state, to the shame of the 
owner and the practitioner, several months, and then he had a fresh attack of vertigo, 
and died suddenly. On examination of the brain, its membranes were found to be 
completely reddened ; and, between the two lobes of the brain, was a round cyst aa 
large as a pullet's egg. The pressure of this was the manifest cause of the mischief. 

PRESSURE ON THE BRAIN. 

This may be produced by some fluid thrown out between the membranes, or occu- 
pying and distending the ventricles of the brain. In the full-grown horse it rarely 
oi'curs; but it is well known to breeders as an occasional disease of the foal, under 
tlie name of " water in the head." The head is either much enlarged, or strangely 
deformed, or both ; and the animal dies, either in the birth, or a few days after it. 

MEGRIMS. 

'ITiere is another kind of pressure on the brain, resulting from an unusual determi- 
nation or flow of blood to it. This organ requires a large supply of blood to enable 
it to discharge its important functions. Nature, in the horse more than in many other 
animals, has made some admirable provisions to cause this stream to flov/ into the 
brain with little velocity, and thereby to lessen the risk of suddenly overloading it or 
rupturing its vessels. The arteries pursue their course to the brain in a strangely 
winding and circuitous manner; and they enter the skull through bony apertures that 
will admit of the enlargement of the vessels only to a very limited eA.tent. From 
various causes, however, of which the most common is violent exercise rn a hot day, 



APOPLEXY. g^ 

and the horse being fat and full of blood, more than the usual quantity is sent to the 
head; or, from some negligence about the harness — as the collar being too small, or 
the carb-rein too tight — the blood is prevented from returning from the head. The 
larger vessels of the brain will then be too long ai.u injuriously distended ; and,, what 
is of more consequence, the small vessels that permeate the substance of the brain 
will be enlarged, and the bulk of the brain increased, so that it will press upon the 
origins of the nerves, and produce, almost without warning, loss of power and con- 
sciousness. 

The mildest affection of this kind is known by the name of Megrims. It compara- 
tively rarely happens when the horse is ridden ; but should he be driven, and perhaps 
rather quickly, he may perform a part of his journey with his usual cheerfulness and 
ease : he will then suddenly stop, shake his head, and exhibit evident giddiness, and 
half-unconsciousness. In a minute or two this will pass over, and he will go on 
again as if nothing had happened. 

Occasionally, however, the attack will be of a more serious nature. He will fall 
without the slightest warning, or suddenly run round once or twice, and then fall. He 
will eitlierlie in a state of complete insensibility, or struggle with the utmost violence. 
In five or ten minutes he will begin gradually to come to himself; he will get up and 
proceed on his journey, yet somewhat dull, and evidently affected and exhausted by 
what had happened, although not seriously or permanently ill. 

At the moment of attack, a person who is competent lo the task should abstract 
three or four quarts of blood from the neck-vein ; or cut the bars of the palate in the 
manner to be explained when we describe that part, and whence a considerable and 
sufficient quantity of blood may be readily obtained. The driver should pat and 
soothe the animal, loosen the curb-rein, if possible ease the collar, and pursue his 
journey as slowly as circumstances will permit. When he gets home, a dose of 
physic should l)e administered if the horse can be spared, the quantity of dry food 
lessened, and mashes given, or green meat, or he should be turned out to grass for 
two or three months. 

Is all this ne'cessary because a horse has happened to have a fit of the megrims 1 
Yes, and more too, in the mind of the prudent man; for it is seldom that a horse has 
the megrims without the predisposition to a sec-ond attack remaining. These over- 
distended vessels may be relieved for a while, but it is long before they perfectly 
recover their former tone. It requires but a little increased velocity or force in the 
vital current once more to distend them, and to produce the same dangerous effects. 
The testimony of experience is uniform with regard to this ; and he would not do 
justice to himself or his family who trusted himself behind a horse that had a second 
attack of megrims. 

APOPLEXY. 

Megrims is Apoplexy under its mildest form. In the latter affection, the deter- 
mination of blood, if not so sudden, is greater, or differently directed, or more lasting. 
It is seldom, however, that there are not timely warnings of its approach, if the carter 
or the groom had wit enough to observe them. The horse is a little off his feed — he 
is more than usually dull — there is a degree of stupidity about him, and, generally, a 
Bomewhat staggering gait. This goes off when he has been out a little while, but it 
soon returns under a more decided character, until, at length, it forces itself on the 
attention of the most careless. 

The actual illness is perhaps first recognised by the horse standing with his head 
depressed. It bears upon, or is forced against the manger or the wall, and a con- 
siderable part of the weight of the animal is evidently supported by this pressure of 
the head. As he thus stands, he is balancing himself from one side to the other as 
if he were ready to fall ; and it is often dangerous to stand near to him, or to move 
lim, for he falls without warning. If he can get his muzzle into a corner, he will 
sometimes continue there motionless for a considerable time, and then drop as if he 
were shot ; but, the next moment, he is up again, with his feet almost in the rack. 
He sleeps or seems to do so as he stands, or at least he is nearly or quite unconscious 
of surrounding objects. When he is roused, he looks vacantly around him. Perhaps 
he will take a lock of hay if it is offered to him ; but ere it is half masticated, the eye 



90 APOPLEXY. 

closes, and he sleeps again with the food in his mouth. Soon afterwards he is, pei 
haps, roused once more. The eye opens, but it has an unmeaning glare. The hana 
is moved before him, but the eye closes not; he is spoken to, but he hears not. The 
last act of voluntary motion which he will attempt is usually to drink; but he has 
Uule power over the muscles of deglutition, and the fluid returns through the nostrils. 

He now begins to foam at the mouth. His breathing is laborious and loud. It is 
performed by the influence of the organic nervT?s, and those of animal life no longer 
lend their aid. The pulse is slow and oppressed — the jugular vein is distended 
almost to bursting — the muzzle is cold, and the discharge of the feeces involuntary 
He grinds his teeth — tvvitchings steal over his face and attack his limbs — they some- 
times proceed to convulsions, and dreadful ones too, in which the horse beats himself 
about in a terrible manner ; but there is rarely disposition to do mischief. In the 
greater number of cases these convulsions last not long. All the powers of life are 
oppressed, and death speedily closes the scene. 

On examination after death, the whole venous system is usually found in a state 
of congestion, and the vessels of the brain are peculiarly turgid with black blood. 
Occasionally, however, there is no inflammation of the brain or its membranes ; but 
either the stomach contains a more than usual quantity of food, or the larger intes- 
tines are loaded with foul matter. 

This disease is found more frequently in the stable of the postmaster and the farmer 
than anywhere else. Thirty years ago it was the very pest of these stables, and the 
loss sustained by some persons was enormous ; but, as veterinary science progressed, 
the nature and the causes of the disease were better understood, and there is not now 
one case of staggers where twenty used to occur 

Apoplexy is a determination of blood to the head, and the cause is the over-condi' 
tion of the animal and too great fulness of blood. Notions of proper condilion in the 
horse now prevail very different from those by which our forefathers were guided. 
It no longer consists in the round, sleek carcase, fat enough for the butcher, but in 
fulness and hardness of the muscular fibre, and a comparative paucity of cellular and 
adipose matter — in that which will add to the power of nature, and not oppress and 
weigh her down. 

The system of exercise is better understood than it used formerly to be. It is pro- 
portioned to the quantity and quality of the food, and more particularly the division 
of labour is more rational. Tlie stage-horse no longer runs his sixteen or eighteen, 
or even two-and-twenty miles, and then, exhausted, is turned into the stable for the 
next twenty hours. The food is no longer eaten voraciouslj' ; the comparatively little 
stomach of the animal is no longer distended, before nature has been able sufficiently 
to recruit herself to carry on the digestive process ; the vessels of the stomach are no 
longer oppressed, and the flow of blood through them arrested, and, consequently, 
more blood directed to other parts, and to the brain among the rest. 

The farmer used to send his horses out early in the morning, and keep them at 
plough for six or eight hours, and then they were brought honie and suffered to over- 
gorge themselves, and many of them were attacked by staggers and died. If the evil 1 
did not proceed quite to this extent, the farmer's horse was notoriously subject to fits I 
Df heaviness and sleepiness — he had hn/f-attacks of staggers. From this frequent 
oppression of the brain — this pressure on the optic nerves as well as other parts, 
another consequence ensued, unsuspected at the time, but far too prevalent — the horse 
became blind. The farmer was notorious for having more blind horses in his stable 
than any other person, except, perhaps, the postmaster. 

Tlie system of horse management is now essentially changed. Shorter stages, a 
iivision of the labour of the day, and a suflScient interval for rest, and for feeding, 
lave, comparatively speaking, banished sleepy sfufrgers from the stables of the post- 
naster. The division of the morning and afternoon labour of the farmer's horse, 
vith the introduction of that simple but invaluable contrivance, the nose-hag^ have 
iendered this disease comparatively rare in the establishment of the agriculturist. To 
ihe late Professor Coleman we are indebted for some of these important improve- 
ments. 

Old horses are more subject to staggers than young ones, for the stomach has b(v 



J 



APOPLEXY. 



91 



come weak by the repetition of the abuses just described. It has not power to dio-esl 
and expel the food, and thus becomes a source of general, and particularly of cere- 
bral, disturbance. 

Horses at grass are occasionally attacked by this disease ; but they are generally 
poor, hard-worked, half-starved animals, turned on richer pasture than their impaired 
digestive organs are equal to. Perhaps the weather is hot, and the sympathy of the 
brain with the undue labour of the stomach is more easily excited, and a determina- 
tion of blood to the brain more readily effected. 

Mr. Percivall gives a very satisfactory illustration of the production of staggers in 
this way. He says that " when his father first entered the service of the Ordnance, 
it was the custom to turn horses which had become low in condition, but were still 
well upon their legs, into the marshes, in order to recruit their strength. During the 
months of July, August, and September, nothing was more common than an attack 
of staggers among these horses, and which was naturally attributed to the luxuriant 
pasture they were turned into, combined with the dependent posture of the head, and 
tlie sultry heat to which they were exposed." 

Occasionally it will be necessary for the owner or the veterinary attendant to insti- 
tute very careful inquiry, or he will not detect the real causes of the disease. Does 
it arise from improper management, to which the horse has been in a manner habitu- 
ated ? Had he been subjected to long labour and fasting, and had then the opportu- 
nity of gorging to excess ] Did it proceed from accidental repletion — from the ani- 
mal having got loose in the night, and found out the corn or the chaff bin, and filled 
himself almost to bursting] There is nothing in the appearance of the animal which 
will lead to a discovery of the cause — no yellowness nor twitchings of the skin, no 
local swellings, as some have described ; but the practitioner or the owner must get 
at the truth of the matter as well as he can, and then proceed accordingly. 

As to the TREATMENT of staggers, whatever be the cause of the disease, bleeding 
is the first measure indicated — the overloaded vessels of the brain must be relieved. 
The jugular vein should be immediately opened. It is easily got at — it is large — the 
blood may be drawn from it in a full stream, and, being also the vessel through which 
the blood is returned from the head, the greater part of the quantity obtained will bo 
taken immediately from the overloaded organ, and therefore will be most likely to 
produce the desired effect. No definite quantity of blood should be ordered to b« 
abstracted. The effect produced must be the guide, and the bleeding must be con- 
tinued until the horse falters, or begins to blow — or, perhaps, with more assured suc- 
cess, until he falls. Some persons select the temporal artery. This is very unsci- 
entific practice. It is difficult, or impossible, to obtain from this vessel a stream that 
promises any decisive success. It is likewise difficult to stop the bleeding from this 
artery ; and, after all, the blood is not drawn from the actual seat of the disease — 
the brain. 

The second step is to ascertain what is the cause of the apoplexy. Has the animal 
got at the corn or the chaff bin] Had he been over-fed on the evening before, and is 
his stomach probably distended to tlie utmost by what he has eaten] In such a case, 
of what avail can physic be, introduced into a stomach already crammed with indi- 
gestive food ] Or what effect can twelve or twenty drachms of aloes produce, a small 
portion only of which can penetrate into the stomach ] Recourse must be had to the 
STOMACH-PUMP, one of the most valuable discoveries of modern times, and affording 
the means of combating several diseases that had previously set all medical skill at 
defiance. Warm water must be injected. The horse is now incapable of offering 
much resistance, and the injection may be continued not only until the contents of 
the stomach are so far diluted that a portion of them can escape through the lower 
orifice of that viscus, but until the obstruction to vomiting offered by the contracted 
entrance of the stomach is overcome, and a portion of the food is returned through 
the nostrils or mouth. 

This being effected, or it having been ascertained that there was no extreme disten- 
sion of the stomach, recourse should be had to aloes, and from eight to twelve dracnms 
of it may be administered. It will be proper to add some stimulatmg medicine to the 
aloes, with a view of restoring the tone of the stomach, and inducing it tc contract on 
its contents. Gentian and ginger are most likely to effect this purpose. 

S N 



95 P H R E N I T I S . 

The after-treatment m\ist be regulated by circumstances. For seme tim.e the horse 
should be put on a restricted diet ; mashes should be given; green meat in no great 
quantity; a moderate allowance of hay, and very little corn. When sufficiently 
recovered, he may be turn(>d out with advantage on rather bare pasture. One circum- 
stance, however, should never be forgotten — that the horse who has once been attacked 
with stao-gers is liable to a return of the complaint from causes that otherwise would 
not atfect him. The distended vessels are weakened — the constitution is weakened 
and prudence would dictate that such an animal cannot be too soon disposed of. 

Let no farmer delude himself with the idea that apoplexy is contagious. If his 
horses have occasionally slight fits of staggers, or if the disease carries off several 
of them, he may be assured that there is something wrong in his management. One 
horse may get at the corn-bin and cram himself to bursting ; but if several are attack- 
ed, it is time for the owner to look about him. The general cause is too voracious 
feeding — too much food giver at once, and perhaps without water, after hard v/ork 
and long fasting. 

There is one consequence of this improper treatment, of which persons do not 
appear to be sufficiently aware, although they suffer severely from it. A horse that 
has frequent half-attacks of staggers very often goes blind. It is not the common 
blindness from cataract, but a peculiarly glassy appearance of the eye. If the history 
of these blind horses could be told, it would be found that they had been subject to 
fits of drooping and dulness, and these produced by absurd management respecting 
labour and food, 

PIIRENITIS. 

Primary inflammation of the brain or its membranes, or both, sometimes occurs, 
and of the membranes oftenest when both are not involved. 

Whatever be the origin of phrenitis, its early symptoms are scarcely d'/ferent from 
those of apoplexy. The horse is drowsy, stupid ; his eye closes ; he sleeps while 
he is in the act of eating, and dozes until he falls. The pulse is slow and creeping, 
and the breathing oppressed and laborious. This is the description of apoplexy. The 
symptoms may differ a little in intensity and continuance, but not much in kind. 

The phrenitic horse, however, is not so perfectly comatose as another that labours 
under apoplexy. The eye will respond a little to the action of light, and the animal 
is somewhat more manageable, or at least more susceptible, for he will shrink when 
he is struck, while the other frequently cares not for the whip. 

In the duration of the early symptoms there is some dift'erence. If the apoplexy 
proceeds from distension of the stomach, four-and-twenty or six-and-thirty hours will 
scarcely pass without the cure being completed, or the stomach ruptured, or the horse 
destroyed. If it proceeds more from oppression of the digestive organs than from 
absolute distension of the stomach, and from that sympathy which subsists between 
the stamach and the brain, the disease will go on — it will become worse and worse 
every hour, and this imperfect comatose state will remain during two or three days. 
The apoplexy of the phrenitic horse will often run its course in a few hours. 

In a case of evident phrenitis, blood-letting and physic must be early carried to 
their full extent. The horse will often be materially relieved, and, perhaps, cured by 
this decisive treatment ; but, if the golden hour has been suflered to pass, or if reme- 
dial measures have become ineffectual, the scene all at once changes, and the most 
violent reaction succeeds. The eye brightens — strangely so ; the membrane of the 
tj'3 becomes suddenly reddened, and forms a frightful contrast with the transparency 
of '.he cornea; the pupil is dilated to the utmost; the nostril, before scarcely moving, 
expands and quivers, and labours; the respiration becomes short and q\;iek ; the ears 
are erect, or bent forward to catch the slightest sound ; and the horse, becoming more 
irritable every instant, trembles at the slightest motion. The irritability of the patient 
increases — it may be said to change to ferocity — but the animal has no aim or object 
in what he does. He dashes himself violently about, plunges in every direction, 
rears on his hind legs, whirls round and ^ound, and then falls backward with dread- 
ful force. He lies for a while exhausted — there is a remission of the symptoms, b« 
^rhaps only for a minute or two, or possibly for a quarter of an hour. 



PHRENITIS. gr, 

Now is the surgeon's golden time, and his courage and adroitness will be ;ui to 
ihe test. He must open, if he can, one or both jugulars : but let him be on his 
guard, for the paroxysm will return with its former violence and without the slightest 
warning. 

The second attack is more dreadful than the first. Again the animal whirls round 
and round, arid plunges and falls. He seizes his clothmg and rends it in pieces; 
perhaps, destitute of feeling and of consciousness, he bites and tears himself. He 
darts furiousl}^ at everything within his reach ; but no mind, no design, seems to min- 
gle with or govern his fury. 

Another and another remission and a return of the exacerbation follow, and then, 
wearied out, he becomes quiet; but it is not the quietness of returning reason — it is 
mere stupor. This continues for an uncertain period, and then he begins to strug- 
gle again ; but he is now probably unable to rise. He pants-^he foams — at length, 
completely exhausted, he dies. 

There are but two diseases with which phrenitis can be confounded, and they are 
cholic and rabies. In cholic, the horse rises and falls ; he rolls about and kicks at 
his belly ; but his struggles are tame compared with those of the phrenitic horse 
There is no involuntary spasm of any of the limbs ; the animal is perfectly sensible, 
and, looking piteously at his flanks, seems designedly to indicate the seat of pain. 
The beautiful yet fearfully excited countenance of the one, and the piteous, anxious 
gaze of the other, are sufficiently distinct ; and, if it can be got at, the rapid, bound- 
ing pulse of the one, and that of the other scarcely losing its natural character in the 
early stage, cannot be mistaken. 

In rabies, when it does assume the ferocious form, there is even more violence than 
in phrenitis ; but there is method, and treachery too, in that violence. There is the 
desire of mischief for its own sake, and there is frequently the artful stratagem to 
allure the victim within the reach of destruction. There is not a motion of which 
the rabid horse is not conscious, nor a person whom he does not recognise; but he 
labours under one all-absorbing feeling — the intense longing to devastate and destroy. 

The post-mortem appearances are altogether uncertain. There is usually very great 
injection and inflammation of the membranes of the brain, and even of portions of 
the substance of the brain ; but in other cases there is scarcely any trace of inflam- 
mation, or even of increased vascularity. 

The treatment of phrenitis has been very shortly hinted at. The first — the indis- 
pensable proceeding — is to bleed ; to abstract as much blood as can be obtained ; to 
let the animal bleed on after he is down ; and indeed not to pin up the vein of the 
phrenitic horse at all. The patient will never be lost by this decisive proceeding, but 
the inflammation may be subdued, and here the first blow is the whole of the battle. 
The physic should be that which is most readily given and will most speedily act. 
The farina of the croton will, perhaps, have the preference. Half a drachm or two 
scruples of it may be fearlessly administered. The intense inflammation of the brain 
gives sufficient assurance that no dangerous inflammation will be easily set up in the 
intestinal canal. This medicine can be formed into a very little ball or drink, and in 
some momentary remission of the symptoms, administered by means of the probang, 
or a stick, or the horn. Sometimes the phrenitic horse, when he will take nothing 
else, and is unconscious of everything else, will drink with avidity gruel or water. 
Repeated doses of purgative medicine may perhaps be thus given, and they must 
be continued until the bowels respond. The forehead should be blistered, if it can in 
any way be accomplished ; yet but little service is to be expected from this manipu- 
lation. The bowels having been well opened, digitalis should be administered. Its 
first and most powerful action is on the heart, diminishing both the number and 
strength of its pulsations. To this may be added emetic tartar and nitre, but not n 
particle of hellebore ; for that drug, if it acts at all, produces an increased determina- 
tion of blood to the brain. 

While the disease continues, no attempt must be made to induce the horse to feed; 
and even when appetite returns with the abatement of inflammation great cautior 
must be exercised both with regard to the quantity and quality of the food. 



100 RABIES, OR MADNESS. 

RABIES, OR MADNESS. 

This is another and fearful disease of the nervous system. It results from the bite 
of a "-abid animal, and, most commonly, of the companion and friend of the horse — 
the coach-dog. The account now given of this malady is extracted from lectures 
which the author of the present work delivered to his class. 

" There is occasional warning of the approach of this disease in the horse, or rather 
of the existence of some unusual malady, the real nature of which is probably mis- 
taken. A mare, belonging to .Mr. Karslake, had during ten days before the recogni- 
tion of the disease been drooping, refusing her food, heaving at the llanks, and pawing 
occasionally. It was plain enough that she was indisposed, but at length the furious 
fit came upon her, and she destroyed almost everything in the stable in the course of 
an hour. The late Mr. Moneyment had a two-years old colt brought to his establish- 
ment. It was taken ill in the afternoon of the preceding day, when it first attracted 
attention by refusing its food, and throwing itself down and getting up again imme- 
diately. From such a description, Mr. Moneyment concluded that it was a case of 
cholic ; but, when he went into the yard, and saw the pony, and observed his wild 
and anxious countenance, and his excessive nervous sensibility, he was convinced 
that something uncommon was amiss with him, although he did net at first suspect 
the real nature of the case. 

The early symptoms of rabies in the horse have not been carefully observed or well 
recorded ; Ijut, in the majority of cases, so far as our records go, there will not often 
be premonitory symptoms sufficiently decisive to be noticed by the groom. 

The horse goes out to his usual work, and, for a certain time and distance, performs 
it as well as he had been accustomed to do; then he stops all at once — trembles, 
heaves, paws, staggers, and falls. Almost immediately he rises, drags his load a 
little farther, and again stops, looks about him, backs, staggers, and falls once more. 
This is not a fit of megrims — it is not a sudden determination of blood to the brain, 
for the horse is not for a single moment insensible. The sooner he is led home the 
better, for the progress of the disease is as rapid as the first attack is sudden; and, 
possibly, he will fall twice or thrice before he reaches his stable. 

In the great majority of cases — or rather, with very few exceptions — a state of 
excitation ensues, which is not exceeded by that of the dog under the most fearful 
form of the malady, but there are intervals when, if he had been naturally good- 
tempered and had been attached to his rider or his groom, he will recognise his former 
friend and seek his caresses, and bend on him one of those piteous, searching looks 
•which, once observed, will never be forgotten: but there is danger about this. Pre- 
sently succeeds another paroxysm, without warning and without control ; and there 
is no safety for him wlio had previously the most complete mastery over the animal. 

I was once attending a rabid horse. The owner would not have him destroyed, 
under the vain hope that I had mistaken a case of phrenitis for one of rabies, and that 
the disease might yield to the profuse abstraction of blood that I had been prevailed 
on to effect, and the purgative influence of the farina of the croton-nut with which he 
had been abundantly supplied in an early stage of the malady. I insisted upon his 
being rilung, so that we were protected from injury from his kicking or plunging. He 
■would bend his gaze upon me as if he would search me through and through, and 
would prevail on me, if I could, to relieve him from some dreadful evil by which he 
was threatened. He would then press his head against my bosom, and keep it there 
a minute or more. All at once, however, the paroxysm W'ould return. He did not 
attempt to bite me ; but, had it not been for the sling, he would have plunged furiously 
about, and I might have found it diflicult to escape. 

I had previously attended another horse, which the owner refused to have destroyed, 
and to which attendance I only consented on condition of the animal being slung. 
He had been bitten in the near hind-leg. When I approached him on that side, he 
did not attempt to bite nie, and he could not otherwise injure me; but he was agitatea 
and trembled, and struggled as well as he could ; and if I merely touched him with 
my finger, the pulsatio«is were quickened full ten beats in a minute. When, how- 
ever, I went round to the off side, he permitted me to pat him, and 1 had to encounter 
his imnloring gaze, and his head was pressed against me — and then nresently would 



RABIES, OR MADNESS. jOj 

couie the paroxj'sm ; but it came on almost before I could toucn him, wVen 1 
ap] roached him on the other side. 

These mild cases, however, are exceptions to a general rule. They are few and 
far between. The horse is the servant, and not the friend of man; and if his com 
panion yet an oppressed one. In proportion to his bulk he has far less of that 
portion of the brain with which intelligence is connected — less attachment — less 
gratitude. He is nevertheless a noble animal. I am not speaking disparagingly of 
him; but I am comparing him wiih — next to man — the most intellectual of all quad- 
rupeds. There is neither tlie motive for, nor the capability of, that attachment which 
the dog feels for his master, and therefore, under the influence of this disease, he 
abandons himself to all its dreadful excitement. 

The mare of Mr. Karslake, when the disease was fully developed, forgot her 
former drooping, dispirited state: her respiration was accelerated — her mouth was 
covered with foam — a violent perspiration covered every part of her, and her screams 
would cow the stoutest heart. She presently demolished all the wood-work of the 
stable, and then she employed herself in beating to pieces the fragments, no human 
being daring to expose himself to her fury. 

The symptoms of the malady of Mr. Moneyment's pony rapidly increased — he bit 
everything within his reach, even different parts of his own body — he breathed 
laboriously — his tail erect — screaming dreadfully at short intervals, striking the 
ground with his fore-feet, and perspiring most profusely. At length he broke the top 
of his manger and rushed out of the stall with it hanging to his halter. He made 
immediately towards the medical attendant, and the spectators who were standing by. 
They fortunately succeeded in getting out of his way, and he turned in the next stall, 
and dropped and died. 

A }^oung veterinary friend of mine very incautiously and fool-hardily attempted to 
ball a rabid horse. The animal had previously shown himself to be dangerous, and 
had slightly bitten a person who gave him a ball on the preceding evening: he now 
seized the young student's hand, and lifted him from the ground, and shook him, as 
a terrier would shake a rat. It was with the greatest difficulty, and not until the 
grooms had attacked the ferocious animal with their pitchforks, that they could com- 
pel him to relinquish his liold ; and, even then, not before he had bitten his victim to 
the bone, and nearly torn away the whole of the flesh from the upper and lower sur- 
faces of the hand.* 

There is also in the horse, whose attachment to his owner is often comparatively 
small, a degree of treachery which we rarely meet with in the nobler and more intel- 
lectual dog. A horse that had shown symptoms of great ferocity was standing in the 
corner of his box, with a heaving flank, and every muscle quivering from the degree 
of excitement under which he laboured. A groom, presuming on the former obedience 
of the animal, ventured in, and endeavoured to put a headstall upon him. Neither 
tlie master nor myself could persuade him to forl)ear. I was sure of mischief, for I 
had observed the ear lying flat upon the neck, and I could ste the backward glance 
of the eye ; I therefore armed myself with a heavy twitch stick that was at hand, and 
climbed into the manger of the next box. Tlie man had not advanced two steps into 
the box before I could see tlie shifting position of the fore feet, and the preparation to 
spring upon his victim ; and he would have sprung upon him, but my weapon fell 
with all the force I could urge upon his head, and he dropped. The man escaped, 
but the brute was up again in an instant, and we trembled lest the partition of the 
box should yield to his violence, and he would realize the graphic description of Mr. 
Blaine, when he speaks of the rabid horse as " levelling everything before him, him- 
self sweating, and snorting, and foaming amidst the ruins." 

I have had occasion more than once to witness the evident pain of the bitten part, 
and the manner in which the horse in the intervals of his paroxysms employs himself 
in licking or gnawing the cicatrix. One animal had been oitteu in the chest, and he, 
not in the intervals between the exacerbation, but when ttit, paroxysm WaS most 

* In the Museum of the Veterinary School at Alfort, is the lower jaw ov a r-^bid hor«? 
which was fractured in the violent efforts of the animal to do mischief. 
9* 



102 RABIES, OR MADNESS. 

violent, would bite and tear himself until his breast was shockingly mangled, and the 
blood flowed from it in a stream. 

The most interesting and satisfactory symptom is the evident dread of water which 
exists in the decided majority of cases, and the impossibility of swallowing any con- 
siderable quantity. Professor Dupuy gives an account of this circumstance: — "A 
rabid horse was confined in one of the sick boxes. His food was given to him 
through an opening over the door, and a bucket was suspended from the door, and 
supplied with water by means of a copper tube. As soon as he heard the water 
falling into the pail, he fell into violent convulsions, seized the tube, and crushed it 
to pieces. When the water in his bucket was agitated, the convulsions were renewed. 
He would occasionally approach the bucket as if he wished to drink, and then, after 
agitating the water for an instant, he would fall on his litter, uttering a hoarse cry ; 
but he would rise again almost immediately. These symptoms were dreadfully 
increased if water was thrown upon his head. He would then endeavour to seize it as 
it fell, and bite with fury at everything within his reach, his whole frame being dread- 
fully convulsed." 

As the disease progresses, not only is the animal rapidly debilitated, but there is 
the peculiar staggering gait which is observable in the dog — referrible to evident loss 
of power in the muscles of the lumbar region. I once saw a mare sitting on her 
haunches, and unable to rise ; yet using her fore feet with the utmost fury, and 
suffering no one to come within her reach. She, too, would sometimes plunge her 
muzzle into the offered pail ; and immediately withdraw it in evident terror, while 
every limb trembled. At other times the lowering of the pail would affright her, and 
she would fall on her side and struggle furiously. Although this symptom is not 
often observed in the dog, it is a satisfactory identification of the disease, when it is 
so frequently seen in the horse, and so invariably in the human being. 

The earliest and perhaps the most decisive symptom of the near approach of rabies 
in the horse, is a spasmodic movement of the upper lip, particularly of the angles of 
the lip. Close following on this, or contemporaneous with it, is the depressed and 
anxious countenance, and inquiring gaze, suddenly however lighted up and becoming 
fierce and menacing, from some unknown cause, or at the approach of a stranger. 
From time to time different parts of the frame — the eyes — the jaws — ^particular limbs 
— will be convulsed. The eye will occasionally wander after some imaginary object, 
and the horse will snap again and again at that which has no real existence. Then 
will come the irrepressible desire to bite the attendants or the animals within its 
reach. To this will succeed the demolition of the rack, the manger, and the whole 
furniture of the stable, accompanied by the peculiar dread of water which has been 
already described. 

Towards the close of the disease there is generally paralysis, usually confined tc 
the loins and the hinder extremities, or involving those organs which derive their 
nervous influence from this portion of the spinal cord; — hence the distressing tenes- 
mus which is occasionally seen. 

The disease rarely extends beyond the third day. 

After death, there is uniformly found inflammation at the back part of the mouth, 
and at the top of the windpipe, and likewise in the stomach, and on the membrane 
covering the lungs, and where the spinal marrow first issues from the brain. 

When the disease can be clearly connected with a previous bite, the sooner the 
animal is destroyed the better, for there is no cure. If the symptoms bear considerable 
resemblance to rabies, although no bite is suspected, the horse should at least be 
slung, and the medicine, if any is administered, given in the form of a drink, and 
with the hand well protected; for if it should be scratched in balling the horse, or 
the skin should have been previously broken, the saliva of the animal is capable of 
f ommunicating the disease. Several farriers liave lost their lives from being bitter? 
or scratched in the act of administering medicine to a rabid horse. 

It is always dangerous to encourage any dogs about the stable, and especially if 
they become fond of the horses, and are in the habit of jumping up and licking them 
The corners of the mouth of the horse are often sore from the pressure of the bit; and 
•'S'hen a coach-dog in a gentleman's stable — and it is likely to happen in every s-table 



TETANUS, OR LOCKED JAW. IO3 

and with every dog— becomes rabid and dies, the horse too frequently follows him at 
no great distance of time. 

If a horse is bitten by a dog under suspicious circumstances, he should be carefully 
examined, and every wound, and even the slightest scratch, well burned with tho 
lunar caustic (nitrate of silver). The scab should be removed and the operation 
repeated on the third day. The hot iron does not answer so well, and other caustics 
are not so manageable. In the spring of 1827, four horses were bitten near Hyde 
Park, by a mad dog. To one of them the lunar caustic was twice severely applied- 
he lived. The red-hot iron was unsparingly used on the others, and they died. Tho 
caustic must reach every part of the wound. At the expiration of the fourth month, 
the horse may be considered to be safe. 

TETANUS, OH LOCKED JAW. 

Tetanus is one of the most dreadful and fatal diseases to which the horse is sub- 
ject. It is called locked jaw, because the muscles of the jaw are earliest affected, 
and the mouth is obstinately and immovably closed. It is a constant spasm of all 
the voluntary muscles, and particularly of those of the neck, the spine, and the head. It 
is generally slow and treacherous in its attack. The horse, for a day or two, does 
not appear to be quite well ; he does not feed as usual ; he partly chews his food, and 
drops it ; and he gulps his water. The owner at length finds that the motion of the 
jaws is considerably limited, and some saliva is drivelling from the mouth. If he 
tries he can only open the mouth a very little way, or the jaws are perfectly and 
rigidly closed ; and thus the only period at which the disease could have been suc- 
cessfully combated is lost. A cut of a horse labouring under this disease is here 
given, which the reader will do well to examine carefully. 

The first thing tliat 
strikes the observer is a 
protrusion of the muzzle, 
and stiffness of the neck ; 
and, on passing the hand 
down it, the muscles will 
be found singularly promi- 
nent, distinct, hard, knotty, 
and unyielding. There is 
difficulty in bringing the- 
head round, and still 
greater difficulty in bend- 
ing it. The eye is drawn 
deep within the socket, 
and, in consequence of 
this, the fatty matter be- 
hind the eye is pressed 
forward ; the haw is also protruded, and there is an appearance of strabismus, or 
squinting, in an outward direction. 

The ears are erect, pointed forward, and immovable.; if the horse is spoken to, or 
threatened to be struck, they change not their position. Considering the beautiful 
play of the ear of the horse when in health, and the kind of conversation which he 
maintains by the motion of it, there is not a more characteristic symptom of tetanus 
than this immobility of the ear. The nostril is expanded to the utmost, and there is 
little or no play of it, as in hurried or even natural breathing. The respiration is 
usually accelerated, yet not always so ; but it is uniformly laborious. The pulse 
gives little indication of the severity of the disease. It is sometimes scarcely affected. 
It will be rapidly accelerated when any one approaches the animal and offers to touch 
him, but it presently quiets down again almost to its natural standard. After a while, 
however, the heart begins to sympathise with the general excitation of the system 
and the pulse increasi 3 in frequency and force until the animal becomes <tcbilitated, 
when it beats yet quicker and quicker, but diminishes in power, and gradually flutters 
and dies away. 




104 TETANUS, OR LOCKED JAW. 

Tho countenance is eager, anxious, haggard, and tells plainly enough what tha 
animal suffers. 

The stiffness gradually extends to the hack. If the horse is in a narrow stall, it is 
impossible to turn him ; and, even with room and scope enough, he turns altogether 
like a deal-board. 

The extremities begin to participate in the spasm — the hinder ones generally first, 
but never to the extent to which it exists in the neck and back. The horse stands 
with his hind legs straddling apart in a singular way. The whole of the limb moves, 
or rather is dragged on, together, and anxious care is taken that no joint shall be 
flexed more than can possibly be helped. The fore limbs have a singular appear 
ance ; they are as stiff as they can possibly be, but stretched forward and straddling 
They have not unaptly been compared to the legs of a form. 

The abdominal muscles gradually become involved. They seem to contract with 
all the power they possess, and there is a degree of " hide-bound" appearance, and ol 
tucking up of the belly, which is seen under no other complaint. 'I'he tail becomes 
in constant motion from the alternate and violent action of the muscles that elevate 
and depress it. 

Constipation, and to an almost insurmountable degree, now appears. The abdo- 
minal muscles are so powerfully contracted, that no portion of the contents of the 
abdomen can pass on and be discharged. 

By degrees the spasm extends and becomes everywhere more violent. The motion 
of the whole frame is lost, and the horse stands fixed in the unnatural posture which 
he has assumed. The countenance becomes wilder and more haggard — its expression 
can never be effaced from the memory of him who cares about the feelings of a brute. 
The violent cramp of a single muscle, or set of muscles, makes the stoutest heart 
quail, and draws forth the most piteous cries — what, then, must it be for this torture 
to pervade the whole frame, and to continue, with little respite, from day to day, and 
from week to week I When his attendant ap])roaches and touches him, he scarcely 
moves ; but tlic despairing gaze, and the sudden acceleration of the pulse, indicate 
what he feels and fears. 

Tetanus then is evidently an affection of the nerves. A small fibre of some nerve 
has been injured, and the effect of that injury has spread to the origin of the nerve-— 
the brain then becomes affected — and universal diseased action follows. Tetanus is 
spasm of the whole frame — not merely of one set of muscles, but of their antagonists 
also. The fixidity of the animal is the efl'cct of opposed and violent muscular con- 
traction. It belongs to the lower column of nerves only. The sensibility is unim- 
paired — perhaps it is heightened. The horse would eat if he could ; he tries to suck 
up some moisture from his mash ; and the avidity with which he lends himself to 
assist in the administering of a little gruel, shows that the feelings of hunger and 
thirst remain unimpaired. 

If the disease terminates fatall}-, it is usually from the sixth to the eighth day, 
when, if there has been no remission of the spasms, or only a slight one, the horse 
dies exhausted b}'^ hard M'ork. The task extorted by the whip and spur of the most 
brutal sportsman is not to be compared with it. 

About or a little before this time, there are occasionally evident remissions. The 
spasm does not quite subside, but its force is materially lessened. The jaw is not 
sufficiently relaxed to enable t!ie animal to eat or to drink, or for advantage to be 
taken of an opportunity for the administration of medicine, while the slightest dis- 
turbance or fright, recalls the spasmodic action with all its violence. If, however, 
the remission returns on the following day, and is a little lengthened, and particularly 
if there is more relaxation of the lower jaw, there yet is hope. If the patient should 
recover, it will be very slowlj', and he will be left sadly weak, and a mere walking 
skeleton. 

On ■poxt-mortem examination the muscular fibre will exhibit sufficient proof of the 
labour which has been exacted from it. The muscles will appear as if they had been 
macerated — their texture will be softened, and they will be torn with the greatest 
ease. The lungs will, in the majority of cases, be highly inflamed, for they havp 
been labouring long and painfully, to furnish arterial blood in sufficient quantit)^ to 
support llivs great expenditure of animal power. The stomach will contain patches 



TETANUS, a-R LOCKET JAW. jq 

of inflammation, but the intestines, in most cases, wirl not exhinit much departure 
from the iiue of health. The examination of the brain will be altogether unsatisfac- 
tory. There may bo slig-ht injection of some of the membranes, but, in the majority 
of cases, there will not be any morbid change worthy of record. 

Tetanus is usually the result of the injury of some nervous fibre, and the effect of 
that lesion propagated to the brain. The foot is the most frequent source or focus of 
tetanic injury. It has been pricked in shoeing, or wounded by something on the 
road. The horse becomes lame — the injury is carelessly treated, or not treated at all 
—the lameness, however, disappears, but the wound has not healed. There is an 
unhealthiness about it, and at the expiration of eight or ten days, tetanus appears. 
Some nervous fibre has been irritated or inflamed by the accident, slight as it was. 

Docking and nicking, especially when the stump was seared too severely in the 
former, or the bandage had not been loosened sufliciently early in the latter, used to 
be frequent causes of tetanus. It is frequently connected with castration, when the 
colt had not been properly prepared for the operation, or the searing-iron has been 
applied too severely, or the animal has been put to work too soon after the operation, 
or exposed to unusual cold. The records of veterinary proceedings contain accounts 
of tetanus following labour, brutally exacted beyond the animal's natural strength, in 
the draught of heavy loads. Horses that have been matched against time have too 
frequently died of tetanus a little while afterwards. Sudden exposure to cold after 
being heated by exercise has produced this dreadful state of nervous action, and 
especially if the horse has stood in a partial draught, or cold water has been dripping 
on the loins. 

The treatment of tetanus is simple, and would be oftener successful if carried to its 
full extent. The indication of cure is plain enough — the system must he trariquil/ized. 
The grand agent in accomplishing this is the copious abstraction of blood. There is 
nf)t a more powerful sedative in cases of muscular spasni than venesection. A double 
purpose is effected. The determination of blood to the origins of the nerves, and by 
which they were enabled to secrete and to pour out this torrent of nervous influence. 
is lessened. The supply of blood to the muscular system is also diminished. The 
pab\ilum of the nervous and muscular system — the life of both of them — the capability 
of acting in the one, and of being acted upon by the other, is taken away. The pro- 
per course to be pursued, whether theory or experience be consulted, is, on the first 
access of tetanus, to bleed, and to bleed until the horse falters or falls. No attention 
should be paid to any specific quantity of blood to be abstracted, but the animal should 
bleed on until he drops, or the pulse evidently falters. Twenty pounds have been 
taken before the object of the practitioner was accomplished, but he never had occa- 
sion to repent of the course which he pursued. Inflammatory action like this must be 
subdued by the promptest and most efficient means ; and there is one unerring guide 
— the pulse. 'While that remains firm, the bleeding should continue. The practi- 
tioner is attacking the disease, and not in the slightest degree hazarding the permanent 
strength of the patient. 

Next in order, and equal in importance, is physic. The profuse bleeding just 
recommended will generally relax the muscles of the jaw so far as to enable a dose 
of pliysic to be given. Eight or ton drachms of aloes should be administered. If the 
remission of the spasm is slight, there is another purgative — not so certain in its 
action, but more powerful when it does act — the farina of the Croton nut. There is 
little or no danger of exciting inflammation of the mucous membrane of the intestines 
by this prompt and energetic administration of purgative medicine, for there is too 
much determination of vital power towards the nervous system — too much irritation 
there — to leave cause for dreading the possibility of metastasis elsewhere. It would 
be desirable if a certain degree of inflammation could be excited, because to that 
extent the irritation of the nervous system might be allayed. There is another reason, 
and a very powerful one — time is rapidly passing. The tetanic action may extend tr 
the intestines, and the co-operation of the abdominal muscles in keeping up the pen 
staltic motion of the bowels, and expelling their contents, may be lost. 

Clvs^ers will be useful in assisting the action of the purgative. A solution of 
Kpsom salts will constitute the safest and best injection. As to medicine, opium is 

o 



106 CRAMP. 

not only a valuable drugf, but it is that on which alone dependence can be placed im 
this disease. It will be borne in doses, from halt' a drachm to two drachms. 

Blisters are completely out of the question in a disease the very essence of whicn 
is nervous irritability. 

I'he application of sheep-skins warm from the animal, and applied along the whole 
course of the spine, may somewhat unload the congested vessels of the part, and 
diminish the sutferings of the animal. They should be renewed as soon as tl ey 
become offensive, and the patient should be covered from the poll to the tail with 
double or treble clothing. 

There is one kind of external application that has not been so much used, or so 
highly valued as it deserves, — gentle friction with the hand over the course of the 
spine, beginning with the slightest possible pressure and never increasing it much. 
The horse is a little frightened at first, but he soon gets reconciled to it, and when 
at the same time an opiate liniment is used, relief has been obtained to a very marked 
degree. 

One thing should not be forgotten, namely, that a horse with locked jaw is as 
hungry as when in health, and every possible contrivance should be adopted to furnish 
him with that nutriment which will support him under his torture, and possibly enable 
him to weatlier the storm. If a pail of good gruel is placed within his reach, how 
will he nuzzle in it, and contrive to drink some of it too ! If a thoroughly wet mash 
is placed before him in a pail, he will bury his nose in it, and manage to extract no 
small portion of nutriment. By means of a small horn, or a bottle with a very narrow 
neck, it will often be possible to give him a small quantity of gruel ; but the flexible 
pipe that accompanies Kead s patent pump will render this of easier accomplishment, 
for the nutriment may be administered without elevating the head of the horse, or 
inflicting on him the extreme torture which used to accompany the act of drenching. 
If the jaw is ever so closely clenched, the pipe maybe introduced between the tushes 
and the grinders, and carried tolerably far back into the mouth, and any quantity of 
gruel or medicine introduced into the stomach. 

It will also be good practice to let a small portion of food be in the manger. The 
horse will not at first be able to take up the slightest quantity, but he will attempt to 
do so. Small portions may be placed between his grinders, and they will presently 
drop from his mouth, scarcely or at all masticated : but some good will be done — 
there is the attempt to put the muscles of the jaw to their proper use. On the follow- 
ing day he will succeed a little better, and make some trifling advance towards break- 
ing the chain of spasmodic action. Experience will teach the careful groom the value 
of these minutiae of practice ; and the successful termination of many a case may be 
traced to tlie careful nursing of the patient. 

When the horse is getting decidedly better, and the weather will permit, there can 
be no better practice than to turn him out for a few hours in the middle of the day. 
His toddling about will regain to him the use of his limbs ; the attempt to stoop in 
order to graze will diminish the spasm in his neck ; the act of grazing will relax the 
Tiuscles of the jaws ; and he can have no better food than the fresh grass. 

CRAMP. 

This is a sudden, involuntary and painful spasm of a particular muscle or set of 
muscles. It differs from tetanus in its shorter duration, and in its occasionally attack 
ing the muscles of organic life. It may be termed a species of transitory tetanus, 
affecting mostly the hind extremities. It is generally observed when the horse is first 
brough" out of the stable, and especially if he has been hardly worked. One of the 
legs appeals stiff", inflexible, and is, to a slight degree, dragged after the animal. 
After he has proceeded a few steps, the stift'ness nearly or quite disappears, or only «, 
slight degree of lameness remains during the greater part of the day. 

Cramp proceeds from an accumulation of irritability in the muscles of the exten- 
sors, and is a sudden spasmodic action of tliem in order to balance the power which 
their antagonists have gained over them during the night. 

If a certain degree of lameness remains, the attendant on the horse should endea- 
vour to find out the muscle chiefly affected, which he majr easily do by a fceliiiir of 
Uardness, or an expression of jjain. when he presses en the extensors of the hock 



STRINGHALT. ^q^ 

somewhat above that joint. He should then give plenty of good hand-rubbi.ig, or a 
little more attention to the grooming generally, or a wider or more comfortable stall, 
as the circumstances of the case may appear to require. 

STRINGHALT. 

This is a sudden and spasmodic action of some of the muscles of the thigh when 
the horse is first led from the stable. One or both legs are caught up at every step 
with great rapidity and violence, so that the fetlock sometimes touches the belly ; but, 
after the horse has been out a little while, this usually goes oif and the natural action 
of the animal returns. In a i'ew cases it does not perfectly disappear after exercise, 
but the horse continues to be slightly lame. 

Stringhalt is not a perfectly involuntary action of a certain muscle, or a certain set 
of muscles. The limb is flexed at the command of the will, but it acts to a greater 
extent and with more violence than the will had prompted. There is an accumula- 
tion of excitability in the muscle, and the impulse which should have called it into 
natural and moderate action causes it to take on a spasmodic and, perhaps, a painful 
one. 

Many ingenious but contradictory theories have been advanced in order to account 
for this peculiarity of gait. What muscles are concerned ] Clearly those by which 
the thigh is brought under the belly, and the hock is flexed, and the pasterns are first 
flexed, and then extended. But by which of them is the effect principally produced ? 
_What muscle, or, more properly, what nerve is concerned ] Instead of entering 
Into any useless controversy on this point, a case shall be related, and one of the 
most interesting there is on record : the author was personally cognisam of every 
particular. 

Guildford, first called Roundhead, and then Landlord, was foaled in 1826. He 
was got by Hampden out of a Sir Harry Dimsdale mare. In 1828, and being two 
years old, and the property of the Duke of Richmond, he won a 50/. plate at Good 
wood. In 1829, and belonging to Lord W. Lennox, he won 55 guineas at Hampton. 
Being then transferred to Mr. Coleman, he won 50 guineas at Guildford ; and in 
the same year, having been purchased by Mr. Pearce, he won GO guineas at Basing- 
stoke. 

In the course of this year stringhalt began to appear in a slight degree, and it evi- 
dently, although slowly, increased. There soon began to be a little difficulty in get- 
ting him off"; but when he had once started, neither his speed n&r his stoutness ap- 
peared to be in the slightest degree impaired. He continued on the turf until 1836, 
and won for his different owners seventeen races, the produce of which, exclusive of 
bets, amounted to 1435/. 

The difficulty and loss of advantage in starting had now increased to a degree 
which rendered it prudent to withdraw him from the turf, and he came into the pos- 
session of Dockeray, who used him for the purpose of leading the young horses thai 
he had under training. This is well known to be hard work, and his rider was a 
man of some weight. In addition to this, he was generally hunted twice in the week. 
His first starting into a gallop had something singular about it. It was a horrible 
kind of convulsive action, and so violent that he frequently knocked off his shoes on 
the very day that they were put on : but when he got a little warmed, all this disap- 
peared. He gallopped beautifully, and was a very sure fencer. The sport, however, 
being over, and he returning to a slow pace, the stringhalt was as bad as ever. 

>' length the old horse became artful, and it was with great difficulty that he could 
be made to lead. Sometimes he refused it altogether. In consequence of this he was 
sent to St. Martin's Lane, to be sold. The highest bidding for him v.as 3/. lis., and 
the hero of the turf and the field was doomed to the omnibus. There he was cruelly 
used, and this spasmodic convulsion of his hind legs sadly aggravated his torture. 
The skin was presently rubbed from his shoulders, his hips and haunches were bruised 
m every part, and his stifles were continually and painfully coming in contact willi 
the pole. 

In this situation he was seen by the veterinary surgeon to " The .Society for the Pro- 
vention of Cruelty to Animals." There is a fund at the disposal of that society fc. 
the purchase of worn-out horses, who are immediately released from their misery b\ 



108 STRINGHALT. 

tlie pole-axe of the knacker. The horse was bought for this purpose, another and 
laudable motive influencing the purchase, — the wish to ascertain what light the dis- 
section of an animal that had had stringhalt to such an aggravated extent, and for s<) 
'ong a period, would cast on the nature of this disease. 

The author of this work saw him a little while before he was slaughtered. He 
was still a noble-looking animal, and seemed to possess all his former strength and 
spirit unimpaired ; but he was sadly scarred all over, in consequence of his being put 
to a kind of work for which his spasmodic complaint so entirely incapacitated him. 
So aggravated a case of stringhalt had rarely been seen. Both hind legs were affected, 
and both in an equal degree ; and the belly was forcibly struck by the pastern joints 
every time the hind feet were lifted. The belly and the pastern joint were both de- 
nuded of hair, in consequence of this constant battering. 

He was destroyed by the injection of prussic acid into the jugular vein, and the 
dissection of him was conducted by Professor Spooner, of the Royal Veterinary Col- 
lege. 

On taking off the skin, all the muscles presented their perfect healthy character. 
There was not the slightest enlargement or discolouration of the fascia;. The mus- 
cles of both extremities were dissected from their origins to their tendinous termina- 
tions, and their fibrous structure carefully examined. They were all beautifully de- 
veloped, presenting no inequality or ipegularity of structure, nor aught that would 
warrant the suspicion that any one of them possessed an undue power or influence 
beyond the others. The only abnormal circumstance about them was that they were 
of a rather darker yellow in colour than is usually found. This referred to them gen- 
erally, and not to any particular muscle or sets of muscles. 

The lumbar, crural, and sciatic nerves were examined from the spot at which they 
emerge from the spinal cord to their ultimate distributions. The crural and lumbar 
nerves were perfectly healthy. The sciatic nerve, at the aperture through which it 
escapes from the spine, was darker in colour than is usual, being of a yellowish- 
brown hue. Its texture was softened, and its fibrillae somewhat loosely connected 
together. The nerve was of its usual size ; but on tracing it in its course through 
tlie muscles of the haunch, several spots of ecchymosis presented themselves, and ■ 
were more particularly marked on that part of the nerve which is connected with the I 
eacro-sciatic ligament. As the nerve approached the hock, it assumed its natural I 
colour and tone ; and the fibres given off from it to the muscles situated inferior to j 
the stifle-joint were of a perfectly heaithy character. 

On dissecting out a portion of the nerve where it appeared to be in a diseased state, 
it was found that this ecchymosis was confined to the membranous investiture of the i 
nerve, and that its substance, when pressed from its sheath, presented a perfectly I 
natural character. ■ 

The cavity of the cranium, and the whole extent of the spinal canal, were next laid 
open. The brain and the spinal marrow were deprived of their membranous cover- 
ings, and both the thecse and their contents diligently examined. There was no lesion 
in any part of them, not even at the lumbar region. 

The articulations of every joint of the hind extremities, then underwent inspection, 
and no disease could be detected in either of them. 

Professor Spooner was of opinion that this peculiar affection was not referrible to 
any diseased state of the brain or spinal cord, nor to any local affection of the mus- 
cles of the limbs, but simply to a morbid affection of the sciatic nerve. He had not 
dissected a single case of stringhalt in which he had not found disease of this nerve, 
which mainly contributes to supply the hind extremities with sensation and the power 
of voluntary motion. 

Now comes a very important question. What connexion is there between string- 
halt and the supposed value or deterioration of the horse 1 Some experienced ])rac- 
titioners have maintained that it is a pledge of more than usual muscular power. It 
is ? common saying that " there never was a horse with stringhalt that was incapa- 
ble of doing the work required of him." Most certainlj^ we continually meet with 
horses having stringhalt that pleasantlj' discharge all ordinary, and even extraordi- 
nary, service; and although stringhalt is excess or irregular distribution of nerve us 
power, it at least shows the existence of that power, and the capability in the mun- 



PALSY. 109 

cular system of being acted upon by it. Irregular distributions of vital energy are 
net, however, things to be desired. They argue disease and derangement of the sys- 
tem, and a predisposition to greater derangement. They materially interfere with the 
speed of the horse. This was decidedly the case with regard to the poor fellow 
whose history has been related. 

Stringhalt is decided unsoundness. It is an irregular supply of the nervous influ- 
ence, or a diseased state of the nervous or muscular system, or both. It prevents us 
from suddenly and at once calling upon the horse for the full exercise of his speed 
and power, and therefore it is unsoimdness; but generally speaking, it so little inter- 
feres with the services of the animal, that although an unsoundness, it would not 
weigh £, great deal against other manifest valuable qualities. 

CHOREA. 

This is a convulsive, involuntary twitching of some muscle or set of muscles. A 
few, and very few, cases of it in the horse are recorded. Professor Gohier relates 
one in which it attacked both fore legs, and especially the left, but the atfection was 
not constant. During hve or six minutes the spasms were most violent, so that the 
horse was scarcely able to stand. The convulsions then became weaker, the inter- 
val between them increased, and at length tli^ disappeared, leaving a slight but tem- 
porary lameness. All means of cure were fruitlessly tried, and the disease continued 
until the horse died of some other complaint. In another case it followed sudden 
suppression of the discharge of glanders and disappearance of the enlarged glands. 
This also was intermittent during the life of the animal. 

FITS, OR EPILEPSY. 

The stream of nervous influence is sometimes rapid, or the suspensions are consid 
erable. This is the theory of Fits, or Epilepsy. Fortunately the horse is not often 
afflicted with this disease, although it is not unknown to the breeder. The attack is 
not sudden. The animal stops — trembles — looks vacantly around him, and lalls. 
Occasionally the convulsions that follow are slight; at other times they are terrible. 
The head and fore part of the horse are most affected, and the contortions are very 
singular. In a few minutes the convulsions cease; he gets up; looks around him 
with a kind of stupid astonishment ; shakes his ears ; urines ; and eats or drinks as 
if nothing had happened. 

The only hope of cure consists in discovering the cause of the fits ; and an expe- 
rienced practitioner must be consulted, if the animal is valuable. Generally speaking, 
however, the cause is so difficult to discover, and the habit of having fits is so soon 
formed, and these fits will so frequently return, even at a great distance of time, that 
he who values his own safety, or the lives of his family, will cease to use an epilep- 
tic horse. 

PALSY. 

The stream of nervous influence is sometimes stopped, and thence results palsy. 
The power of the muscle is unimpaired, bnt the nervous energy is deficient. In the 
human being, general palsy sometimes occurs. The whole body — every organ of 
motion and of sense is paralysed. The records of our practice, however, do not 
afford us a single instance of this ; but of partial paralysis there are several cases, 
and most untractable ones they were. The cause of them may be altogether unknown. 
In the human being there is yet another distinction. Hemiplegia and Paraplegia. In 
the former the affection is confined to one side of the patient; in the latter the poste- 
rior extremity on both sides is affected. Few cases of hemiplegia occur in the horse, 
and they are more manageable than those of paraplegia; but if the affection is not 
removed, they usually degenerate into paraplegia before the death of the animal. It 
would appear singular that this should be the most common form of palsy in the 
human being, and' so rarely seen in the quadruped. There are some consi-derations, 
howerer, that will partly account for this. Palsy in the horse usually proceeds from 
injury of the spinal cord; and that cord is more developed, and far larger than m tho 
human being. It is more exposed to injury, and to injury that will affect not one side 
only but the whole of the cord. 
10 



IJO RHEUMATISM. 

Palsy in the horsc >cr.eidl]y attacks thje hind extremities. The reason of this is 
plain. The fore lin.bs are attached to the trunk by a dense mass of highly elastic 
subfeiancc. This was placed between the shoulder-blade and the ribs for the purpose 
of preventing- that concussion, which would be annoying and even dangerous to the 
norse or his rider. Except in consequence of a fall, there is scarcely the possibility 
.if any serious injury to the anterior portion of the spine. The case is very different 
with regard to the hind limbs and their attachment to the trunk ; they are necessa- 
rily liable to many a shock and sprain injurious to the spine and its contents. The 
loins and the back oftenest exhibit the lesions of palsy, because there are some of 
the most violent muscular efforts, and there is the greatest movement and the least 
support. It may consequently be taken as an axiom to guide the judgment of the 
practitioner that palsy in the horse almost invariably proceeds from disease or injury 
of the spine. 

On inquiry it is almost invariably found that the horse had lately fallen, or had 
been worked exceedingly hard, or that, covered with perspiration, he had been left 
exposed to cold and wet. It commences generally in one hind leg, or perhaps both 
are equally affected. The animal can scarcely walk — he w^alks on his fetlocks 
instead of his soles — he staggers at every motion. At length he falls. He is raised 
with difficulty, or he never rises againlj The sensibility of the part seems for a while 
to be dreadfully increased ; but, in general, this gradually subsides — it sinks below 
the usual standard — it ceases altogether. 

If he is examined after death, there will usually, about the region of the loins, be 
inflammation of the membranes of the spinal cord, or of the cord itself. The medul- 
lary matter will be found of a yellow colour, or injected with spots of blood, or it will 
be softened, and have become semifluid. • 

The treatment is simple enough. It should commence with bleeding, and, as has 
!)een already recommended in inflammatory cases, imtil the circulation is evidently 
affected — until the pulse begins to falter or the horse to reel. To this should follow 
a dose of physic — strong compared with the size of the animal. The loins should be 
covered with a mustard poultice frequently renewed. The patient should be warmly 
clothed, supplied plentifully with mashes, but without a grain of corn in them ; and 
frequent injections should be had recourse to. This will soon render it evident 
whether the patient will recover or die. If favourable symptoms appear, the horse 
must not be in the slightest degree neglected, nor the medical treatment suspended. 
There is no disease in which the animal is more liable to a relapse, or where a relapse 
would be so fatal. No misapprehension of the disease, or false humanity, should 
induce the attendant to give the smallest quantity of corn or of tonic medicine. 
Palsy in the horse is an inflammatory complaint, or the result of inflammation. 

If the heat and tenderness are abating, and the animal regains, to a slight degree, 
the use of his limbs, or if it is becoming a case of chronic palsy, an extensive and 
stimulating charge over the loins should be immediately applied. It will accomplish 
three purposes : there will be the principle of counter-irritation — a defence against the 
cold — and a useful support of the limbs. 

RHEUMATISM. 

It is only of late years that this has been admitted into the list of the diseases of 
the horse, although it is in truth a very common affection. It is frequent in old 
horses that have been early abused, and among younger ones whose powers have 
been severely taxed. The lameness is frequently excessiv-e, and the pain is evidently 
excruciating. The animal dares not to rest the slightest portion of its weight on the 
limb, or even to touch the ground with his toe. He is heaving at the flanks, sweats 
ing profusely, his countenance plainly indicative of the agony he feels ; but there is 
at first no heat, or swelling, or tenderness. With proper treatment, the pain and the 
lameness gradually disappear ; but in other instances the fasciae of the muscles 
become thickened — the ligaments are also thickened and rigid — the capsules of the 
joint are loaded with a glairy fluid, and the joint is evidently enlarged. This is 
simply rheumatism ; but if it is neglected, palsy soon associates itself with, or suc- 
ceeds to, the complaint; and the loss of nervous power follows the difficulty or pain 
of moving. 



» NEUROTOMY. HI 

Every horseman will recollect cases in wliicli the animal that seemed on the pte- 
zeding day to be perfectly soimd becomes decidedly lame, and limps as thougli he 
had lost the use of his limbs ; yet there is no thickening of the tendons, nor any 
pxternal inflammatory action to show the seat of the complaint. Mr. Cooper, of 
Coleshill, relates a case very applicable to the present subject. A farmer purchased 
A horse, to all appearance sound, and rode him home — a distance of ten miles. He 
was worked on tlie two following days, without showing the least lameness. On 
the third day it was with great diificulty that he managed to limp out of the stable. 
Mr. Cooper was sent for to examine him. The horse had clean legs and excellent 
feet. The owner would have him blistered all around. It was done. The horse 
was turned out to grass for two months, and came up perfectly sound. The weather 
soon afterwards became wet and cold, and the horse again was lame ; in fact, it 
presently appeared that the disease was entirely influenced by the changes of the 
atmosphere. "Thus," adds Mr. C, "in the summer a horse of this description will 
be mostly sound, while in the winter he will be generally lame." 

An account of acute rheumatism, by Mr. Thompson, of Beith, is too valuable to be 
omitted : — " I have had," says he, " fourteen cases of this disease. The muscles of 
the shoulders and arms were generally the parts affected. The cure was effected in 
a few days, and consisted of a good bleeding-firom the jugular, and a sharp purge. 

" One of these cases was uncommonly severe. The disease was in the back and 
loins. The horse brought forward his hind-legs under his flanks, reached his back, 
and drew up his flanks with a convulsive twitch accompanied by a piteous groan, 
almost every five minutes. The sympathetic fever was alarming, the pulse was 90, 
and there was obstinvte constipation of the bowels. The horse literally roared aloud 
if any one attempted to shift him in the stall, and groaned excessively when lying. 
He was bled almost to fainting ; and three moderate dost^s of aloes were given in the 
course of two days. Injections were administered, and warm fomentations were 
frequently applied to the back and loins. On the third day the physic operated 
briskly, accompanied by considerable nausea and reduction of the pulse. From that 
time the animal gradually recovered. 

"These horses are well fed, and always in good condition; but they are at times 
worked without mercy, which perhaps makes them so liable to these attacks." 

NEUROTOMY. 

To enable the horse to accomplish many of the tasks we exact from him, we have 
nailed on his feet an iron defence. Without the protection of the shoe, he would not 
only be unable to travel over our hard roads, but he woald speedily become useless 
to us. While, however, the iron protects his feet from being battered and bruised, it 
is necessarily inflexible. It cramps and confines the hoof, and often, without great 
care, entails on our valuable servant bad disease and excessive torture. 

The division of the nerve, as a remedy for intense pain in any part of the frame, 
was systematically practised by human surgeons more than a century ago. _ Mr. 
Moorecroft has the honour of introducing the operation of neurotomy in the veterinary 
school. 

He had long devoted his powerful energies to the disco-very of the causes and the 
cure of lameness in the fore-foot of the horse. It was a subject worthy of him, for it 
involved the interest of the proprietor and the comfort of the slave. He found that, 
partly from the faulty construction of tlie shoe, and more from the premature and 
cruel exaction of labour, the horse was subject to a variety of diseases of the foot : all 
of them accompanied by a greater or less degree of pain — often of a very mtense 
nature, and ceasing only with the life of the animal. 

He frequently met with a strangely formidable disease, in what was called "ccthn- 
joint lameness," but to whicli Mr. James Turner afterwards gave the very appropnate 
name of " navicular-joint disease." It was inflammation of the synovial membrane, 
either of the flexor tendon or navicular bone, or both, where the tendon plays over 
that bone ; and it was accompanied by pain, abrasion, and I'radual destruction oi 
these parts. 

For a lono- time he was foiled in every attempt which he made to remove or even 
to alleviate the disease. At length he turned his thoughts to the probability ot sub 



112 NEUROTOMY. 

duing the increased sensibility of the part, by diminishing the proportion of nervous 
influence distributed on the foot. He laid bare one of the metacarpal nerves, and 
divided it with a pair of scissors. There was always an immediate and decided 
diminution of the lameness, and, sometimes, the horse rose perfectly aound. This 
nap])y result, however, was not always permanent, for the lameness returned after 
the lapse of a few weeks, or on nmch active exertion. He next cut out a small piece 
of tlie nerve. The freedom from lameness was of longer duration, but it eventually 
returned. 

He then tried a bolder experiment. He excised a portion of the nerves going both 
to the inner and outer metacarpals. We transcribe his own account of the result of 
the first case of complete neurotomy — excision of the nerve on both sides of the leg — 
tliat ever was performed. 

" The animal, on rising, trotted boldly and without lameness, but now and then 
stumbled with the foot Operated on. The wounds healed in a few days, and the 
patient was put to grass. Some weeks afterwards a favourable account was received 
of her soundness ; but she was soon brought again to us, on account of a large sore 
on the bottom of the foot operated on, and extending from the point of the frog to the 
middle and back part of the pastern. The mare, in galloping over some broken glass 
bottles, had placed her foot upon a fragment of the bottom of one of them, and which 
had cut its way through the frog and tendon into the joint, and stuck fast in the joint 
for some seconds, while the animal continued its course apparently regardless of 
injury. The wound bled profusely, but the mare was not lame. Many days had 
elapsed before I saw her, and large masses of loose flesh were cut from the edges of 
the wound, without the animal showing the slightest sign of suffering pain. The 
processes usually attending sores went on, with the same appearances that took place 
in sores of parts not deprived of sensibility. Such extensive injury, however, had 
been done to the joint as rendered the preservation of free motion in it very impro- 
bable, even were the opening to close, which was a matter of doubt, and therefore 
she was destroyed. It appeared clearly from this, that hy the destrudum «f sei^sibilily 
the repairing powers of the part were not injured ; but that the natural guard against 
injury being taken away by Ihe division of both the nerves, an accident was rendered 
destructive which, in the usual condition of the foot, might have been less injurious."* 

The cut in the next page gives a view of the nerve on the inside of the leg, as it 
approaches the fetlock. It will be seen that branches are given off above the fetlock, 
which go to the fore part of the foot and supply it with feeling. The continuation 
of the nerve below the fetlook is given principally to the quarters and hinder part of 
the foot. The grand considieration, then, with the operator is — does he wish to 
deprive the whole of the footpf sensation, or is the cause of lameness principally in 
the hinder part of the foot, bo that he can leave some degree of feeling in the fore 
part, and prevent that alteration in the tread and going of the horse, which the horse- 
man so much dislikes ? 

The horse must be cast ana secured, and the limb to be operated on removed from 
tne hobbles and extended— -the hair having been previously shaved from the part. 
The operator then feels for the throl)bing of the artery, or the round firm body of the 
nerve itself, on the side of tlie shank hone or the larger pastern. The vein, artery, 
and nerve here run close together, the vein nearest to the front of the leg, then the 
artery, and the nerve behind. He cautiously cuts through the skin for an inch and 
a half in length. The vessels will then be brought into view, and the nerve will be 
distinguished from them Vy its lying behind the others, and by its whiteness. A 
crooked needle, armed with silk, is then passed under it, in order to raise it a little. 
It is dissected from the cellular substance beneath, and about three quarters of an inch 
of it cut out, — the first incision being made at the upper part, in which case the second 
incision will not be felti The horse must then be turned, and the operation per- 
formed on the other side; for there is a nervous trunk on both sides. The wounds 
are now closed with strips of adhesive plaster, a bandage placed over them, the head 
tied up for a couple of days, and the animal kept rather low, and as quiet as pos- 
sible. The incisions will generally rapidly heal ; and in three weeks or a month, 
and sometimes earlier, the horse will be fit for work. 

— 1 ■ — " 

* Veterinarian, vol. ix. p. 363. 



NEUROTOMY. 



113 




A The metacarpal nerve on the inside of the off leg at the edge 
of the shank bone, and behind the vein and artery. 

B The continuation of the same nerve on the pastern, and pro- 
ceeding downward to supply the back part of the foot with 
feeling. 

C The division of the nerve on the fetlock joint. 

D The branch which supplies with feeling the fore part of the 
foot. 

E The artery between the vein and nerve. 
_K F The continuation of the artery on the pastern, close to, and 
before the nerve. 

G The vein before the artery and nerve. 

H The same vein spreading over the pastern. 

I One of the flexor tendons, the perforatus (perforated). 

J The deeper flexor tendon, the perfora?is (perforating, contained 
within the other). 

K The tendinous band in which the flexors work. 

L One of the e.\tensors of the foot. 

M The internal or sensible frog. 

N The posterior lateral ligament. 

O The fleshy or sensible lamina covering the cofRn bone, the 
horny crust being removed. 

P The horny crust. 

Q The sole. 

For ring-bone — the side cartilages becoming bony, and there being partial stiffness 
of the pastern and coffin joints — the operation of nerving will probably be beneficial. 
The sense of pain being taken away, the animal will use these parts more, and they 
will gradually recover their natural action and motion. For the same reason, in old 
contraction of the feet, it is highly beneficial. The torture occasioned by the pressure 
of the horny crust on the sensible ])arts williin being no longer felt, and the foot com- 
ing fully and firmly in contact with the ground, not only is lameness relieved, but the 
elasticity and form of the foot partially restored. Where lameness has long existed, 
unattended with heat of the foot or alteration of shape, and the seat of which could 
not be ascertained, although probably existing between the navicular bone and the 
back tendon that plays over it, neurotomy may be resorted to with decided advantage. 

Mischief, however, will result from the operation if the pastern or coffin joints are 
perfectly stiff, because the concussion occasioned by the forcible contact of the foot 
with the ground, and unbroken by the play of the joints, must necessarily still more 
injure the bone. When the sole of the foot is convex or pumiced, the effect of neuro- 
tomy will be most destructive. The sole scarcely able to bear the pressure of the 
coffin-bone, even when pain induces the animal to put his foot as gently as possible 
on the ground, being forced below its natural situation, would be speedily worn through 
and destroyed. So if inflammation existed, although its pain might be removed, yet 
its progress would be quickened by the bruising to which the parts might be sub- 
jected ; and more especially would this be the case, if there was any ulceration of 
the ligaments or cartilages. 

The unfettered shoe of Mr. Turner being adopted, at least so far as we can have it 
nfettered — attached to the foot on one side alone, and the inner quarter being left 
free — the foot gradually regains its original healthy form, and, when, in ]irocess of 
time, a new portion of nerve is produced, and the sensibility of the fiot re-established, 
the horse continues to be sound. To some extent, immediate good effect is prodiiced 
as it regards the actual disease. We remove that general constitutional irritability 
which long-continued pain occasions, and which heightens and perpettiates local dis- 
ease. We obtain for the patient an interval of repose, and every local ailment soon 
subsides or disappears, and the whole constitution become invigorated. 

Mr. Percivall relates two valuable cases of this. A mare with contracted feet itw 
10 * p 



114 NEUROTOMY. 

never suhiect to periodical cestrum, and her owner lamented in vain that he could nol 
breed from her. IShe underwent the operation of neurotomy, and became an excellent 
brood mare. A stallion with many a good point about him Vsas useless in the stud : 
he was suflering from some disease in the feet. A portion of the nerve was excised— 
liis constitution underwent a complete change, and he became sire to a numerous and 
valuable progeny. 

By the operation of neurotomy we destroy pain ; and we may safely calculate on 
the simple efiect of that, whether local or constitutional; and, limiting our expecta 
tions to this, we shall rarely be disappointed. 

The operation of neurotomy having been performed, has the veterinary surgeon 
nothing- else to do ■? He has got rid ot' the pain which attended the ossified cartilage 

the "ring-bone and the anchylosis of the pastern and the cofiin-joints ; shall he be 

eatisfif d vvith the benefit he has obtained, great as it is ] He will, or he should now 
try whether his former means and appliances have not more power. He will see 
whether, by means of his blister or his firing-iron — the effect of which humanity for- 
bade him to put to the full test before — he cannot rouse the absorbents to increased 
and more cfiicient action, and not only arrest the progress of the bony tumour, but 
remove it. He will not merely sufler the usefulness of his patient to depend on the 
continued suspension of feeling, but he will assure it by the partial or total removal 
of the morbid growth. '^ 

In contraction of the foot, shall he be satisfied with removing the agony occasioned 
by the constant pressure of the horn on the sensitive substance interposed between it 
and the coflin-bone] Shall he leave future improvement to the slow process of 
nature, or shall he not take advantage of the insensibility which he has produced, and 
pare the sole thoroughly out, and rasp the quarters to the very quick, and apply the 
unfettered shoe ] \\ hen he has produced a disposition to contraction, and some degree 
of it, should he not actively blister the coronets, and use all other fitting means to 
hasten the growth of the horn to its pristine dimensions and its original quality 1 

In navicular disease, after he has rcm.ovcd, by the application of neurotomy, that 
irritation which had so much to do with the perpetuation, if not the origin, of the 
complaint, should he not, with the assured hope of success, pass his seton needle 
through the frog, in order to get rid of every remaining lurking tendency to inflamma- 
tion 1 The blister and the firing-iron will have as much power in abating inflamma- 
tion and producing a healthy state of the foot, after that foot bad been rendered insen- 
sible to pain, as it had before. We should fearlessly say that it would have much 
more effect, one grand source of irritation having been removed. The veterinary sur 
geon and tlie owner of the horse are becoming more and more convinced of this ; and 
the dawning of a better day has commenced. 

The principle of neurotomy is plain and simple — it is ike removal of pain. Tuken 
on this ground, it is a noble operation. It is that in which every friend of humanity 
will rejoice. It may be abused. If no auxiliary means are adopted — if in canker or 
quitter, or inflammation of the laminae, no means are used to lessen the concussion 
and the pressure — the destruction of the part and the utter ruin of the horse are the 
inevitable consequences. The primary result is the removal of pain. It iy for the 
operi;tt r to calculate the bearing of this on the actual disease, and the future usefulness 
of the animal. 

On the question of the reproduction of the nerves there is no doubt. A horse is 
lame, and lie undergoes the operation of neurotomy. At the expiration of a cenain 
time the lameness returns, and he is probably destroyed. In the majority of cases? it 
is found that the nerves had united, or rather that a new veritable nervous substance 
had been interposed. The time at which this is efliected is unknown. There have 
not been any definite experiments on the point. 

Can the horse that has undergone the operation of neurotomy be aftei wards passea 
ds sound"? Most certainly not. There is altered, impaired structure; there is 
impaired action ; and there is the possibility of the return of lameness at some indefi- 
nite period. He has been diseased. He possibly is diseased now ; but the pain 
being removed, there are no means by which the mischief can always be indicated. 
Beside, by the very act of neurotomy, he is peculiarly exposed to various injuries anJ 
affections of the foot from which he would otherwise escape. 



INSANITY. 



INSANITY, 



115 



There is no doubt that the animals which we have subjugated possess many of tho 
•i-arae mental faculties us t!ie human being — volition, memory, attachment, gratitude, 
resentment, fear, and hatrcJ. Who has not witnessed the plain and manifest display 
nf these principles and feelings in our quadruped dependants 1 The simple possession 
of these faculties implies that they may be used for purposes good or bad, and that, 
as in the human being, they may be deranged or destroyed by a multitude of causes 
which it is not necessary to particularise. In the quadruped as in the biped, the lesion 
or destruction of a certain part of the brain may draw after it the derangement, or dis- 
turbance, or perversion of a certain faculty of the mind. It is only because the mental 
faculties, and good as well as bad properties of the inferior beings, have been so 
lately observed and acknowledged, that any doubt on this point can for a moment be 
entertained. The disordered actions, the fury, the caprices, the vices, and more par- 
ticularly the frenzy and total abandonment of reason, which are occasionally shown 
by the brute, are in the highest degree analogous to certain acts of insanity in man. 
It is merely to complete our subject that they are here introduced. 

The reader is indebted to Professor Rodet, of Toulouse, for the anecdotes which 
follow : — A horse, seven years old, was remarkable for an habitual air of stupidity, 
and a peculiar wandering expression of countenance. When he saw anything that 
he had not been accustomed to, or heard any sudden or unusual noise, whether it was 
near or at a distance, or sometimes when his corn was thrown into the manger with- 
out the precaution of speaking to him or patting him, he was frightened to an almost 
incredible degree; he recoiled precipitately, every limb trembled, and he struggled 
violently to escape. After several useless efforts to get av/ay, he would work him- 
self into the highest degree of rage, so that it was dangerous to approach him. This 
state of excitement was followed by dreadful convulsions, which did not cease until 
he had broken his halter, or otherwise detached himself from his trammels. He 
would then become calm, and suffer himself to be led back to his stall : nor would 
anything more be seen but an almost continual inquietude, and a wandering and stupid 
expression of countenance. He had belonged to a brutal soldier, who had beaten him 
shamefully, and before which time he had been perfectly quiet and tractable. 

A Piedmontese officer possessed a beautiful and in other respects serviceable mare, 
but which one peculiarity rendered exceedingly dangerous — that was a decided aver- 
sion to paper, which she recognised the moment she saw it, and even in the dark if 
two leaves were rubbed together. The effect produced by the sight or sound of it 
was so prompt and violent, that she several 'times unhorsed her rider. She had not 
the slightest fear of objects that would terrify most horses. She regarded not the 
music of the band, the whistling of the balls, the roaring of the cannon, the fire of the 
bivouacs, or the glittering of arms. The confusion and noise of an engagement 
made no impression upon her ; the sight of no other white object affected her. No 
other sound was regarded; but the view or the nistling of paper roused her to 
madness. 

A mare was perfectly manageable and betrayed no antipathy to the human being, 
nor to other animals, nor to horses, except they were of a light-grey colour ; but the 
moment she saw a grey horse, she rushed towards it, and attacked it with the greatest 
fury. It was the same at all times, and everywhere. She was all that could be 
wished on the parade, on the route, in the ranks, in action, and in the stable ; but if 
she once caught a glimpse of a grey or white horse, she rested not until she had 
thrown her rider or broken her halter, and then she rushed on her imagined foe with 
the greatest fury. She generally contrived to seize the animal by the head or throat, 
and held him so fast that she would suffocate him, if he were not promptly released 
from her bite. 

Another mare exhibited no terror except of white inanimate objects, as white man- 
tles or coats, and particularly white plumes. She would fly from them if she could ; 
but if she was unable to accomplish this, she would rush furiously upon them, strike 
at them with her fore feet, and tear them with her teeth. 

These instances are selected from various others, because they approach so nearly 
to what would be termed insanity in the human being. It is confined to one object,— 



IIQ DISEASES OF THE EYE, &c. 

it is a species of monomania, and as decided insanity as ever the bij)ed discovered 
One of these horses, the second, was by long and kind attention divested ol this insane 
terror, and became perfectly quiet and useful ; but the other three bid defiance to all 
means of cure and to coercion among the rest. If sufficient ?ittention were paid to the 
subject, many of the obstinate caprices and inexplicable aversions which we can 
neither concjuer nor change would be classed under the term insanity. There cannot 
be a more remarkable analogy than that which sometimes exists between the insanity 
of man and these singularly capricious fancies in animals. The subject is worthy of 
attention. Has the principle of hereditary predisposition been applied to any of these 
anomalies 1 

DISEASES OF THE EYE. 

The diseases of the eye constitute a very important, but a most unsatisfactory divi- 
sion of our work, for the maladies of this organ, although few in number, are frequent 
in their appearance. They are sadly obstinate, and often baffle all skill. 

We have spoken of fracture of the orbit, and its treatment. Occasionally a wound 
is inflicted by a passionate or careless servant. The eye itself is rarely injured. Il 
is placed on a mass of fat., and it turns most readily, and the prong of the fork glances 
off; but the substance round the eye may be deeply wounded, and very considerable 
inflammation may ensue. This should be abated by poultices, and bleeding, and 
physic ; but no probe should be used under the foolish idea of ascertaining the depth 
of the wound in the lid, supposing that there should be one, for, from the constant 
motion of the eye, it is almost impossible to pass the probe into the original wound, 
and the effort to accomplish it would give a great deal of pain, and increase tlie 
inflammation. 

The eyelids are subject to occasional inflammation from blows or other injuries. 
Fomentation with warm water will be serviceable here. 

The horse has occasionally a scaly eruption on the edges of the eyelids, attended 
with great itching, in the effort to allay which, by rubbing the part, the eye may be 
blemished. The nitrated ointment of quicksilver, mixed with an equal quantity of 
lard, may be slightly rubbed on the edges of the lids with considerable good effect. 

The eyelids will sometimes become redematous. Horses that are fed in low and 
humid pastures are subject to this. It is also the consequence of inflammation badly 
treated. The eyelids are composed of a lax structure, and the tissue is somewhat 
deficient in vitality — hence this disposition to enfiltration. Sometimes the collection 
of fluid accumulates so rapidly, and so extensively, that the eyes are closed. They 
should be well bathed with warm water mingled with an aromatic tincture. The 
cellular substance of the lids will thus be disposed to contract on their contents and 
cause their absorption. 

Old carriage horses are subject to this cedema; and it frequently accompanies both 
chronic and common ophthalmia. 

Weakness and dropping of the upper lid is caused by diminution or loss of power 
in its muscles. Dry frictions and aromatic lotions will frequently restore the tone of 
the parts. 

The eyelids are subject to occasional injury from their situation and office. In 
small incised wounds of them great care should be taken that the divided edges unite 
by the first intention. This will hasten the cure, and prevent deformity. If any of 
the muscles are divided, it is usually the ciliary or orbicularis palpebrarum. This 
lesion must be healed, if possible, by the first intention, and either by means of adhe 
sive plaster or the suture. The suture is probably the preferable agent. 

Suppurating wounds in the eyelids may be the consequence of the necessary abstrac- 
tion of a considerable surface of the skin, in the removal of warts OT<umours. The 
principal thing to be attended to is the frequent removal of the pus by means of tew or 
cotton wool. The rest may generally be left to nature. 

Inversion of the lids is of very rare occurrence in the horse. 

Warts are sometimes attached to the edges of the lids, and are a source of great 
irritation. When rubbed they bleed, and the common opinion is tree — t)i?t th<^y are 
propagated by the blood. They should be taken off with a sharp pair of sci3<!orP. anvi 
their lootss touched with the lunar caustic. 



r 



SPECIFIC OPHTHALMIA, ^^J 

The membrane which covers the Haw is subject to inflamiiiati n. It is, indeed a 
continuation of the conjunctiva, the inflammation of which constitutes ophthalmia 
An account of this inflammation will be better postponed until the nature and treat 
ment of ophtlialmia come under particular notice. 

The Haw, or Membrana Niditans, is subject to inflammation peculiar to itself, aris- 
ing from the introduction of foreign bodies, or from blows or other accidents. Tlie 
entire substance of the haw becomes inflamed. It swells and protrudes from the 
nner angle of the e)-e. Tiie heat and redness gradually disappear, but the membrane 
often continues to protrude. The inflammation of this organ often assumes a chronic 
character in a very short time, on account of the structure of the parts, which are in 
general little susceptible of reaction. 

The ordinary causes of this disease in the horse are repeated and periodical at- 
tacks of ophthalmia, and blows on the part. Young and old horses are most subject 
to it. 

Emollient applications, bleeding, and restricted diet will be proper at the com- 
mencement of the disease, and, the inflammation being abated, slight astrino-ents will 
be useful in preventing the engorgement of the part. Rose-water with subacetate of 
lead will form a proper eoUyrium. If the protruding body does not diminish after 
proper means have been tried, and for a suificient period, it must be removed with a 
curved pair of scissors. No danger will attend this operation if it is performed in 
time ; but if it is neglected, ulceration of the part and the growth of fungous ven-eta- 
tions will give a serious character to the afl!"air. A second operation may also be 
necessary, and even a third, and fungus haematodes will probably be established. 

Ulceration and caries of the cartilage will sometimes be accompanied by ulcera- 
tion of the conjunctiva. This will frequently prove a very serious affair, demanding, 
at least, the removal of the haw. 

The Caruncula Lacrymalis, or Tubercle, by means of which the tears are directed 
into the canal through which they are to escape from the nostril, is sometimes en- 
larged in consequence of inflammation, and the Puncta Lacrymalia, or conduits into 
which the tears pass from the eye, are partially or completely closed. The applica- 
tion of warm and emollient lotions will generally remove the collected mucus or the 
inflammation of the parts ; but if the passage of a stylet or other more complicated 
means are required, the assistance of a veterinary surgeon should be immediately 
obtained. The lacrymal sac into which the tears pass from the puncta has occasion- 
ally participated in the inflammation, and been distended and ruptured by the tears 
and mucus. Tliis lesion is termed Fisttila Lacrymalis. It has occasionally existed 
in colts, and will require immediate and peculiar treatment. 

COMMON INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE. 

The conjunctiva is occasionally the seat of great disease, and that which is to» 
often destructive to the eye. Inflammation of the eye may be considered under two 
forms — the common and manageable, and the specific and fatal. The Common In- 
flammation is generally sudden in its attack. The lids will be found swelled and 
the e3'es partially closed, and some weeping. ' The inside of the lid will be red, 
some red streaks visible on the white of the eye, and the cornea slightly dim. This 
ii> occasionally connected with some degree of catarrh or cold ; but it is as often 
unaccompanied by this, and depends on external irritation, as a blow, or the presence 
of a bit of hay-seed or oat-husk within the lid, and towards the outer corner wliere 
the haw cannot reach it : therefore the lids should always be carefully examined as 
to this possible source of the complaint. The health of the animal is generally un- 
aflfected — he feeds well, and performs his work with his usual spirit. Cooling appli- 
cations to the eye, as the Goulard's extract or tincture of opium, with mash-diet, and 
gentle physic, will usually abate the evil ; or the inflammation will subside withoue 
medical treatment, 

SPECIFIC OPHTHALMIA, OR MOON-BLINDNESS. 

Should three or four days pass, and the inflammation not be abated, we may begin 
%) suspect that it is Ophthalmia, especially if the eye is very impatient of light, and 
'•he cornea is considerably clouded. The aqueous humour then often loses its trana^ 



118 



SPECIFIC OPHTHALMIA. 



parency — oven the iris changes its colour, and the pupil is excrrJingly contracteJ 
The veterinary surgeon has now an obstinate disease to combat, and one that will 
generally maintain its ground in spite of all his efforts. For three, or four, or five 
weeks, the inflammation will remain undiminished ; or if it appears to yield on one 
day, it will return with redoubled violence on the next. At length, and often uncon- 
nected with any of the means that have been used, the eye begins to bear the light, 
Ihe redness of the membrane of the lid disappears, the cornea clears up, and the only 
vestio-e of disease which remains is a slight thickening of the lids and apparent un- 
easiness when exposed to a very strong light. 

If the owner imagines that he has got rid of the disease, he will be sadly disap- 
pointed, for, in the course of six weeks or two months, either the same eye under- 
goes a second and similar attack, or the other one becomes affected. All again 
seems to pass over, except that the eye is not so perfectly restored, and a slight^ 
deeply-seated cloudiness begins to appear; and after repeated attacks, and alterna- 
tions of disease from eye to eye, the affair terminates in opacity of the lens or its cap- 
sule, attended with perfect blindness either of one eye or both. This affection was 
formerly known by the name of moon-blindness, from its periodical return, and some 
supposed influence of the moon. That body, however, has not, and cannot have any- 
thing to do with it. 

What is the practitioner doing all this while ] He is an anxious and busy, but 
almost powerless spectator. He foments the eyes with warm water, or applies cold 
lotions with the extract of lead or opium, or poultices to which these drugs may b« 
added ; he bleeds, not from the temporal artery, for that does not supply the orbit of 
the eye, hut from the angular vein at the inner corner of the eye, or he scarifies the 
lining of the lid, or subtracts a considerable quantity of blood from the jugular 
vein. The scarifying of the conjunctiva, which may be easily accomplished with- 
out a twitch, by exposing the inside of the lids, and drawing a keen lancet slightly 
over them, is the most eftectual of all ways to abate inflammation, for we are then 
immediately unloading the distended vessels. He places his setons in the cheek, 
or his rowels under the jaw ; and he keeps the animal low, and gives physic oi 
' fever medicine (digitalis, nitre, and emetic tartar.) The disease, however, ebbs and 
flows, retreats and attacks, until it reaches its natural termination, blindness of one 
or both eyes. 

The horse is more subject to this disease from the age of four to six years than 
at any other period. He has then completed his growth. He is full of blood, and 
liable to inflammatory complaints, and the eye is the organ attacked from a peculiar 
predisposition in it to inflammation, the nature or cause of which cannot always be 
explained. Every affection of the eye appearing about this age must be regarded 
with much suspicion. 

It is a common opinion that black horses are more subject to blindness than others. 
There is considerable doubt about this, or rather it is probable that that colour has no 
influence cither in producing or aggravating the disease. 

As this malady so frequently destroys the sight, and there are certain periods when 
the inflammation has seemingly subsided and the inexperienced person would be 
deceived into the belief that all danger is at an end, the eye should be most carefully 
observed at the time of purchase, and tlie examiner should be fully aware of all the minute 
indications of previous or approaching disease. They are a slight thickening of the 
lids, or puckering towards the inner corner of the eye; a difference in the apparent 
size of the eyes; a cloudiness, although perhaps scarcely perceptible, of the surface 
of the cornea, or more deeply seated, or a hazy circle round its edge ; a gloominess 
of eye generally, and dulness of the iris; or a minute, faint, dusky spot in the cen- 
tre, with or without minute fibres or lines diverging from it. 

The cause of this inflammation is undoubtedly a strong predisposition to it in the eye 
of the horse, but assisted by the heated and empoisoned air of many stables. Tlio 
heated air has much to do with the production of the disease ; the empoisoned aii a 
great deal more: for every one must have observed, on entering a close stable early 
in tne morning, strong fumes of hartshorn which were painful to his eyes and caused 
the tears to flow. "What must be the constant action of this on the eyes of the horse? 
The dung of the horse, and the litter of the stables, when becoming pririd, emit 



I 



SPECIFIC OPHTHALMIA, 



119 



Airaes of volatile alkali or hartshorn. Often, very soon after they are voided, they 
oegin to yield an immense quantity of this pungent gas. If we are scarcely ahle to 
near this when we stand in the stable for only a few minutes, we need not wonder ai 
the prevalence of inflammation in the eye of the stabled horse, nor at the difficulty ol 
abating intlammation while this organ continues to be exposed to such painful excite- 
ment. Stables are now much better ventilated than they used to be, and ophthalmia 
is far from being so prevalent as it was fifty years ago. 

The farmer may not be aware of another cause of blindness, to which his horsp 
is more particularly exposed, viz., confinement in a dark stable. Many stables in the 
country have no glazed windows, but there is a flap which is open for a few hours in 
'he day, or while the carter is employed in the stable, and when that is shut down 
almost total darkness prevails. Let our reader consider what are his sensations 
when he suddenly emerges from a dark room into the full glare of light. He is 
dazzled and bewildered, and some time passes before his vision is distinct. Let this 
be repeated several times daily, and what will be the consequence'? The siglit will 
be disordered, or the eye irreparably injured. Then let him think of his poor horse, 
who often stumbles and starts through no fault of his own, although he is corrected 
for his blundering, but because his eyes are necessarily weakened by these sudden 
transitions, and disposed to take on sudden inflammation with all its fatal results. 

The propagation of various diseases, and this more than any other, from the sire to 
his progeny, has not been sufficiently considered by breeders. Let a stallion that is 
blind, or whose sight is defective, possess every other point and quality that can be 
wished, yet he is worse than useless ; for a very considerable proportion of his off- 
spring will most assuredly inherit weak eyes or become totally blind. There is no 
fact better established than this. 

Mr. Baker of Reigate puts this in a very strong point of view. He was called 
upon to examine a foal only a few days old, which seemed to have some affection of 
the head, as from its birth it was totally unconscious of any object, although it ap- 
peared to the owner to have good eyes. It ran its head against the wall and the 
standers by, in such a way as to convince the surgeon that it was quite blind, and on 
examining the pupil of each eye, he found them greatly dilated and motionless, but 
beyond this there was no unhealthy appearance. 

He inquired about the sire, and found that his vision was very defective, and that 
of all the stock wliich he got in that part of the country not one colt escaped the dire- 
ful effects of his imperfect sight. He persuaded the owner to have the youngster 
destroyed, and ". tracing the optic nerve in its passage from the base of the brain, he 
found it in a complete state of atrophy. There v/as scarcely any nervous substance 
within the tube that led from the brain to the eye. 

The most frequent consequences of this disease are cloudiness of the eye, and 
cataract. The cloudiness is singular in its nature. It v/ill change in twenty-four 
hours from the thinnest film to the thickest opacity, and, as suddenly, the eye will 
nearly regain its perfect transparency, but only to lose it, and as rapidly, a second 
time. 

The most barbarous methods have been resorted to for the purpose of removing this 
cloudiness. Chalk, and salt, and sugar, and even pounded glass have been introduced 
into the eye mechanically to rub off the film. It was forgotten that the cloudiness 
was the effect of inflammation — that means so harsh and cruel were very likely to 
recall that inflammation — that these rough and sharp substances must of necessity 
inflict excruciating pain ; and that, after all, it generally was not a film on the surface 
of the cornea, but a dimness pervading its substance, and even sinking deep within 
it, and therefore not capable of being removed. Where the cloudiness can bo remov 
ed, it will be best effected by first abating inflammation, and then exciting the absorb- 
ents to take up the grey deposit, by washing the eye with a very weak solution of 
corrosive sublimate. 

Opacity of the lens is another consequence of inflammation. A white speck jp- 
pears on "the centre of the lens, which gradually spreads over it, and completely cov- 
ers if. It is generally so white and pearly as not to be mistaken — at other times it is 
more hazy, deceiving the inexperienced, and occasioning doubt in the mind of profes 
sional men. We have seen many instances in which the sight has been considerably 



120 SPECIFIC OPHTHALMIA. 

affected or almost lost, and yet the horse has been pronounced sound by very fail 
judges. The eye must be exposed to the light, and yet under the kind of shelter 
which has been already described, in order to discover the defect. The pupil of the 
horse is seldom black, like that of the human being, and its greyish hue conceals the 
recent or thin film that may be spreading over the lens. 

Confirmed cataract in the eye of the horse admits of no remedy, for two obvious 
reasons : the retractor muscle draws the eye back so powerfully and so deeply into 
the socket, that it would be almost impossible to perform any operation ; and, could 
an operation be performed, and the opaque lens removed, the sight would be so 
imperfect, from the rays of light not being sufliciently converged, that the horse 
would be worse to us than a blind one. The man who has undergone the operation 
of couching may put a new lens before his eye, in the form of a convex spectacle ; 
but we cannot adapt spectacles to the eye of the horse, or fix them there. 

Since the publication of the first edition of "The Horse," some controversy has 
taken place with regard to the occasional appearance and disappearance of cataract 
without any connexion with the common moon-blindness. Mr. Clay deposed in evi- 
dence, that cataracts might be formed in a fortnight or three weeks — that he had 
known many instances in which they had been completed in less time, and without 
any previous apparent disease of the eyes ; and that he had detected them when the 
owners had not the slightest suspicion of disease in the eye.* 

Jlr. Cartwright adds, that he has known two simil;n- cases. The first was of a 
horse that had two cataracts in each eye — two of thc!:i of the size of a large pin's 
iiead, and the other two treble that size. There was no vestige of former inflamma- 
tion; and the person who bred him said that he never had been subject to inflamma- 
tion of the eye. In December 1831, these cataracts were plain enough; but in the 
autumn of 1832, they had completely vanished. 

In Novem.ber 1833, Mr. Cartwright saw a five-years old mare, and detected a cata- 
ract in the right eye, of the size of a coriander seed. He advised the owner to get 
rid of her, thinking that she would go blind ; but, being a useful animal, he kept her. 
In August 1833, Mr. Cartwright saw her again. The cataract had disappeared and 
the eyes were perfect.f 

That excellent veterinarian, Mr. Percivall, had a somewhat similar case. A gen- 
tleman brought a horse one morning to the hospital, in consequence of its having fallen 
in his w^ay to town, and grazed his eyebrow. On examining him carefully, the cornea 
was partially nebulous, and a cataract was plainly visible. Neither of these defects 
was sufficient to attract the notice of any unprofessional observer, and both were 
unconnected with the slight bruise produced by the fall. The owner was told that 
the corneal opacity might possibly be removed ; but as for the cataract, he might 
regard this as beyond the reach of medicine. He returned with his horse on the fifth 
day, saying that the physic had operated well, and that he thought the eye was as 
clear as ever. IVIr. Percivall examined the eye, and could discover no relic either of 
the corneal opacity or of the cataract. 

The opinion respecting cataract is therefore essentially modified. It is not necessa- 
rily the result of previous inflammation, although in the great majority of cases it is 
so, nor does it always lead to blindness. Still it is a serious thing at all times, and, 
although existing in the minutest degree, it is unsmindness, and very materially lessens 
the value of the horse. 

"Were I asked," says Mr. Percivall, " how the practitioner could best distinguish 
n cataract of the above description from that which is of ordinarj' occurrence, and 
known by us all to constitute the common termination of periodical ophthalmia, I 
should say that thi? unusually lucid and healthy aspect which every other part of the eye 
presents is our best diagnostic sign ; the slightest indication, however, or the slightest 
Kusiifcion of prior or present inflammation, being a reason for coming to a different 
conclusion. As to the period of time a cataract of this species, supposing it to be 
membranous, would require for its formation, I should apprehend that its production 
might be. as its disappearance often would seem to be, the work of a very short inter- 
val perhaps not more than five or six days." As to the cause and treatment of it, 

* Veterinarian, vol. vii. p. 41. t Veterinarian, vol. vii. p. 44. 



GUTTA SERENA — DISEASES OF THE EAR. 12] 

we are at present completely in tlie dark. If it does not soon disappear, the hydriodaia 
of potash administered internally might offer the best prospect of success. 

GUTTA SERENA. 

Another species of blindness, and of which mention was made when describing the 
retina, is Gutta Serena, commonly called glass eye. The pupil is more than usually 
dilated : it is immovable, and bright, and glassy. This is palsy of the optic nerve, or 
its expansion, the retina ; and is usually produced by determination of blood to the 
head. We have described it as a consequence of staggers. So much pressure has 
been occasioned on the base of the brain, that the nerve has been injured, and its func- 
tion destroyed. The treatment of Gutta Serena is quite as difficult as that of cataract. 
We have heard of successful cases, but we never saw one ; nor should we be disposed to 
incur much expense in endeavouring to accomplish impossibilities. Reasoning from 
tire cause of the disease, we should bleed and physic, and administer the strychnine 
in doses, commencing at half a grain, and not exceeding two grains, morning and 
night — very carefully watching it. If we succeed, it must be by constitutional treat- 
ment. As to local treatment, the seat of disease is out of our reach. 

DISEASES OF THE EAR. 

Wounds of the ear are usually the consequence of careless or brutal treatment. 
The twitch may be applied to it, when absolute necessity requires this degree of 
coercion ; but troublesome ulcers and bruises have been the consequence of the abuse 
of this species of punishment, and more especially has the farrier done irreparable 
mischief when he has brutally made use of his plyers. 

These bruises or wounds will generally — fortunately for the animal, and fortu- 
nately, perhaps, for the brute that inflicted the injury — speedily heal ; but occasionally 
sinuses and abscesses will result that bid defiance to the most skilful treatment. A 
simple laceration of the cartilage is easily remedied. The divided edges are brought 
into apposition, and the head is tied up closely for a few days, and all is well ; but, 
occasionally, ulceration of the integument and cellular substance, and caries of the 
cartilage, will take place — deep sinuses will be fonned, and the wound will bid defi- 
ance to the most skilful treatment. Tlie writer of this work had once a case of this 
kind under liis care more than two months, and he was at length compelled to cut off 
the ear, the other ear following it, for the sake of uniformity of appearance. The 
lunar caustic, or the muriate of antimony, or the heated iron, must be early employed, 
or the labour of the practitioner wall be in vain. 

It has been the misfortune of the same person to witness two cases in which the 
auditory passage was closed and the faculty of hearing destroyed, by blows on the 
ear violently inflicted. No punishment can be too severe for these brutes in human 
shape. Whenever there is considerable swelling about the root of the ear, and the 
fluctuation of a fluid within can be detected, it should be immediately opened with a 
lancet, and the purulent fluid liberated. 

The abscess usually begins to fonn about the middle of the conch, or rather nearer 
the base than the point. The incision should be of considerable length, or the opening 
will close again in four-and-twenty hours. Tlie purulent matter having been evacu- 
ated, the incision should not be permitted to close until the parietes of the ulcer have 
adhered to each other, and the abscess is obliterated. 

The size and the carrying of the ear do not always please. The ears may be large? 
and more dependent than fashion requires them to be, and this is remedied by paring 
or clipping them to the requisite size. On either side of the projection of the occipital 
bone, and in a straight line forward and backward, a fold of the skin is pinched up 
and cut away. The divided edges on either side are then brought together, and con- 
fined by tv/o or three stitches — they presently unite, and the owner has a better- 
looking horse, and soon forgets or cares not about the punishment which he has 
inflicted on him. 

The ears of other horses may be supposed to be too close to each other. This fault 
IS corrected by another piece of cruelty. Similar slips of skin are cut away on the 
outside of the base of the ear. and in the same direction. Tlie edges of the wouno 
11 Q 



122 THE ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF 

are then brought together, confined by sutures, and the ears are drawn further apar« 
from each other, and have different directions given to them. A very slight examina- 
tion of either of the horses will readily detect the imposition. 

DEAFNESS. 

Of the occasional existence of this in the horse, there is no doubt. The beautiful 
play of tlie ears has ceased, and the horse hears not the voice of his master, or tii« 
sound of the whip. Much of the apparent stupidity of a few horses is attributable to 
their imperfect hearing. It occasionally appears to foUov/ the decline of various dis- 
eases, and especially of those that affect the head and the respiratory passages. It 
has been the consequence of brutal treatment closing the conduit of the ear, or rup- 
turiiio- the tympanum ; and it is certainly, as in other domesticated animals, the 
accompaniment of old age. 

In the present state of veterinary knowledge, it is an incurable complaint ; the only 
thing that can be done is not to punish the poor slave for his apparent stupidity, pro- 
duced perhaps by over-exertion in our service, or, at least, the natural attendant of 
the close of a life devoted to us. 



CHAPTER IV. 
THE ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH. 

"VVe now proceed to a description of the face, or lower part of the head of the Horse. 
The nasal bones, or bones of the nose {j j, p. 70, and a, p. 72), are connected with the 
frontal bones above, and with the lacrymal, i i, and the bones of the upper jaw, / /, 
on cither side. They are united together by a plain suture, which is a continuation 
of the frontal, and they terminate in a point at the nostril (p, p. 70). They are 
rounded and arched above, because they are exposed to occasional violence and injury, 
which the arch-form will enable them best to resist; and at the base of the arch, 
where the main strength should be, they are overlapped by the upper jaw-bone, as the 
temporal bone overlaps the base of the parietal. These bones form a principal part 
of the face ; and the length, or shortness, and the character of the face, depend upon 
them. Sometimes there is an appearance of two little arches, with a depression 
between them along the sutures. This is often found in the blood-horse with his com- 
paratively broad head and face. The single elevated arch is found in the long and 
narrow face of the heavy draught-horse. 

The nasal bones pursue their course down the face, in some horses in a straight 
line — in others, there is a slight prominence towards tlie upper part, while in a con- 
siderable number, a depression is observed a little lower down. Some persons have 
imagined that this deviation in the line of the face affords an indication of the temper 
of the animal, and there may be a little truth in this. The horse with a straight pro- 
file may be good or bad tempered, but not often either to any great excess. The one 
with the prominent Roman nose will generally be an easy, good-tempered kind of 
beast — hardy — ready enough to feed, not always, perhaps, so ready to work, but may 
be made to do his duty without any cruel urging, and having no extraordinary preten- 
sion to speed or blood. On the other hand, a depression across the centre of the nose 
generally indicates some breeding, especially if the head is small, but occasionally 
accompanied by a vicious, uncontrollable disposition. 

There is another way, however, in which the nasal bones do more certainly indicate 
the Dreed,viz., by their comparative length or shortness. There is no surer criterion 
of -^ well-bred horse, than a broad angular forehead, prominent features, and a short 
face; nor of a horse with little breeding, than a narrow forehead, small features, and 
lengthened nose. The comnarative development of the head and face indicates, with 
little erroi, the preponderance of the animal or intellectual principle. 

Fracture of the nasal bones of the horse will sometimes occur from falling, or a kick 



THE NOSE AND MOlfTH. 



123 



from the companion, or the brutality of the attendant. It is generally fullowed by 
lAceration of the lining membrane of the nostrils, and by haemorrhage. The haemor 
rhage may usually be arrested by the application of cold water externally. In spon- 
taneous haemorrhage this does not often succeed until a considerable quantity of blood 
is lost. 

In cases of fracture of the nasal bones, the assistance of a veterinary surgeon iy 
indispensable. He alone knows the precise anatomy of the parts, and will have 
recourse to the elevator or the irephlne, as circumstances may require. 

The owner must not be too sanguine with regard to cases of this kind, for ozena, — 
ulceration attended by a peculiar and almost insufferable stench — is too often the con- 
sequence, or foundation may be laid, for the appearance, of glanders. 

Spontaneous bleediui^' from the nose must be carefully attended to. It may proceed 
from over-fulness of the capillaries of the membrane of the nose, or determination of 
blood to the head, or general plethora of the system. Those that are overfed and 
overfat are most liable to it, as troop-horses, brewers' horses, and horses kept for 
pleasure. It is not common in young horses, or in such as are out of condition, or 
worked hardly. Itis always desirable to know whence the bleeding proceeds — if 
from the nostril alone, it will usually be confined to one side — if from the lungs, the 
discharge is from both nostrils, and generally mingled with mucus, or spume, — there 
is also a quickened respiration, and more or less cough. 

If it is apparently connected with some slight cause, a dose of physic and quietness 
for a day or two will be sufficient, and, if necessary, a slight solution of alum maybe 
injected up the nostril. If the bleeding is apparently from the lungs, a more serious 
evacuation will be required. 

These bones form the roof of an important cavity (see a, p. 72). The sides are 
constituted above by the nasal bones, and, lower down, by the upper jaw-bones, {supe- 
rior maxillaries), while plates from these latter bones project and compose the palate, 
which is both the floor of the nose and the roof of the mouth (/, p. 72). Above (near 
fig. 8), not visible in our cut, is a bone called the palatine, although it contributes very 
little to the formation of the palate. It is the termination of the palate, or the border 
of the opening where the cavities of the mouth and nose meet (fig. 8). The frontal 
sinuses, b, and large vacuities in the upper jaw-bone, and in the aethmoid, /, and sphe 
noid bones, A, communicate with and enlarge the cavity of the nose. 




This ■ -wity is divided into two parts by a cartilage called the Septum (see a, p. 72). 
It is of 'considerable thickness and strength, and divides the cavity of the nose into 
two equnJ parts. It is placed in the centre for the purpose of strength, and it is formed 
of cartilage, in order that, by its gradual yielding resistance, it may neutralize almost 
any force that may be applied to it. 

When we open the nostril, we see the membrane by which the cartilage, and the 
whole of the cavity of the nose, is lined, and by the colour of which, much more 
thau by that of the lining of the eyelids, we judge of the degree of fever, and pai- 



124 THE ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF 

ticularly of inflammation of tlie lungs, or any of the air-passages. Tlie cut on the 
precedino- page shows the ramifications of the blood-vessels, both arterial and venous, 
on the membrane of the nose. It beautifully accounts for the accurate connexion 
which we trace between the colour of the nasal membrane, and various diseases or 
states of the circulation. By the sore places or ulcerations discovered on this mem- 
brane we likewise determine respecting the existence of glanders ; and the interposi- 
tion of the septum is a wise and benevolent provision to hinder the spread of the 
mischief, by cutting off all communication with the neighbouring parts, and also to 
preserve one nostril pervious, when the other is diseased or obstructed. The nasal 
cavity is, on either side, occupied by two bones, which, from their being rolled up 
somewhat in the form of a turban, are called the turbinated or turban-shaped bones; 
s s, p. 72 ; part of the cartilage is cut away in our cut in order to display them. They 
are as thin as gauze, and perforated, like gauze, with a thousand holes. Between 
them are left sufficient passages for the air. 

If they were unrolled, they would present a very considerable surface ; and on 
every part of them is spread the substance or pulp of the olfactory, or first pair of 
nerves. These bones, lined with delicate membranes, and covered by the olfactory 
nerves, are the seat of smell ,• and they are thus expanded, because the sense of smell 
in the horse must, to a very considerable degree, supply the place of the sense of 
touch and the lessons of experience in the human being. By this alone he is enabled 
to select, amongst the nutritive and poisonous herbage of the meadow, that which 
would support and not destroy him. The troops of wild horses are said to smell the 
approach of an enemy at a very considerable distance. In his domestic state, the 
horse does not examine the diflerent food which is placed before him with his eye, 
but with his nose; and if the smell displeases him, no coaxing will induce him to 
eat. He examines a stranger by the smell, and, by very intelligible signs, expresses 
the opinion which he forms of him by this inquisition. Tlie horse will evidently 
recoo-nise his favourite groom when he hvis nothing else to indicate his approach but 
the sense of smell. These cavities are likewise organs of voice. The sound re- 
verberates through them, and increases in loudness, as through the windings of a 
French horn. 

The extension of the nostril at the lower part of these cavities is an important part 
of the face, and intimately connected with breeding, courage, and speed. The horse 
can breathe only through the nose. All the air which goes to and returns from tiie 
lungs must pass through the nostrils. In the common act of breathing, these are 
sufficiently large ; but when the animal is put on his speed, and the respiration is 
quickened, these passages must dilate, or he will be much distressed. The expanded 
nostril is a striking feature in tlie blood-horse, especially when he has been excited 
and not over-blown. The sporting man will not forget the sudden effect which is 
given to the countenance of the hunter, when his ears become erect, and his nostrils 
dilate as he first listens to the cry of the hounds, and snorts, and scents them afar off. 
The painful and spasmed stretching of this part, in the poor, over-driven post-horse, 
will show how necessary it is that tire passage to the lungs should be free and open. 
Tlie nostril should not only be large, but the membranous substance which covers the 
entrance into the nose should be thin and elastic, that it may more readily yield when 
the necessity of the animal requires a greater supply of air, and afterwards return to 
its natural dimensions. Therefore, nature, which adapts the animal to his situation 
and use, has given to the cart-horse, that is seldom blown, a confined nostril, and 
surrounded by much cellular substance, and a thick skin; and to the horse of more 
breeding, whose use consists in his speed and his continuance, a wider nostril, and 
one much more flexible. 

The inhabitants of some countries were accustomed to slit the nostrils of their 
horses, that they might be less distressed in the severe and long-continued exertion 
of their speed. The Icelanders do so to the present day. There is no necessity for 
this, for nature has made ample provision for all the ordinary and even extraordinary 
exertion we can require from the horse. 

Some very powerful muscles proceed from different parts of the face to the neighbour- 
hood of the nostrils, in order to draw them back and dilate them. Four of these aie 
given in the following cut, which is inserted to complete our present subject, and which 



THE NOSE AND MOUTH. 



125 



will be often referred to in the course of our work ; /, m, o, and p, are muscles em- 
ployed for this purpose. 

XnE MUSCLES, NERVES, AND BLOOD-VESSELS OF THE HEAD AND UPPER PART OF THE NECK.. 




a The upper part of the ligament of the neck. 

b The levator humeri (elevator of the shoulder), arising from the tubercle of the occiput, tb-° 
mastoid (nipple-shaped) process of the temporal bone, and the transverse processes 
(cross projections) of the four first bones of the neck, and the ligament of the neck, ana 
goinw to the muscles of the shoulders, and the upper bone of the arm : to draw for- 
ward the shoulder and arm ; or turn the head and neck ; and, when the two levators 
act, to depress the head. 

c The tendon common to the complexus major (larger complicated), and splenius (splint-like) : 
to the mastoid process of the temporal bone, to hold up the head, or, the muscles on 
one side alone acting, to turn it, 

d The slerno-maxillaris (belonging to the breast-bone) and upper jaw, from the cartilage in 
front of the chest to the angle of the lower jaw : to bend the head, or, if one only 
acts, to bend it on one side. 

e The slylo-maxillaris, from the styloid (pencil-shaped) or coracoid (beak-shaped) urocess of 
the occiput, to the angle of the jaw : to pull the jaw backward and open it. 

f The suhscapulo Jiijoidcus, from under the shoulder-blade, to the body of the oS hyoides (the 
bone at the root of the tongue formed like a Greek u, v) ; to draw back that bone. 

g The masseter (chewing) ; a most powerful muscle, constituting the cheek of the horse :— 
from the upper jaw bone into the rough surface round the angle of the lower r in con- 
junction with the temporal muscle to close the mouth and chew the food. 

h The orbicularis (circular) surrounding the eye and closing the lids. 

t The zygomaticus, from the zygomatic arch and masseter to the corner of the mouth, to 
draw back the angle of the mouth. 

k The hucci?iator (trumpeter), from the inside of the mouth and cheeks, to the angle of the 
mouth, to draw u back. 

I The vasalis lahii superioris (belonging to the nose and upper lip), from a depression at the 
junction of the superior ma-xiUary and malar bones, to the angle of the nostril : to raise 
the lip, and dilate the nostrils. 

m Dilator naris lateralis (side dilator of the nostril), reversed to show the vessels and nerves 
which it covers, going from the covering of the nasal and frontal bones, to the angle 
of the mouth, and side of the nostril: to retract the upper lip and dilate the nostrils. 

n Dilator magnus (great dilator), assisting in the same office. 

o Depressor lahii inferioris (puller down of the under lip), to the sides of the under lip : to puli 
it down. T u r 

p Orbicularis oris (circular muscle of the mouth), surrounding the mouth : to close the lipa 
and dilate the nostrils. u 1. 1 i 

q The upper portion of the parotid gland (gland near the ear) reversed, to show the blood ve^ 
sels and nerves beneath it. 

r The parotid duct piercing the cheek, to discharge the sahva into the mouth. 
11* 



J2a' NASAL POLYPUS. 

( Tlie maxillary gland (gland of the lower jaw) with its duct. 

( The jugular (neck) -vein, after the two branches have united. 

u At this letter, the submaxillary artery, a branch of the jugular, and the parotid duct, pass 

under and within me angle of the lower jaw ; they come out again at w, and climb'up 

the cheek to be distributed over the face. 
V The vein and artery, passing under the zygomatic arch. 
X A branch of the fitih pair, the sensitive nerve of the face, emerging from under the parotid 

gland. 
y The main branch of the portio dura (hard portion) of the seventh pair, the motor (moving) 

nerve of the face coming out from beneath the parotid gland, to spread over the face, 
s Branches of both nerves, with small blood-vessels. 

There are also four distinct cartilages attached to the nostrils, whicli, by their 
elasticity, bring back the nostrils to their former dimensions, as soon as the muscles 
cease to act. 'llie bones of the nose (a a, p. 70, and/?. 72) are also sharpened off to 
a point, to give wider range for the action of the muscles; while the cartilages are 
so contrived, as not only to discharge the office we have mentioned, but to protect 
this projection of bone from injury. 

There are two circumstances, -which, more than any others, will enable the veteri- 
nary surgeon, and the owner of a horse, accurately to judge of the character and 
degree of many diseases, and to which very few persons pay sufficient attention ; 
these are the pulse, of which we shall presently speak, and the colour of the mem- 
brane of the nose. It is the custom of most veterinary surgeons and horsemen to lift 
the upper eyelid, and to form their opinion by the colour which its lining presents. 
If it is very red, there is considerable fever; — if it is of a pale pinkish hue, there is 
little danger. The nose, however, is more easily got at ; — the surface presented to 
the view is more extensive ; — its sympathy with almost all the important organs is 
greater ; — and the changes produced by disease are more striking and more conclu- 
sive. Let tue reaaer nrst make himself well acquainted with the uniform pale pink 
appearance of mat 'portion of the membrane which covers the lower part of the car- 
tilaginous partition hetwf;en the nostrils, when the horse is in health and quiet; then 
the increased blush ^^ tpA. betokening some excitement of the system — the streaked 
appearance of inflammation commenced, and threatening to increase — the intense 
florid red, of acute inflammation — the pale ground with patches of vivid red, showing 
the half-subdued, but stili existing fever — the uniform colour, although somewhat 
redder than natural, predicting a return to healthy circulation — the paleness approach- 
ing to white, marking the stage of debility, and sometimes intermingled with radia- 
tions of crimson, inducing the suspicion of lurking mischief; and the dark livid' 
colour of approaching stagnation of the vital current. These, with all their shades 
of difference, will be the guides to his opinion and treatment, which every one, who 
has studied them, will highly appreciate. 

NASAL POLYPUS. 

By the polypus, is meant an excrescence or tumour, varying in size, structure, and 
consistence, and attached by a pedicle to a mucous surface. The true polypus is 
attached to mucous membranes, and is usually found in the nostrils, the pharynx, the 
uterus, or the vagina. Tumours have been seen hanging loose in the veins and ven- 
tricles of the heart ; and in the larger blood-vessels there have been accumulations of 
the iibrine of the blood, with peduncular attachments. 

The nasal polypus usually adheres to some portion of the superior turbinated bone, 
or it has come from some of the sinuses connected with that cavity. It escaped, 
while small, through the valvular opening under the superior turbinated bone, into the 
cavity of the nose, and there attained its full growth. 

No better account, however, can be given of the cause of their appearance, than 
that of tumours in other parts of the body. They evidently have a constitutional 
origin: they are frequently hereditary, and the animal in which they have once 
appeared, is subject to a return of them. 

By some means, probably the increasing weight of the tumour, and being in a 
dependent situation, the polypus is gradually detached from its base, and forces with 
It the soft and easily distensible membrane of the nose. As it continues to descend, 
this portion of membrane is farther elongated, and forms the pedicle or toot of tne 



NASAL GLEET, OR DISCHARGE FROM THE NOSE. -o^ 

tumour ; — if that may be termed a root which is a mere duplicate of its investino 
membrane. 

The polypus, when it hang's free in the nasal cavity, is usually of a pyrifona or 
pear-like shape ; and it varies in weight, from a few drachms to three or four pounds. 

How is tlie surgeon to proceeds Can he lay hold of the polypus by the finger, or 
the forceps, or (for these tumours do not possess much sensibility) the tenaculum I 
To ascertain this, he will cast the horse, and fix the head in a position to take the 
greatest advantage of the light. If he cannot fairly get at the tumour by any of 
these means, he will let it alone. It will continue to grow — the membrane consti- 
tuting the pedicle will be lengthened — and the polypus will at length descend, and 
be easily got at. Time and patience will effect wonders in this and many similar 
cases. 

Supposing it to have grown, and the surgeon is endeavouring to extract it, he must 
not use any great force. It must not be torn out by the root. ^The tumour must be 
gently brought down, and a ligature passed round the pedicle, as high up as it can 
conveniently be placed. If the polypus can then be returned to the nose, the animal 
will suffer very little inconvenience ; and in a few days it will slough off, and the 
pedicle will contract, and graduall3i disappear. 

If the polypus is so large that it cannot be well returned after it has been brought 
down, we must, notv/ithstanding, use the ligature, passing it round the pedicle suffi- 
ciently tightly to cut off the supply of blood to the tumour. We may then imme- 
diately excise it. Except the pedicle is exceedingly thick, there will be little or no 
haemorrhage. Should some bleeding occur, it will probably soon stop, or may be 
stopped by the cautery, which should, however, be avoided if possible; for our object 
is to produce as little irritation as may be in the membrane, and the actual cautery 
will be applied with considerable difficulty in the cavaty of the nose. 

In very bad cases, when the tumour cannot be drawn out of the nose, it may be 
necessary to slit up the ala or side of the nostril. It will be better, however, not to 
cut through the false nostril ; for that consists of a duplicature of such thin integu- 
ment, that the stitches can hardly be retained in it, wiien the horse will be continually 
snorting at the least inconvenience. It will also be difficult to bring the edges of this 
thin membrane accurately together again ; or if this be effected, there is scarcely life 
enough in it for the parts readily to unite. The false nostril should be avoided, and 
the incision made along the lateral edge of the nasal bone, beginning at its apex or 
point. The flap will then conveniently turn down, so as to expose the cavity beneath ; 
and there will be sufficient muscular substance to secure an almost certain union by 
the first intention. The nostril being opened, the pedicle will probably be displayed, 
and a ligature may be passed round it, as already recommended ; or if it is not actu 
ally in sight, it may probablj'^ gradually be brought within reach. 

NASAL GLEET, OR DISCHARGE FROM THE NOSE. 

There is a constant secretion of fluid to lubricate and moisten the membrane that 
lines the cavity of the nose, and which, under catarrh or cold, is increased in quantity, 
and altered in appearance and consistence. This will properly belong to the account 
of catarrh or cold ; but that which is immediately under consideration, is a contiiiued 
and oftentimes profuse discharge of thickened mucus, when every symptom of catarrh 
and fever has passed away. If the horse is at grass, the discharge is almost as preen 
as the food on which he lives ; — or if he is stabled, it is white, or straw-coloured, or 
brown, or even bloody, and sometimes purulent. It is either constantly running, or 
snorted out in masses many times a day ; teazing the horse, and becoming a perfect 
nuisance in the stable, and to the rider. This has been known to continue several 
months, and eventually to destroy the horse. 

If the discharge is not offensive to the smell, nor mixed with purulent matter, it is 
probably merely an increased and somewhat vitiated secretion from the cavities of the 
nose; and, all fever having disappeared, will frequently yield to small doses of blue 
vitriol, given twice in the day. If fever or cough remains, the cough medicine tnat 
will hereafter be described must be combined with the tonic. If the discharge is 
mingled with pus, and very offensive, the vegetable tonics, gentian and ginger, may 
le added to the copper ; but there is now reason to apprehend that the discharge wiu 



128 OZENA. 

not be controlled, arJ will terminate in glanders. Turning into a salt marsh will 
occasionally effect a cure, when both the mineral and the vegetable tonics have 
I'ailea. 

OZENA. 

Ozena is ulceration of the membrane of the nose, not always or often visible, but 
recognised by the discharge of muco-purulent matter, and the peculiar fcetor from 
whicii the disease derives its name. It resembles glanders, in being confined, in most 
instances, to one nostril, and the submaxillary gland on the same side being enlarged; 
but ditl'ers from it in the gland not being adherent, and the discharge, from its earliest 
stage, being purulent and stinking. 

There is sometimes a fcetid discharge from the nostril, in consequence of inflamma- 
tion of the lungs, or produced by some of the sequels of pheumonia ; distinguished, 
however, from ozena, by its usually flowing irregularly, being coughed up in great 
quantities, more decidedly purulent, and the gland or glands seldom affected. The 
discharge from ozena is constant, muco-purulent, and attended by enlargement of the 
glands. It is of immense consequence that we should be enabled to distinguish the 
one from the other ; for while ozena may, sometimes at least, be manageable, the 
other is too frequently the precursor of death. 

The cause of ozena cannot always be discovered. Chronic inflammation of the 
membrane may assume another and malignant character. In severe catarrh, the 
membrane may become abraded, and the abrasions may degenerate into foul and fcetid 
ulcers. It is not an unfrequent consequence of epidemic catarrh. It has been pro- 
duced by caustic applications to the lining membrane of the nose. It has followed 
haemorrhage, spontaneous, or the consequence of injury. 

In some cases, and those as obstinate as any, it cannot perhaps be traced to any 
probable cause, and the health of the animal has not appeared to be in the slightest 
degree affected. 

The membrane of the nose is highly sensitive and irritable, and an ulcer, in what- 
ever way formeJ on it, does not readily heal. It often runs on to gangrene, and 
destroys not only the membrane, but the bone beneath, and even the cartilaginous 
septum. This is rarely the -case in glanders; and the ravages of the chancrous ulcere 
are usually confined to the membrane. The ulceration proceeds to a certain point — 
its progress is then arrested, usually by nature alone — the discharge gradually lessens 
— it loses its offensive character, and at length ceases. 

Local applications are seldom available in the treatment of this disease ; for we 
know not the situation of the ulcer ; and if we did, we probably could not get at it. 
Some have recommended setons. Where are they to be applied ] If the seat of 
ulceration is unknown, the seton may only give useless pain. Several posl-murievt 
examinations have shown that the frontal sinuses are a frequent seat of the disease. 
Yet what injection could we use? An emollient one would be thrown away. A 
stimulating injection might convert ozena into glanders. Other examinations have 
shown that the superior portion of the central meatus was diseased. What instru- 
ment can be contrived to reach that? Internal medicines are almost thrown away in 
tliis complaint: yet something, perhaps, may be done under the form of a local appli- 
cation. The discarded nose-bag (undervalued at least by too many practitioners) 
will afford the means of employing an emollient fomentation. The steam from a 
bran-mash, scalding hot, will probably reach every part of the nasal cavity, and so 
afford some chance of being beneficially applied to the ulcer. It will, at least, 
thoroughly cleanse the part. By means of the nose-bag and the warm mash, the 
chloride of lime may be introduced into the cavity; not only combining with the 
extricated gases, and removing the foetor, but arresting the tendency to decomposition. 

Then there is a digestive — a gentle stimulus to abraded and ulcerated surfices, 
rousing them to healthy action, and without too much irritating them — turpentine. 
Tliis may be applied in the form of vapour, and, in the best of all ways, by using 
the fresh yellow deal shavings instead of bran. This digestive may be brought into 
contact with every part of the Schneiderian membrane, and has been serviceable. 

There is another resource, and one that bids fairer to be successful than any othci 
wiA which we are acquainted — the spring grass. It is the finest alterative, depura 



GLANDERS. 129 

live, and restorative, in our whole materia raedica ; and if it is accessible in the fomB 
of a salt marsh, there is no better chance of doing good. 

GLANDERS. 

The most formidable of all the diseases to which the horse is subject, is Olankers. 
It has been recognised from the time of Hippocrates, of Cos ; and few modern veteri- 
nary writers have given a more accurate or complete account of its symptoms, than 
is to be found in the works of the father of medicine. Three-and-twenty hundred 
years have rolled on since then, and veterinary practitioners are not yet agreed as to 
tlie tissue primarily affected, nor the actual nature of the disease : we only know that 
it is at the present day, what it was then, a loathsome and an incurable malady. 

We shall therefore, in treating of this disease, pursue our course slowly and 
rautiously. 

The earliest symptom of Glanders is an increased discharge from the nostril, small 
in quantity, constantly flowing, of an aqueous character, and a little mucus mingling 
with it. 

Connected with this is an error too general, and highly mischievous with regard to 
the character of this discharge in the earliest stage of the disease, when, if ever, a 
cure might be effected, and when, too, the mischief from contagion is most frequently 

firoduced. The discharge of glanders is not sticky when it may be first recognised, 
t is an aqueous or mucous, but small and constant discharge, and is thus distinguished 
from catarrh, or nasal gleet, or any other defluxion from the nostril. It should be* 
impressed on the mind of every horseman that this small and constant defluxion, 
overlooked by the groom and by the owner, and too often by the veterinary surgeon, 
is a most suspicious circumstance. 

Mr. James Turner deserves much credit for having first or chiefly directed the atten- 
tion of horsemen to this important but disregarded symptom. If a horse is in the 
highest condition, yet has this small aqueous constant discharge, and especially from 
one nostril, no time should be lost in separating him from his companions. No harm 
will be done by this, although the defluxion should not ultimately betray lurking mis- 
chief of a worse character. 

Mr. Turner relates a case very much in point. A farmer asked his opinion respect- 
ing a mare in excellent condition, with a sleek coat, and in full work. He had had 
her seven or eight months, and during the whole of that time there had been a dis- 
charge from the right nostril, but in so slight a degree as scarcely to be deemed worthy 
of notice. He now wanted to sell her, but, like an honest man, he wished to know 
whether he might warrant her. Mr. Turner very properly gave it as his opinion, that 
the discharge having existed for so long a time, he would not be justified in sending 
her into the market. A farrier, however, whose ideas of glanders had always been 
connected with a sticky discharge and an adherent gland, bought her, and led her 
away. 

Three months passed on, when Mr. Turner, examining the post-horses of a neigh- 
bouring inn, discovered that two of them were glandered, and two more fiircied, while, 
standing next to the first that was attacked, and his partner in work, was his old 
acquaintance, the farmer's mare, with the same discharge from her nostril, and who 
had, beyond question, been the cause of all the mischief. 

The peculiar viscidity and gluiness which is generally supposed to distinguish the 
discharge of glanders from all other mucous and prevalent secretions belongs to the 
;:econd stage of the disease, and, for many months before this, glanders may have 
existed in an insidious and highly contagious form. It must be acknowledged, how- 
ever, that, in the majority of cases, some degree of stickiness does characterise the 
discharge of glanders from a very early period. 

It is a singular circumstance, for which no satisfactory account has yet been given, 
that when one nostril alone is attacked, it is, in a great majority of cases, the near, or 
eft. M. Dupuy. the director of the veterinary school at Toulouse, gives a very sin- 
gular .iccount of this. He says, that out of eighty cases of glanders that came undoi 
his notice,' only one was aff'ected in the right nostril. The diff'erence in the afl^ect«d 
nostril does not exist to so great an extent in Great Britain ; but, in two horses out of 
t'iree, or tnree out of four, the discharge is from the left nostril alone. We migW 

B 



[30 ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH. 

account for the left leg failing oftener than the right, for we mount and dismount on 
the left side; the horse generally loads uith it, and there is more wear and tear of 
that limb : but we cannot satisfactorily account for this usual affection of the left nos- 
tril. It is true that the reins are held in the left hand, and there may be a little more 
bearing and pressure on the left side of the mouth ; hut this applies only to saddle- 
horses, and even with them does not sufficiently explain the result. 

This dischartje, in cases of infection, may continue, and in so slight a degree as to 
be scarcely perceptible, for many months, or even two or three years, unattended by 
any other disease, even ulceration of the nostril, and yet the horse being decidedly 
crlandered from the beginning, and capable of propagating the malady. In process 
of time, however, jnis mingles with the discharge, and then another and a characteris- 
tic symptom appears. Some of this is absorbed, and the neighbouring glands become 
affected. If there is discharge from both nostrils, the glands within the under jaw 
will be on both sides enlarged. If the discharge is from one nostril only, the swelled 
o-land will be found on that side alone. Glanders, however, will frequently exist at 
an early stage without these swelled glands, and some other diseases, as catarrh, will 
produce them. Then we must look out for some peculiarity about these glands, and 
we shall readily find it. The swelling may be at first somewhat large and diffused, 
but the surrounding enlargement soon goes off, and one or two small distinct glands 
remain ; and they are not in the centre of the channel, but adhere closely io thejaiv on 
the affected side. 

The membrane of the nose should now be examined, and will materially guide our 
opinion. It will either be of a dark purplish hue, or almost of a leaden colour, or of 
any shade between the two; or if there is some of the redness of inflammation, it will 
have a purple tinge : but there will never be the faint pink blush of health, or the 
Intense and vivid red of usual inflammation. Spots of ulceration will probably appear 
on the membrane covering the cartilage of the nose — not mere sore places, or streaks 
of abrasion, and quite superficial, but small ulcers, usually approaching to a circular 
form, deep, and with the edges abrupt and prominent. When these appearances are 
observed, there can be no doubt about the matter. Care should be taken, however, to 
ascertain that these ulcers do actually exist, for spots of mucus adhering to the mem- 
brane have been more than once taken for them. The finger should, if possible, be 
passed over the supposed ulcer, in order to determine whether it can be wiped away; 
and it should be recollected, as was hinted when describing the duct that conveys the 
tears to the nose, that the orifice of that duct, just within the nostril, and on the inner 
side of it, has been mistaken for a chancrous ulcer. This orifice is on the continua- 
iion of the common skin of the muzzle which runs a little way up the nostril, while 
the ulcer of glanders is on the proper membrane of the nose above. The line of sepa- 
ration between the two is evident on the slightest inspection. 

When ulcers begin to appear on the membrane of the nose, the constitution of the 
horse is soon evidently aftVcted. The patient loses flesh — his belly is tucked up — 
his coat unthrifty, and readily coming off — the appetite is impaired — the strength fails 
— cough, more or Jess urgent, may l)e heard — the discharge from the nose will increase 
in quantity ; it will be discoloured, bloody, offensive to the smell — the ulcers in the 
nose will become larger and more numerous, and the air-passages being obstructed, a 
grating, choking noise will be heard at every act of breathing. There is now a 
peculiar tenderness about the forehead. The membrane lining the frontal sinuses is 
inflamed and ulcerated, and the integument of the forehead becomes thickened and 
somewhat swelled. Farcy is now superadded to glanders, or glanders has degene- 
rated into farcy, and more of the absorbents are involved. 

At or before this time little tumours appear about the muscles, and face, and neck 
following the course of the veins and the absorbents, for they run side by side; and 
these the tumours soon ulcerate. Tumours or buds, still pursuing the path of the 
absorbents, soon appear on the inside of the thighs. They are connected together by 
a corded substance. This is the inflamed and enlarged lymphatic ; and ulceration 
quickly follows the appearance of these buds. The deeper-seated absorbents are next 
affected ; and one or both of the hind-legs swell to a great size, and become stiff, and 
hot. and tender. The loss of flesh and strength is more marked every day. Tiie 
xnemhrajie of the nose becomes of a dirty livid colour. The membrane of the moi'th 



GLANDERS. 131 

fs strangely pallid. The eye is infiltrated with a yellow fluid ; and the discharge 
from the nose becomes more profuse, and insufferably offensive. The anima. presents 
one mass of putrefaction, and at last dies exhausted. 

The enlargement of the submaxillary glands, as connected with this disease, may, 
perhaps, require a little farther consideration. A portion of the fluid secreted by the 
membrane of the nose, and altered in character by the peculiar inflammation there 
existing, is absorbed ; and, as it is conveyed along the lymphatics, in order to arrive 
ut the place of its destination, it inflames them, and causes them to enlarge and sup- 
purate. There is, however, a peculiarity accompanying the inflammation which they 
take from the absorption of the virus of glanders. They are rarely large, except at 
first, or hot, or tender; but they are characterised by a singular hardness, a proximity 
to the jaw-bone, and, frequently, actual adhesion to it. The adhesion is produced by 
the inflammatory action going forward in the gland, and the effusion of coagulable 
lymph. This hardness and adhesion accompanying discharge from the nostril, and 
being on the same side with the nostril whence the discharge proceeds, afford proof 
not to be controverted that the horse is glandered. Notwithstanding this, however, 
there are cases in which the glands are neither adherent nor much enlarged, and yet 
there is constant discharge from one or both nostrils. The veterinary surgeon would 
have little hesitation in pronouncing them to be cases of glanders. He will trust to 
the adhesion of the gland, but he will not be misled by its looseness, nor even by its 
absence altogether. 

Glanders have often been confounded with strangles, and by those who ought to 
have known better. Strangles are peculiar to young horses. The early stage 
resembles common cold, with some degree of fever and sore throat — generally with 
distressing cough, or at least frequent wheezing ; and when the enlargement appears 
beneath the jaw, it is not a single small gland, but a swelling of the whole of the 
substance between the jaws, growing harder towards the centre, and, after a while, 
appearing to contain a fluid, and breaking. In strangles, the membrane of the nose 
will be intensely red, and the discharge from the nose profuse and purulent, or mixed 
with matter almost from the first. When the tumour has burst, the fever will abate, 
and the horse will speedily get well. 

Should the discharge from the nose continue, as it sometimes does, for a consider- 
able time after the horse has recovered from strangles, there is no cause for fear. 
Simple strangles need never degenerate into glanders. Good keep, and small doses 
of tonic medicine, will gradually perfect the cure. 

G'^nders have been confounded with catarrh or cold; but the distinction between 
then-, is plain enough. Fever, and loss of appetite and sore throat, accompany cold — 
the r^uidding of the food and gulping of the water are sufficient indications of the 
la*V;j of these; the discharge from the nose is profuse, and perhaps purulent; the 
gHinl'3 under the jaw, if swelled, are moveable, there is a thickening around them, 
awd they are tender and hot. With proper treatment the fever abates ; the cough 
disappears ; the swellings under the throat subside ; and the discharge from the nose 
^adually ceases, or, if it remains, it is usually very different from that which 
characterises glanders. In glanders, there is seldom cough of any consequence, and 
generally no cough at all. 

A running from the nose, small in quantity, and, from the smallness of its quantity, 
drying about the edges of the nostril, and presenting some appearance of stickiness, 
will, in a few cases, remain after severe catarrh, and especially after the influenza of 
spring ; and these have gradually assumed the character of glanders, and more par- 
ticula'rly when they have been accompanied by enlarged glands and ulceration in the 
nose. Here the aid of a judicious veterinary surgeon is indispensable; and he will 
sometimes experience considerable difficulty in deciding the case. One circumstance 
will principally guide him. No disease will run on to glanders which has not, to a 
considerable and palpable degree, impaired and broken down the constitution ; and 
every disease that does this will run on to glanders. He will look then to the general 
state and condition of the horse, as well as to the situation of the glands, the nature 
of the discharge, and the character of the ulceration. 

If, after all, he is in doubt, an experiment may be resorted to, which wears indeed 
the appearance of cruelty, and which only the safety of a valuable animal, or of a 



132 ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH. 

whole team, can justify. He will inoculate an ass, or a horse already coFidemned 
to the hounds, with the matter discharged from the nose. If the horse is glandereJ, 
the symptoms of glanders or farcy will appear in the inoculated animal in the course 
of a few days. 

The post mortem examination of the horse will remove every doubt as to the 
character of tlie disease. The nostril is generally more or less blanched, with spots 
or lines of inflammation of considerable intensity. Ulceration is almost invariably 
found, and of a chancrous character, on the septum, and also on the aethmoid and 
turbinated bones. The ulcers evidently follow the course of the absorbents, some- 
times almost confined to the track of the main vessel, or, if scattered over the 
membrane o-enerally, thickest over the path of the lymphatic. The ethmoid and 
turbinated bones are often filled with pus, and sometimes eaten throngh and carious ; 
but, in the majority of cases, the ulceration is confined to the external membrane, 
althouo-h there may be pus within. In aggravated cases the disease extends through 
all the cells of the face and head. 

The path of the disease down the larynx and windpipe is easily traced, and the 
ulcers follow one line — that of the absorbents. In aggravated cases, this can generally 
be traced on to the lungs. It produces inflammation in these organs, characterised 
in some cases by congestion ; but in other cases, the congestion having gone on to 
hepatisation, in which the cellular texture of the lungs is obliterated. Most frequently, 
when the lungs are affected at all, tubercles are found — miliary tubercles — minute 
granulated spots on the surface, or in the substance of the lungs, and not accompanied 
by much inflammation. In a few cases there are larger tubercles, which soften and 
burst, and terminate in cavities of varying size. 

In some cases, and showing that glanders is not essentially or necessarily a disease 
of the lungs, there is no morbid affection whatever in those organs. 

The history thus given of the symptoms of glanders will clearly point out its 
nature. It is an affection of the membrane of the nose. Some say, and at their head 
is Professor Dupuy, that it is the production of tubercles, or minute tumours in the 
upper cells of the nose, which may long exist undetected, except by a scarcely per- 
ceptible running from the nostril, caused by the irritation which they occasion. These 
tubercles gradually become more numerous ; they cluster together, suppurate and 
break, and small ulcerations are formed. The ulcers discharge a poisonous matter, 
which is absorbed and taken up by the neighbouring glands, and this, with greater or 
less rapidity, vitiates the constitution of the animal, and is capable of communicating 
the disease to others. Some content themselves with saying that it is an inflamma- 
tion of the membrane of the nose, which may assume an acute or chronic form, or in 
a very short time, or exceedingly slowly, run on to ulceration. 

It is inflammation, whether specific or common, of the lining membrane of the nose 
— possibly for months, and even for years, confined to that membrane, and even to 
a portion of it — the health and the usefulness of the animal not being in the slightest 
degree impaired. Then, from some unknown cause, not a new but an intenser action 
is set up, the inflammation more speedily runs its course, and the membrane becomes 
ulcerated. The inflammation spreads on either side down the septum, and the ulcera- 
tion at length assumes that peculiar chancrous form which characterises inflammation 
of the absorbents. Even then, when the discharge becomes gluey, and sometimes 
after chancres have appeared, the horse is apparently well. There are hundreds of 
glandered horses about the country with not a sick one among them. For months or 
years this disease may do no injury to the general health. The inflammation is purely 
local, and is only recognised by the invariable accompaniment of inflammation and 
increased secretion. Its neighbours fall around, but the disease aflfects not the anima! 
whence it came. At length a constitutional inflammation appears ; farcy is established 
in its most horrible form, and death speedily closes the scene. 

"What, then, is the cause of this insidious dreadful disease 1 Although we may be 
m a manner powerless as to the removal of the malady, yet if we can trace its cause 
and manner of action, we may at least be able to do something in the way of preven- 
tion. Much has been accomplished in this way. Glanders does not commit one* 
tenth part of the ravages which it did thirty or forty years ago, and, generally speak- 



GLANDERS. 



133 



ing, it is now only found as a frequent and prevalent disease where neglect, and filth, 
and want of ventilation exist. 

Glanders may be either bred in the horse, or communicated by contagion. What 
we have farther to remark on this malady will be arranged under these two heads. 

Improper stable management we believe to be a far more frequent cause of glan- 
ders than contagion. The air which is necessary to respiration is changed and em- 
poisoned in its passage through the lungs, and a fresh supply is necessary for the 
support of life. That supply may be sufficient barely to support life, but not to pre- 
vent the vitiated air from again and again passing to the lungs, and producing irrita 
tion and disease. The membrane of the nose, possessed of extreme sensibility for the 
purposes of smell, is easily irritated by this poison, and close and ill- ventilated stables 
oftenest witness the ravages of glanders. Professor Coleman relates a case which 
proves to demonstration the rapid and fatal agency of this cause. " In the expedition 
to Quiberon, the horses had not been long on board the transports before it became 
necessary to shut down the hatchways for a few hours ; the consequence of this was, 
that some of them were sutfocated, and that all the rest were disembarked either 
glandered or farcied." 

In a close stable, the air is not only poisoned by being repeatedly breathed, but 
there are other and more powerful sources of mischief. The dung and the urine are 
snffered to remain fermenting, and giving out injurious gases. In many dark and 
ill-managed stables, a portion of the dung may be swept away, but the urine lies 
for days at the bottom of the bed, the disgusting and putrefying nature of which is 
ill-concealed by a little fresh straw which the lazy horsekeeper scatters over the top. 

The stables of the gentleman are generally kept hot enough, and far too hot, 
although, in many of them, a more rational mode of treatment is beginning to be 
adopted ; but they are lofty and roomy, and the horses are not too much crowded 
together, and a most scrupulous regard is paid to cleanliness. Glanders seldom pre- 
vail there. The stables of the farmer are ill-managed and filthy enough, and the 
ordure and urine sometimes remain from week to week, until the horse lies on a per- 
fect dunghill. Glanders seldom prevail there; for the same carelessness which per- 
mits the filth to accumulate leaves many a cranny for the wind to enter and sweep 
away the deleterious fumes from this badly-roofed and unceiled place. 

The stables of the horse-dealer are hot enough ; but a principle of strict cleanliness 
is enforced, for there must be nothing to oflend the eye or the nose of the customer, 
and there glanders are seldom found ; but if the stables of many of our post-horses, 
and of those employed on our canals, are examined, almost too low for a tall horse 
to stand upright in them — too dark for the accumulation of filth to be perceived — too 
far from the eye of the master — ill-drained and ill-paved — and governed by a false 
principle of economy, which begrudges the labour of the man, and the cleanliness 
and comfort of the animal ; these will be the very hotbeds of the disease, and in 
many of these establishments it is an almost constant resident. 

Glanders may be produced by anything that injures, or for a length of time acts 
upon and weakens, the vital energy of this membrane. They have been known to 
follow a fracture of the bones of the nose. They have been the consequence of 
violent catarrh, and particularly the long-continued discharge from the nostrils, of 
which we have spoken. They have been produced by the injection of stimulating 
and acrid substances up the nostril. Everything that weakens the constitution gen- 
erally will lead to glanders. It is not only from bad stable management, but from the 
hardships which they endure, and the exhausted state of their constitution, that post 
and machine horses are so subject to glanders; and there is scarcely an inflammatory 
disease to which the horse is subject that is not occasionally wound up and terminated 
by the appearance of glanders. 

Among the causes of glanders is want of regular exercise. The connexion, 
although not evident at first glance, is too certain. When a horse has been worked 
with peculiar severity, and is become out of spirits, and falls away in flesh, and 
refuses to eat, a little rest and a few mashes would make all right again ; but thf 
groove plies him with cordials, and adds fuel to fire, and aggravates the state of fever 
£l>at has commenced. What is the necessary consequence of this? The weakest 
gfoes to tlw wall, and either the lungs or the feet, or this membrane — that of the nose 
1£ 



134 ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH, 

— the weakest of all, exposed day after day to the stimulating, debilitating iivfluenceB 
that have been described, becomes the principal seat of inflammation that terminates 
in glanders. 

It is in this way that glanders have so frequently been known to follow a hard 
day's chase. The seeds of the disease may have previously existed, but its progress 
will be hastened by the general and febrile action excited — the absurd measures 
A^hich are adopted not being calculated to subdue the fever, but to increase the stim- 
dus. 

Every exciting cause of disease exerts its chief and its worst influence on this mem- 
brane. At the close of a severe campaign the horses are more than decimated by 
this pest. At the termination of the Peninsular war the ravages of this disease were 
dreadful. Every disease will predispose the membrane of the nose to take on the 
inflammation of glanders, and with many, as strangles, catarrh, bronchitis, and pneu- 
monia, there is a continuity of membrane, an association of function, and a thousand 
sympathies. 

There is not a disease which may not lay the foundation for glanders. Weeks, 
and months, and years, may intervene between the predisposing cause and the actual 
evil ; but at length the whole frame may become excited or debilitated in many a way, 
and then this debilitated portion of it is the first to yield to the attack. Atmospheric 
influence has somewhat to do with the prevalence of glanders. It is not so frequent 
in summer as in the winter, partly attributable, perhaps, to the different state of the 
stable in the summer months, neither the air so close or so foul, nor the alternations 
of temperature so great. 

There are some remarkable cases of the connexion of moisture, or moist exhala- 
tions, that deserve record. When new stabling was built for the troops at Hythe, 
and inhabited before the walls were perfectly dry, many of the horses that had been 
removed from an open, dry, and healthy situation, became affected with glanders ; 
but, some time having passed over, the horses in these stables were as healthy as the 
others, and glanders ceased to appear. An innkeeper at Wakefield built some exten- 
sive stabling for his horses, and, inhabiting them too soon, lost a great proportion of 
his cattle from glanders. There are not now more healthy stables in the place. The 
immense range of stables under the Adelphi, in the Strand, where light never enters, 
and the supply of fresh air is not too abundant, were for a long time notoriously un- 
healthy, and many valuable horses were destroyed by glanders; but now they are 
filled with the finest wagon and dray-horses that the metropolis or the country con- 
tains, and they are fully as healthy as in the majority of stables above-ground. 

There is one more cause to be slightly mentioned — hereditary predisposition. This 
has not been sufficiently estimated, with regard to the question now under considera- 
tion, as well as with respect to everything connected with the breeding of the horse. 
There is scarcely a disease that does not run in the stock. There is that in the struc- 
ture of various parts, or their disposition to be affected by certain influences, which 
perpetuates in the offspring the diseases of the sire; and thus contraction, ophthalmia, 
roaring, are decidedly hereditary, and so is glanders. M. Dupuy relates some deci- 
sive cases. A mare, on dissection, exhibited every appearance of glanders ; her filly, 
who resembled her in form and in her vicious propensities, died glandered at six years 
old. A second and a third mare, and their foals, presented the same fatal proof that 
glanders are hereditary. 

Glanders are highly contagious. The farmer cannot be too deeply impressed with 
the certainty of this. Considering the degree to which this disease, even at the pre 
sent day, often prevails, the legislature would be justified in interfering, by some 
severe enactments, as it has done in the case of the small-pox in the human subject. 

The early and marked symptom of glanders, is a discharge from the nostrils of a 
peculiar character; and if that, even before it becomes purulent, is rubbed on a 
wound, or on a mucous surface, as the nostrils, it will produce a similar disease. If 
the division between two horses were sufficiently high to prevent all smelling and 
snorting at each other, and contact of every kind, and they drank not out of the same 
pail, a sound horse might live for years, uninfected, by the side of a glandered one. 
The matter of glanders has been mixed up into a ball, and given to a healthy horse, 
wituout effect. Some horses have eaten the hay left by those tliat were glandered. 



GLANDERS. 



13o 



and no bad consequence has followed ; but others have been speedily infected. Tho 
glanderous matter must come in contact with a wound, or fall on some membrane, 
thin and delicate, like that of the nose, and through which it may be absorbed. It 
is easy, then, accustomed as horses are to be crowded together, and to recognise each 
other by the smell — eating out of the same manger, and drinking from the same pail — 
to imagine that the disease may be very readily communicated. One horse has passed 
another when he was in the act of snorting, and has become glandered. Some fillies 
have receis'ed the infection from the matter blown by the wind across a lane, when a 
glandered horse, in the opposite field, has claimed acquaintance by neighing or snort- 
ing. It is almost impossible for an infected horse to remain long in a stable with 
others without irreparable mischief. 

If some persons underrate the danger, it is because the disease may remain unre- 
cognised in the infected horse for some months, or even years, and therefore, when it 
appears, it is attributed to other causes, or to after inoculation. No glandered horse 
should be employed on any farm, nor should a glandered horse be permitted to work 
on any road, or even to pasture on any field. Mischief may be so easilj^ and exten- 
sively effected, that the public interest demands that every infected animal should be 
summarily destroyed, or given over for experiment to a veterinary surgeon, or recog- 
nised veterinary establishment. 

There are a few instances of the spontaneous cure of chronic glanders. The dis- 
charge has existed for a considerable time. At length it has gradually diminished, 
and has ceased ; and this has occurred under every kind of treatment, and without 
any medical treatment : but in the majority of these supposed cases, the matter was 
only pent up for a while, and then, bursting from its confinement, it flowed again in 
double quantity : or, if glanders have not re-appeared, the horse, in eighteen or twenty- 
four months, has become farcied, or consumptive, and died. These supposed cures 
are few and far between, and are to be regarded with much suspicion. 

As for medicine, there is scarcely a drug to which a fair trial has not been given, 
and many of them have had a temporary reputation; but they have passed away, one 
after the other, and are no longer heard of. The blue vitriol and the Spanish-fly have 
held out longest; and in a few cases, either nature or these medicines have done 
wonders, but in the majority of instances tliey have palpably failed. The diniodide 
of copper has lately acquired some reputation. It has been of great service in cases 
of farcy, but it is not to be depended upon in glanders. 

Where the life of a valuable horse is at stake, and the owner adopts every precau- 
tion to prevent infection, he may subject the horse to medical treatment; but every 
humane man will indignantly object to the slitting of the nostril, and the scraping of 
the cartilage, and searing of the gland, and firing of the frontal and nasal bones, and 
to those injections of mustard and capsicum, corrosive sublimate and vitriol, by which 
the horse has been tortured, and the practitioner disgraced. At the veterinary school, 
and by veterinary surgeons, it will be most desirable that every experiment should be 
tried to discover a remedy for this pest ; but, in ordinary instances, he is not faithful 
to his own interest, or that of his neighbours, who does not remove the possibility of 
danger in the most summary way. 

If, however, remedial measures are resorted to, a pure atmosphere is that which 
should first be tried. Glanders is the peculiar disease of the stabled horse, and the 
preparation for, or the foundation of a cure, must consist in the perfect removal of 
every exciting cause of the malady. The horse must breathe a cool and pure atmo- 
sphere, and he must be turned out, or placed in a situation equivalent to it. 

A salt marsh is, above all others, the situation ior this experiment: but there is 
much caution required. No sound horse must be in the same pasture, or a ne!2TiDo,-ur- 
ing one. The palings or the gates may receive a portion of tne matter, wnicn may 
harden upon them, and, many a month afterwards, be a source of miscliief — nay, the 
virus may cling about the very herbage, and empoison it. Cattle and sheep should 
not b.; trusted with a glandered horse ; for the experiments are not sufficiently numer- 
ous or decided as to the exemption of these animals from the contagion of glanders. 

Supposing that glanders have made their appearance in the stables of a farmer, is 
there any danger after he has removed or destroyed the infected horse ] Certainly 
there is ; but not to the extent that is commonly supposed. There is no necessity fo- 



1S5 ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH. 

nulling down the racks and mangers, or even the stable itself, as some have done. 
The poison resides not in the breath of the animal, but in the nasal discharge, and 
that can only reach certain parts of the stable. If the mangers, and racks, and bales, 
and partitions, arc first well scraped, and scoured with soap and water, and then 
thoroughly washed with a solution of the chloride of lime, (one pint of the chloride 
to a pailful! of water,) and the walls are lime-washed, and the head-gear burned, and 
the clothing baked or washed, and the pails newly painted, and the iron-work exposed 
to a red heat, all danger will cease. 

Little that is satisfactory can be said of the prevention of glanders. 

The first and most effectual mode of prevention will be to keep the stables cool and 
well ventilated, for the hot and poisoned air of low and confined stables is one of the 
most prevalent causes of glanders. 

Next to ventilation stands cleanliness ; for the foul air from the fermenting litter, 
and urine, and dung, must not only be highly injurious to health generally, but irritate 
and predispose to inflammation tiuit delicate membrane which is the primary seat of 
the disease. If to this be added regular exercise, and occasional green meat during 
the summer, and carrots in the winter, we shall have stated all that can be done in 
the way of prevention. 

Glanders in the human being. — It cannot be too often repeated, that a glandered 
horse can rarely remain among sound ones without serious mischief ensuing; and, 
Avorse than all, the man who attends on that horse is in danger. The cases are now 
becoming far too numerous in which the groom or the veterinary surgeon attending 
on glandered horses becomes infected, and in the majority of cases dies. It is, how- 
ever, somewhat' more manageable in the human being than in the quadruped. Some 
cases of recovery from farcy and glanders stand on record with regard to the human 
being, but they are few and far between. 

FARCY. 

Farcy is intimately connected with glanders; they will run into each other, or 
their symptoms will mingle together, and before either arrives at its fatal termination 
its associate will almost invariably appear. An animal inocculated with the matter 
of farcy will often be afllicted with glanders, while the matter of glanders will fre- 
quently produce farcy. They are different types or stages of the same disease. 
There is, however, a very material difference in their symptoms and progress, and 
this most important one of all, that while glanders are generally incurable, farcy, in 
its early stage and mild form, may be successfully treated. 

While the capillary vessels of the arteries are everywhere employed in building up 
the frame, the absorbents are no less diligently at work in selecting and catfying 
away every useless or worn-out portion or part of it. There is no surface — there is 
no assignable spot on which thousands of these little mouths do not open. In the 
discharge of their duty, they not only remove that which is become useless, and often 
that which is healthy, but that which is poisonous and destructive. They open upon 
the surface of every glanderous chancre. They absorb a portion of the virus which 
is secreted by the ulcer, and as it passes along these little tubes, they suffer from its 
acrimonious quality ; hence the corded veins, as they are called by the farrier, or, 
more properly, the thickened and inflamed absorbents following the course of the 
veins. 

At certain distances in the course of the absorbents are loose duplicaturcs of the 
lining membrane, which are pressed against the side of the vessel and permit the 
fluid to pass in a direction towards the chest, but belly out and impede or arrest its 
progress from the chest. The virus at these places, 'and the additional inflammation 
there excited, is to a greater or less degree evident to the eye and to the feeling. 
They are usually first observed about the lips, the nose, the neck, and the thighs. 
They are very hard — even of a scin-hous hardness, more or less tender, and with 
perceptible heat about them. 

The poisonous matter being thus confined and pressing on the part, suppuration 
and ulceration ensue. The ulcers have the same character as the glanderous ones on 
fhe membrane of the nose. They are rounded, with an elevated edge and a pale 
surface. Tney are true chancres, and they discharge a virus as infectious and as 



I 



FARCY. ia-J 

dangerous as the matter of glanders. While they remain in their hard prominent 
rstate, they are called buttons or farcy buds; and they are connected together by the 
inflamed and corded veins. 

In some cases the horse will droop for many a day before the appearance of the 
corded veins or buds — his appetite will be impaired — his coat will stare — he will lose 
flesh. The poison is evidently at work, but has not gained sufficient power to cause 
the absorbents to enlarge. In a few cases these buds do not ulcerate, but become 
hard and difficult to disperse. The progress of the disease is then suspended, and 
possibly for some months the horse will appear to be restored to health ; but he 
bears the seeds of the malady about him, and in due time the farcy assumes its 
virulent form, and hurries him off. These buds have sometimes been confounded 
with the little tumours or lumps termed surfeit. They are generally higher than 
these tumours, and not so broad. They have a more knotty character, and are prin- 
cipally found on the inside of the limbs, instead of the outside. 

Few things are more unlike, or more perplexing, than the different forms which 
farcy assumes at different times. One of the legs, and particularly one of the hinder 
legs, will suddenly swell to an enormous size. At night the horse will appear to be 
perfectly well, and in the morning one leg will be three times the size of the other, 
with considerable fever, and scarcely the power of moving the limb. 

At other times the head will be subject to this enlargement, the muzzle particularly 
will swell, and an offensive discharge will proceed from the nose. Sometimes the 
horse will gradually lose flesh and strength ; he \vill be hide-bound ; many eruptions 
will appear in different parts ; the legs will swell ; cracks will be seen at the heels, 
and an inexperienced person may conceive it to be a mere want of condition, com- 
bined with grease. 

By degrees the affection becomes general. The virus has reached the termination 
of the absorbents, and mingles with the general circulating fluid, and is conveyed 
with the blood to ev^ry part of the frame. There are no longer any valves to impede 
its progress, and consequently no knots or buds, but the myriads of capillary absorbents 
that penetrate every part become inflamed, and thickened, and enlarged, and cease to 
discharge their function. Hence arises enlargement of the substance of various parts, 
swellings of the logs, and chest, and head — sudden, painful, enormous, and dis- 
tinguished by a heat and tenderness, which do not accompany other enlargements. 

It is a question somewhat difficult to answer, whether farcy can exist without 
previous glanders. Probably it cannot. There is the long-continued insidious pro- 
gress of glanders — the time which may elapse, and often does, before the owner is 
aware or the veterinary surgeon sure of it — the possibility that minute ulceration may 
have for a long while existed in some of the recesses of the nose — or that the slight 
discharge, undreaded and unrecognised, yet vitiated, poisoned, and capable of com- 
municating the disease, may have been long travelling through the frame and affecting 
the absorbents, and preparing for the sudden display of farcy. 

0ns thing, however, is undeniable, that farcy does not long and extensively prevail 
without being accompanied by glanders — that even in the mild stages of farcy, 
glanders may be seen if looked for, and that it never destroys the animal without 
plainly associating itself with glanders. They are, in fact, stages of the same 
disease. 

Glanders is inflammation of the membrane of the nose, producing an altered and 
poisonous secretion, and when sufficient of this vitiated secretion has been taken up 
to produce inflammation and ulcerntion of the absorbents, farcy is established. Its 
progress is occasionally very capricious, continuing in a few cases for months and 
years, the vigour of the horse remaining unimpaired ; and, at other times, running 
on to its fatal termination with a ra])idity perfectly astonishing. 

Farcy has been confounded with other diseases ; but he must be careless or ignorant 
who mistook sprain for it. The inflammation is too circumscribed and too plainly 
connected with the joint or the tendon. 

It may be readily distinguished from grease or swelled legs. In grease there is 
usually soine crack or scurfiness, a peculiar tenseness and redness and glossiness of 
the skin, some ichorous discharge, and a singular spasmodic catching up of the leg. 

In farcy the engorgement is even more sudden than that of grease. The hoise is 
12* s 



138 ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH. 

well to-day, and to-morrow he is gorged from the fetlock to the haunch, and although 
there is not the same redness or glossiness, there is great tenderness, a burning heat 
in the limb and much general fever. t is simultaneous inflammation of all tho 
absorbents of the limb. 

Surfeit _an scarcely be confoundea with farcy or glanders. It is a pustular erup- 
tion — surfeit-bumps, as t'..-cy are called, and terminating in desquamation, not in ulcer- 
ation, although numerous, yet irregularly placed, and never following the course of 
tlie absorbents, but scattered over the skin. 

Local dropsy of the cellular membrane, and particularly that enlargement beneath 
the thorax which has the strange appellation of ivater-farcy, have none of the charac- 
ters of real farcy. It is general debility to a greater or less degree, and not inflamma- 
tion of tlie absorbents. If properly treated, it soon disappears, except that, occasion- 
allv, at the close of some serious disease, it indicates a breaking up of the constitution. 

Farcy, like glanders, springs from infection and from bad stable management. It 
is produced by all the causes which give rise to glanders, with this difference, that it 
is more frequently generated, and sometimes strangely prevalent in particular districts. 
It will attack, at the same time, several horses in the same ill-conducted stable, and 
others in the neighbourhood who have been exposed to the same predisposing causes. 
Some have denied that it is a contagious disease. They must have had little experi- 
ence. It is true that the matter of farcy must come in contact with a wound or sore, 
in order to communicate the disease ; but accustomed as horses are to nibble and play 
with each other, and sore as the corners of the mouth are frequently rendered by the 
bit, it is easy to imagine that this may be easily effected ; and experience tells us, that 
a horse having farcy ulcers cannot be suffered to remain with others without extreme 
risk. 

The treatment of farcy differs with the form that it assumes. As a general rule, 
and especially when the buttons or buds are beginning to appear, a mild dose of 
physic should first be administered. The buds should then be, carefully examined, 
and if any of them have broken, the budding-iron, at a dull red heat, should be applied. 
If pus should be felt in them, showing that they are disposed to break, they should 
be penetrated with the iron. These wounds should be daily inspected, and if, when 
the slough of the cautery comes off, they look pale, and foul, and spongy, and dis- 
charge a thin matter, they should be frequently washed with a strong lotion of corro- 
sive sublimate, dissolved in rectified spirit. When the wounds begin to look red, and 
the bottom of them is even and firm, and they discharge a thick white or yellow mat- 
ter, the Friar's balsam will usually dispose them to heal. 

As, however, the constitution is now tainted, local applications will not be suffi- 
cient, and the disease must be attacked by internal medicine as soon as the physic 
has ceased to operate. 

Corrosive SKhlimale used to be a favourite medicine, combined with tonics, and 
repeated morning and night until the ulcers disappeared, unless the mouth became 
sore or the horse was violently purged, when the sulphate of copper was substituted 
for^the corrosive sublimate. During this treatment the animal was placed, if possible, 
in a large box, with a free circulation of air; and green meat or carrots, and particu- 
larly the latter, were given, with a full allowance of corn. If he could be turned out 
in the day, it was deemed highly advantageous. It is related by Mr. Blaine, that a 
horse, so reduced as not to be able to stand, was drawn into a field of tares, and suf- 
fered to take his chance. The consequence was, that, when he had eaten all within 
his reach, he contrived to move about and search for more, and eventually recovered. 
Many horses recover under the use of the sublimate, but the great majority of them 
die. 

Mr. Vines introduced a more effective medicine — can/hariclcs, in combination like- 
wise with the vegeta])le bitters — as a cure for farcy and glanders. It cannot be denied, 
that many animals labouring under the former, and a few under the latter, were to all 
appearance radically cured. The medicine was suspended for a while if affection of 
the kidneys supervened. 

A still more effectual medicine has been introduced by Professor Morton, namely, 
the dinind'de nf copper, and it has been found of essential service in farcy and in dis- 
eases simulating glanders. He says that its action is that of a stimulant to the 



THE LIPS. 139 

absorbont vessels, and a tonic. The gentian root is usually combined with it. Can- 
tliarides, in small quantities, may be advantageously added. An indication of its 
influence is a soreness of the diseased parts arising from the absorbent vessels being 
roused into increased action : the agent should then be for a time withheld.* 

Water-Farcy, confounded by name with the common farcy, and by which much 
confusion has been caused, and a great deal of mischief done, is a dropsical affection 
of the skin, either of the chest or of the limbs, and belongs to another part of our 
subject. 

THE LIPS. 

The lips of the horse are far more important organs than many suppose. They are 
the hands of the animal ; and if any one will take the trouble to observe the manner 
in which he gathers up his corn witli them, and collects together the grass before he 
divides it with his nippers, he would be satisfied that the horse would be no more 
able to convey the food to his mouth without them, than the human being could with- 
out his hands. This has even been put to the test of experiment. The nerves which 
supply the lips were divided in a poor ass, to illustrate some point of physiology. 
The sensibility of the lips was lost, and he knew not when he touched his food with 
them. The motion of the lips was lost, and he could not get the oats between his 
teeth, although the manger was full of them : at length, driven by hunger, he contrived 
to lick up a few of them with his tongue; but when they were on his tongue, the 
greater part of them were rubbed off before he could get them into his mouth. 

It is on account of this use of the lips, and that they may be brought into contact 
with the food without inconvenience or injury to other parts of the face, that the 
heads of most quadrupeds are so lengthened. Several muscles go to the lips from 
different parts of the jaw and face. Some of them are shown in the cut, p. 125. 
The orbicularis or circular nmscle, p, employed in pushing out the lips and closing 
them, and enabling the horse to seize and hold his food, is particularly evident; and 
in the explanation of the cut, the action of other muscles, i, k, rii, and o, was de- 
scribed. The nerves likewise, y, taking their course along the cheek, and principally 
supplying the lips with the power of motion, and those, z, proceeding from the fora- 
men or hole in the upper jaw, deserve attention. 

The lips are composed of a muscular substance for the sake of strength, and a 

* A very interesting case of the cure of farcy in the human being occurred in January, 1840, 
in the practice of Mr. Curtis, a respectable surgeon of Camden Town : — 

" Mr. G., a student at the Veterinary College, had. about three weeks before, received a 
slight wound on the forefinger of the right hand, while dissecting a glandered horse. The 
wound healed ; but, about nine days afterwards, a small abscess formed in the part, which he 
would not consent to have opened ; the pus was therefore absorbed, and the finger got well, 
and neither the lymphaiics nor the glands appeared to be afl^ected. 

"Ten days afterwards, he was attacked with giddiness while attending the lecture, and 
obliged to leave the room. He immediately applied to Mr. Curtis. He had three blotches of 
inflammation of the skin of the right leg, varying in extent from two to four inches in diameter. 
Tiie leg was very painful when he walked ; and he had also some small blotches on llie left 
leg. He had headache and thirst. His case was sufficiently plain — farcy was beginning to 
develop itself Aperient medicine was administered. 

•' On the following day, there were numerous small blotches over both legs and thighs. In 
many of them the centre was of a pale green colour, having a somewhat gangrenous appear- 
ance. The headache was worse ; there was a sensation of weight over the eyes, and tender- 
ness over the left frontal. ... 

" Mr. Curtis determined to put him under a course of iodine, of the tincture of which eight 
minims were ordered every fourth hour, the bowels being kept in a relaxed state. 

" On the fourth day, the centre of the blotches, which were still green, appeared to form 
cavities, containing a fluid, from about the size of a shilling to that of a half-crown. The 
blotches were surrounded by hard, defined edges, covered with cuticle, but the thickening of 
which was gradually disappearing. , , • 

" Two days after this, the fluid in the cavities was absorbed, but round their edges were 
lumps, or tubercles, about the size of peas. Several weeks passed before the tubercles quite 
disappeared. r u- r 

" Mr. Curtis remarks, that so far as a single case will go, the mtractable nature ot this (lis 
ease seems to arise rather from neglect in its early stage, than from any impossibihty of sub 
duing it." — The Veterinarian, vol. xiii. p. 353. 



140 ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND PdOUTH. 

multitude of small glands, which secrete a fluid that covers the inside of the lips and 
the gums, in order to prevent friction, and likewise furnish a portion of the moisture 
so necessary for the proper chewing of the food. The skin covering the lips is ex- 
ceedingly thin, in order that their peculiar sensibility may be preserved, and for the 
same purpose they are scantily covered with hair, and that hair is fine and short. 
Lono- hairs or feelers, termed the beard, are superadded with the same intention. 
Tlie horse is guided and governed principally by the mouth, and therefore the lips 
are endowed with very great sensibility, so that the animal feels the slightest motion 
of the hand of the rider or driver, and seems to anticipate his very thoughts. The 
fineness or goodness of the mouth consists in its exquisite feeling, and that depends on 
the thinness of this membrane. 

The lips of the horse should be thin, if the beauty of the head is regarded ; yet, 
although thin, they should evidently possess power, and be strongly and regularly 
closed. A firm, compressed mouth gives a favourable and no deceptive idea of the 
muscular power of the animal. Lips apart from each other and hanging down, indi- 
cate weakness or old age, or dullness and sluggishness. 

The depth of the mouth, or the distance from the fore-part to the angle of the lips, 
should be considerable. A short, protuberant mouth would be a bad finish to the 
tapering face of the blood-horse. More room is likewise given for the opening of 
the nostril, which has been shown to be an important consideration. The bridle will 
not be carried well, and the horse will hang heavy on hand, if there is not consider- 
able depth of mouth. 

The corners or angles of the lips are frequently made sore or wounded by the small- 
ness, or shortness, or peculiar twisting of the snaffle, and the unnecessary and cruel 
tightness of the bearing-rein. This rein was introduced as giving the horse a grander 
appearance in harness, and placing the head in that position in which the bit most 
efTectually presses upon the jaw. There is no possibility of safely driving without 
it, for, deprived of this control, many horses would hang their heads low, and be dis- 
posed every moment to stumble, and would defy all pulling, if they tried to run away. 
There is, and can be no necessity, however, for using a bearing-rein so tight as to 
cramp the muscles of the head, or to injure and excoriate the angles of the lips. 

The following is the opinion of Nimrod, and to a more competent judge we could 
not appeal : — " As to the universal disuse of the bearing-rein with English horses, it 
can never take place. The charge against it of cruelty at once falls to the ground, 
because, to make a team work togetlier in fast work, every horse's head must be as 
much restrained by the coupling-rein as it would be and is by the bearing-rein. Its 
excellence consists in keeping horses' mouths fresh — in enabling a coachman to 
indulge a horse with liberty of rein, without letting him be all abroad, which he 
would be with his head quite loose, and of additional safety to the coach-horse, as 
proved by the fact of either that or the crupper always giving way when he falls 
down. There are, however, teams in which it may be dispensed with, and the horses 
have an advantage in their working against hills. As to the comparison of the road 
coach-horses on the Continent and our own, let any one examine the knees of the 
French diligence and post horses, which are allowed perfect liberty of head, and he 
will be convinced that the use of the bearing-rein does not keep them on their legs."* 

The mouth is injured much oftener than the careless owner suspects by the pres- 
sure of a sharp bit. Not only are the bars wounded and deeply ulcerated, but the 
lower jaw, between the tush and the grinders, is sometimes worn even to the bone, 
and the bone itself affected, and portions of it torn away. It may be necessary to 

* New Sporting Magazine, vol. xiii. p. 99. 

The author of the " Essay on Humanity to Brutes," takes the same view of the subject. 
" It is not," says he, " to the extent that has been supposed an instrument of torture. It is 
absolutely necessary in fast work, and useful on level ground. The objection to it is the tight- 
ness with which it is sometimes applied, and then it is a sad confinement to the head, and a 
source of very great pain. It is also disadvantageous when the horse is going up-hill, be- 
cause it prevents him from throwing his whole weight into the collar. It cannot, however, 
be done without, especially in the horse that is once accustomed to it; but the poor animal 
need? not to be so tightly reined." — The Obligation and Extent of Humanity to Brutes, h% 
W. Youatt, p. 149. 



r 



THE BONES OF THE MOUTH — THE PALATE. 141 

have a sharp bit for the headstrong and obstinate beast ; yet if that bit is severely 
und unjustifiably called into exercise, the animal may rear, and endanger himself and 
his rider. There can, however, be no occasion for a thousandth part of the torment 
which the trappings of the mouth often inflict on a willing and docile servant, and 
which either render the mouth hard, and destroy all the pleasure of riding, or cause 
the horse to become fretful or vicious. 

Small ulcers are sometimes found in the various parts of the mouth, said to be pro- 
duced by rusty bits, but oftener arising from contusions inflicted by the bit, or from 
inflammation of the mouth. If the curb-bit is in fault, a snaflfle or Pelham-bit should 
be used. If there is inflammation of the mouth, a little cooling medicine may be 
administered ; and to the ulcers themselves, tincture of myrrh, diluted with water, 
or alum dissolved in water, may be applied, with advantage. 

THE BONES OF THE MOUTH. 

The bones in, and giving form to the mouth, are the superior maxillary or upper 
jaw {b, p. 68, and /, p. 70), containing the grinders : the anterior maxillary, or lower 
part of the upper jaw (6, p. 68, n, p. 70, r, p. 72), containing the upper-nippers or 
cutting-teeth ; the palatine bone (below 8, p. 72), and the posterior maxillary or 
under jaw (a, p. 68, and tu, p. 72), containing all the under-teeth. 

The superior maxillary is, with the exception of the lower jaw, the largest bone in 
the face. It unites above with the lachrymal bone (z, p. 70) ; and, more on the side, 
with the malar, or cheek bone, k; and a portion of it, continued upward and under- 
neath, enters into the orbit. Above, and on the front of the face, it unites with the 
bones of the nose, j, and below, with the inferior maxillary, n. That which most 
deserves notice in it externally, is the ridge, or spine, seen at b, p. 68, but better deli- 
neated in the cut of the head, p. 72, continued from the base of the zygomatic arch, 
and across the malar bone. It, and the surface beneath, serve to give attachment to 
the masseter muscle, concerned, almost as much as the temporal one, in the act of 
chewing. The dark spot (m, p. 70, and seen likewise at p. 68) marks the foramen, 
or hole, through which a branch of the fifth pair of nerves proceeds, to give sensi- 
bility to the lower part of the face. As it approaches the teeth, this bone separates 
into two plates, and these are divided by long partitions, which contain and firmly 
hold the upper grinders. The lower plate then projects inwards, and forms (/, p. 72) 
the principal portion of the roof of the mouth, and the floor of the cavity of the nose. 
The corresponding bone on the other side, meets its fellow in the centre of the palate. 
The upper jaw-bone contains in it large cavities besides those for the teeth, and these 
open into, and enlarge the cavity of the nose. They are connected with the voice, 
but not with the smell; for the expansion of the olfactory, or smelling nerve, has 
never been traced beyond the bones and membranes of the proper cavity of the nose. 
The maxillary sinuses are generally filled with matter in bad cases of glanders. 

Below these, are the anterior maxillary bones (/, p. 68, a, p. 68), containing the 
upper cutting teeth, with the tushes belonging to both the upper and anterior bones. 
These are the bones to which (see cut, p. 72) the upper lip is attached. The supe- 
rior and anterior maxillary bones are separated in animals with long faces, like the 
horse, that, by overlapping each other, strength might be gained. 

The palatine bone forms but a very small portion of the palate. It surrounds the 
edge of the communication between the cavity of the nose and the back parts of the 
mouth. 

THE PALATE. 

Adhering to a portion of the three bones just described, and constituting the lining 
of the roof of the mouth, is the palate (/, p. 72), composed of an elastic and dense 
substance, divided into several ridges called bars. The following cut gives a view 
of them. 

It will also point out the bleeding place, if it should occasionally be deemed advi 
sable to abstract blood from the piouth; or if the horse should be attacked with 
megrims on a journey, and the driver, having no lancet, should be compelled to make 
use of his knife, the incision should be made between the central and second nippers 
on either side, about an inch within the mouth, and cutting through the second bai 




142 ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTK. 

A stream of blood will be thus obtained, which will 
usually cease to flow when two or three quarts have 
escaped, or may generally be arrested by the applica- 
tion of a spong-e tilled with cold water. 

This, however, is a make-shift sort of bleeding 
that may be allowable on a journey, and possibly in 
some cases of lampas, but which is decidedly objec- 
tionable as the usual mode of abstracting blood. 
The quantity withdrawn cannot be measured, the 
degree of inflammation cannot be ascertained by the 
manner in which it coagulates, and there may be 
difficulty to the operator, and annoyance and pain to 
the horse, in stopping the bleeding. 

This cut likewise depicts the appearance of the 
roof of the mouth, if the bars were dissected off, and 
of the numerous vessels, arterial and venous, which 
ramify over it. 

LAMPAS. 

The bars occasionally swell, and rise to a level 
with, and even beyond the edge of, the teeth. They 
are vety sore, and the horse feeds badly on account of 
the pain he suff"ers from the pressure of the food on 
them. This is called the Lampas. It may arise 
from inflammation of the gums, propagated to the 
bars, when the horse is shedding his teeth — and 
young horses are more subject to it than others — or 
from some slight febrile tendency in the constitution 
generally, as when a young horse has lately been 
taken up from grass, and has been over-fed, or not sufficiently exercised. At times, 
it appears in aged horses ; for the process of growth in the teeth of the horse is con- 
tinued during the whole life of the animal. 

In the majority of cases, the swelling will soon subside without medical treatment; 
or a few mashes, and gentle alteratives, will relieve the animal. A few slight inci- 
sions across the bars with a lancet, or penknife, will relieve the inflammation, and 
cause the swelling to subside ; indeed, this scarification of the bars in lampas will 
seldom do harm, although it is far from being so necessary as is supposed. The 
brutal custom of the farrier, who sears and burns down the bars with a red-hot iron, 
is most objectionable. It is torturing the horse to no purpose, and rendering that part 
callous, on the delicate sensibility of which all the pleasure and safety of riding and 
driving depend. It may be prudent, in case of lampas, to examine the grinders, and 
more particularly the tushes, in order to ascertain whether either of them is making 
its way through the gum. If it is so, two incisions across each other should be made 
oh the tooth, and the horse will experience immediate relief. 

THE LOWER JAW. 

The posterior or lower jaw may be considered as forming the floor of the mouth, 
(a, p. 68, or iv, p. 72). The body, or lower part of it, contains the under cutting 
teeth and the tushes, and at the sides are two flat pieces of bone, containing the 
grinders. On the inside, and opposite to a, p. 68, is a foramen, or hole, through 
which blood-vessels and nerves enter to supply the teeth, and some of which escape 
again at another orifice on the outside, and near the nippers. The branches are 
broader and thinner, rounded at the angle of the jaw, and terminating in two processes. 
One, the cnracoid, from its sharpness, or supposed resemblance to a beak, passes 
under the zygomatic arch (see p. 68) ; and the temporal muscle, arising from the 
whole surface of the parietal bone (see p. 74), is inserted into it, and wrapped round 
it; and by its action, principally, the jaw is moved, and the food is ground. The 
other, the condyloid, or rounded process, is received into the glenoid (shallow) cavity 
of the temporal bone, at the base of the zygomatic arch, and forms the joint on which 
the lower jaw moves. This joint is easily seen in the cut at p. 68 ; and being placed 



THE LOWER JAW. 



143 



so lear to thi^ insertion of the muscle, or the centre of motion, the temporal muscle 
must act with very considerable mechanical disadvantage, and, consequently, must 
possess immense power. 

This joint is admirably contrived for the purpose which the animal requires. It 
will admit freely and perfectly of the simple motion of a hinge, and that is the action 
of the jaw in nipping the herbage and seizing the corn. But the grass, and rnora 
particularly the corn, must be crushed and bruised before it is fit for digestion. 
Simple champing, which is the motion of the human lower jaw, and that of most 
beasts of prey, would very imperfectly break down the corn. It must be put into a 
mill ; it must be actually ground. 

It is put into the mill, and as perfect a one as imagination can conceive. 

The following cuts represent the glenoid cavity, in a carnivorous or flesh-eating, and 
herbivorous or grass-eating, animal, viz. the tiger and the horse : the one requiring a 
simple hinge-like motion of the lower jaw to tear and crush the food; the other, a 
lateral or grinding motion to bring it into a pulpy form. We first examine this 
cavity in the tiger represented at B. At the root of the zygomatic process D, is a 
hollow with a ridge along the greater part of the upper and inner side of it, standing 
to a considerable height,°and curling over the cavity. At the lower and opposite 

F 




edge of the cavity, but on the outside, is a similar ridge, E, likewise rising abniplly 
rind curling over. At C is another and more perfect view of this cavity in a different 
direction. "The head of the lower jaw is received into this hollow, and presses against 
these ridges, and is partially surrounded by them, and forms with them a very strong 
joint where dislocation is scarcely possible, and the hinge-like or cranching motion 
is admitted to its fullest extent ; permitting the animal violently to seize his prey, to 
hold it firmly, and to crush it to pieces; but from the extent and curling form of the 
ridges, forbidding, except to a very slight degree, all lateral and grinding motion, 
and this, because the animal does not want it. 

As before mentioned, the food of the horse must be ground. Simple bruising and 
champing would not sufficiently comminute it for the purposes of digestion. We 
then observe the different construction of the parts to effect this. A gives the glenoid 
cavity of the horse. First, there is the upper ridge assuming a rounded form, F, and 
therefore called the mastoid process; and — a peculiarity in the horse — the mastoid 
process of the squamous portion of the temporal bone : sufficiently strong to support 
the pressure and action of the lower jaw when cropping the food or seizing an enemy, 
but not encircling the head of that bone, and reaching only a little way along the side 
of the cavity, where it terminates, having its edges rounded off so as to admit, and to 
be evidently destined for, a circular motion about it. At the other and lovver edge 
of the cavity, and on the outside, G is placed — not a curling ridge as in the tiger, but 
a mere tubercle: and for what reason T evidently to limit this lateral or circular 
motion — to permit it as far as the necessities of the animal require it, and then to 
arrest it. How is this done T Not suddenly or abniptly ; but the tubercle, of which 
we have already spoken as strengthening this portion of the zygomatic arch, now 
discharging another office, has a smooth and gradual ascent to it, up which the lowei 
jaw may climb to a certain extent, and then, by degrees, be stopped. We speak not 
now of the moveable cartilao-e which is placed in this cavity, and between the bones, 
to rendei the motion easier" and freer. It is found in this joint in every quadruped ; 
and it is found wherever motions are rapid and of long continuance. 



144 ANATOMY AND DISEASES 01' THE NOSE AND MOUTH. 

So great is the conformity between the structure of the animal and his destination 
that a tolerable student in comparative anatomy, by a mere inspection of the glenoid 
I'avity, would at once determine whether the animal to which it belonged was car- 
nivorous, and wanted no lateral motion of the jaw ; or omnivorous, living occasionally 
vin all kinds of food, and requiring some degree of grinding motion ; or herbivorous, 
and needing the constant use of tiiis admirably-constructed mill. 

At 0-, p. 125, is represented the masseler muscle, an exceedingly strong one, con- 
stitutintr the cheek of the horse — arising from the superior maxillary under the ridge 
continued from the zygomatic arch, and inserted into the lower jaw, and particularly 
round the rough border at the angle of the jaw. This acts with the temporal muscle 
in closinu- the jaw, and in giving the direct cutting or champing motion of it. 

Within the lower jaw, on either side, and occupying the whole of the hollowed 
porKon of them, and opposite to the masseters, are the pterygoid muscles, going from 
the jaws to bones more in the centre of the channel, likewise closing the mouth, and 
also, by their alternate action, giving that grinding motion which has been described. 
The space between the branches of the lower jaw, called the channel, is of consider- 
able consequence. It may be a little too wide, and then the face will have a clumsy 
appearance : but if it is too narrow, the horse will never be able to bend his head 
freely and gracefully ; he will be always pulling or boring upon the hand, nor can he 
possibly be well reined in. 

The jaws contain the teeth, which are the millstones employed in comminuting the 
food. The mouth of the horse at five years old contains forty teeth, viz. six nippera 
or cutting teeth in front, a tush on each side, and six molars, or grinding teeth, above 
and below. They are contained in cavities in the upper and lower jaws, surrounded 
by bony partitions, to which they are accurately fitted, and by which they are firmly 
supported. For a little way above these bony cavities, they are surrounded by a hard 
substance called the gum, so dense, and adhering so closely to the teeih and the jaws 
as not to be separated without very great difficulty — singularly compact, that it may 
not be wounded by the hard or sharp particles of the food, and almost devoid of feel- 
ing, for the same purpose. 

JSeven or eight months before the foal is born, the germs or beginnings of the teeth 
are visible in the cavities of tlie jaws. The tooth grows, and 
presses to the surface of the gum, and forces its way through it ; 
and, at the time of birth, the first and second grinders have 
appeared, large compared with the size of the jaw, and seemingly 
filling it. In the course' of seven or eight days the two central 
nippers are seen as here represented. They likewise appear to 
be large, and to fill the front of the mouth ; although they will 
afterwards be found to be small, compared with the permanent 
teeth that follow. In the course of the first month the third 
grinder appears above and below% and, not long after, and gener- 
ally before six weeks have expired, another incisor above and 
below will be seen on each side of the two first, which have now 
considerably grown, but not attained their perfect height. The 
second cut will represent the appearance of the mouth at that time. 
At two months, the central nippers will have reached 
their natural level, and between the second and third 
month the second pair will have overtaken them. They 
will then begin to wear away a little, and the outer edge, 
whicli was at first somewhat raised and sharp, is brought 
to a level with the inner one, and so the mouth continues 
until some time between the sixth and ninth month, wher 
another nipper begins to appear on each side of the two 
first, making six above and below, and completing the 
colt's mouth ; after which, the only observable difference, 
until between the second and third year, is in the wear of 
these teeth. 

The term nipper is familiar to the horseman and the fat- 
riei;, and much better expresses the action of these teeth 
than the word incisor or cutter, which is adopted by anat(v 




THE PROCESS OF TEETHING. 



14ft 



mists. Whoever has observed a horse in the act of browsing, and the twitcli of the 
head which accompanies the separation of each portion of grass, will perceive that 
It is nipped or torn rather than cut otL 

These teeth are covered with a polished and exceedingly hard substance, called the 
'Uiamel. It spreads over that portion of the teeth which appears above the gum, and 
not only so, but as they are to be so much employed in nipping the grass, and gath- 
ering up the animal's food, and in such employment even this hard substance must 
be gradually worn away, a portion of it, as it passes over the upper surface of the 
teeth, is bent inward, and sunk into the body of the teeth, and forms a little pit in 
them. The inside and bottom of this pit being blackened by the food, constitutes the 
mark of the teeth, by the gradual disappearance of which, in consequence of the wearing 
down of the edge, we are enabled, for several years, to judge of the age of the animal. 
The colt's nipping teeth are rounded in front, somewhat hollow towards the mouth, 
and present at first a cutting surface, with the outer edge rising in a slanting direction 
above the inner edge. This, however, soons begins to wear down until both surfaces 
are level, and the mark, which was originally long and narrow, becomes shorter, and 
wider, and fainter. At six months the four nippers are beginning to wear to a level. 
The annexed cut will convey some idea of the appearance of the teeth at twelve 
months. The four middle teeth are almost level, and the corner ones becoming so. 
The mark in the two middle teeth is wide and faint ; in 
the two next teeth it is darker, and longer, and narrower ; 
and in the corner teeth it is darkest, and longest, and nar- 
rowest. 

The back teeth, or grinders, will not guide us far in 
ascertaining the age of the animal, for we cannot easily 
inspect them ; but there are some interesting particulars 
connected with them. The foal is born with two grinders 
in each jaw, above and below; or they appear within 
three or four days after the birth. Before the expiration 
of a month they are succeeded by a third, more back- 
ward. The crowns of the grinders are entirely covered 
with enamel on the top and sides, but attrition soon wears 
it away from the top, and there remains a compound sur- 
face of alternate layers of crusted petraser, enamel, and ivory, which are employed in 
grinding down the hardest portion of the food. Nature has, therefore, made an ad- 
ditional provision for their strength and endurance. 

This cut represents a grinder sawed across. It seems to 
be a most irregular and intricate structure ; but the expla- 
nation of it is not difficult. The tooth is formed and pre- 
])ared in cavities within the jaw-bones. A delicate mem- 
branous bag, containing a jelly-like substance, is found, in 
the unborn animal, in a little cell within the jaw-bone. It 
assumes, by degrees, the form of the tooth that is to appear, 
and then the jelly within the m.embrane begins to change 
to bony mattter, and a hard and beautiful crystallization is 
formed on the membrane without, and so we have the cutting tooth covered by its 
enamel. In the formation, however, of each of the grinders of the horse, there are 
originally five membranous bags in the upper jaw, and four in the lower, filled with 
jelly. This by degrees gives place to bony matter, which is thrown out by little ves- 
sels penetrating into it, and is represented by the darker portions of the cut with cen- 
tral black spots. The crystallization of enamel can be traced around each, and there 
would be five distinct bones or teeth. A third substance, however, is now secreted 
(which is represented by the white spaces), and is a powerful cement, uniting all 
/these distinct bones into one body, and making one tooth of the five. This being 
done, another coat of enamel spreads over the sides, but not the top, and the tooth ig 
completed. By no other contrivance could we have the grinding tooth capable, with- 
out injury and without wearing, to rub down the hay, and oats, and beans, which 
ecnstitute the stable-food of horses. 

The grinders in the lower jaw, having originally but four of these bags or shells, 
13 T 





146 



ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH. 




are sh aller, and narrower, and more regular, than the upper ones. They are placed 
horizc ntally in either jaw ; but in the lower the higher side is within, and sheivinf» 
gradu tUy outward ; in the upper jaw the higher side is without, and shelving inward, ' 
ana tl us the grinding motion is most advantageously performed. There is also an evi- 
dent f ifterenctj m the appearance and structure of each of the grinders, so that a carefu! 
obsei'rer could tell to which jaw every one belonged, and what situation it occupied. 

At the completion of tlie first year, a fourth grinder usually comes up, and the year- 
ling vias then, or soon afterwards, six nippers, and four grinders above and below in 
each jaw, which, with the alteration in the appearance of the nippers that we have 
just described, will enable us to calculate nearly the age of the foal, subject to some 
variations arising from the period of weaning, and the nature of the food. 

At the age of one year and a-half, the mark in the 

central nippers will be much shorter and fainter ; that 

in the two other pairs will have undergone an evident 

change, and all the nippers will be flat. 

'lf0'M/''^ -"'■ '^^\ ^'^ *^° years this will be more manifest. The ac- 

Wm/'//' ^i:^^^^^<^ v^l coTipanying cut deserves attention, as giving an accu- 

'^ rate representation of the. nippers in the lower jaw of 

a two-years-old colt. 

About this period a fifth grinder will appear, and now, 
likewise, will commence another process. The first 
teeth are adapted to the size and wants of the j'oung 
animal. They are sufficiently large to occupy and fill 
the colt's jaws ; but when these bones have expanded 
with the increasing growth of the animal, the teeth are separated too far from each 
other to be useful, and another and larger set is required. Evident provision is made 
for them, even before the colt foaled. In cavities in the jaw, beneath the first and 
temporary teeth, are to be seen the rudiments of a second and permanent set. These 
gradually increase, some with greater rapidity than others, and, pressing upon the 
roots or fangs of the first teeth, do not, as would be imagined, force out the former 
ones, but the portion pressed upon gradually disappears. It is nhsurhed — taken up 
and carried away, by numerous minute vessels, whose office it is to get rid of the 
worn-out or useless part of the system. This absorption continues to proceed as the 
second teeth grow and press upwards, until the whole of the fang is gone, and the 
crown of the tooth, or that part of it which was above the gum, having no longer 
firm hold, drops out, and the second teeth appear, larger and stronger and permanent. 
In a few instances, however, the second teeth do not rise immediately under the tem- 
porary or milk teeth, but somewhat by their side ; and then, instead of this gradual 
process of absorption and disappearance from the point of the root upwards, the root 
being compressed sideways, diminishes throughout its whole bulk. The crown of 
the tooth diminishes with the root, and the whole is pushed out of its place, to the 
fore part of the first grinder, and remains for a considerable time, under the name of 
a wn/fs ionik, causing swelling and soreness of the gums, and frequently wounding the 
cheeks. They would be gradually quite absorbed, but the process might be slow 
and the annoyance would be great, and, therefore, they are extracted. 

The change of the teeth commences in those which earliest appeared, and, there- 
fore, the front or first grinder gives way at the age of two years, and is succeeded by 
a larger and permanent tooth. 

During the period between the falling out of the central milk nippers, and the 
coming up of the permanent ones, the colt, having a broken mouth, may find some 
difficulty in grazing. If he should fall away considerably in condition, he should be 
fed with mashes and corn, or cut moat. 

The next cut will represent a three-years-old mouth. The central teeth aie larger. 
than the others, with two grooves in the outer convex surface, and the mark is long V 
narrow, deep and black. Not having yet attained their full growth, they ars rather 
lower than the others. The mark in the two next nippers is nearly worn out, and it 
is wearing away in the corner nippers. Is it possible to give this mouth to an early 
two-years-old 1 The ages of all horses used to be reckoned from May, but some are 
foaled even so early as January, and being actually four months over the two years, 



THE PROCESS OF TEETHING. 



147 




if they have been well nursed and fed, and are strong and large, they may, wiih the 
inexperienced, have an additional year put upon them. The central nippers are 

punched or drawn out, and the others appear three 
or four months earlier than they otherwise would. 
In the natural process, they could only rise by long 
pressing upon, and causing the absorption of, the 
first set. But opposition from the first set being 
removed, it is easy to imagine that their progress 
will be more rapid. Three or four months will be 
gained in the appearance of the teeth, and these 
three or four months may enable the breeder to 
term him a late colt of a preceding year. To him, 
however, who is accustomed to horses, the general 
form of the animal — the little developement of the 
fore-hand — the continuance of the mark on the 
next pair of nippers — its more evident existence in 
the corner ones, some enlargement or irregularity 
about the gums from the violence used in forcing 
out the teeth — the small growth of the first and fifth grinders and the non-appearance 
of the sixth grinder, which if it is not through the gum at three years old, is swelling 
under it, and preparing to get through — any or all of these circumstances, carefully 
attended to, will be a sufficient security against deception. 

A horse at three years old ought to have the central permanent nippers growino- 

the other two pairs wasting — six grinders in each jaw, above and below — the first 
and fifth level with the others, and the sixth protruding. The sharp edge of the new 
incisors, although it could not be well expressed in the cut, will be very evident when 
compared with the neighbouring teeth. 

As the permanent nippers wear, and continue to grow, a narrower portion of the 
cone-shaped tooth is exposed to the attrition, and they look as if they had been com- 
pressed, but it is not so. The mark, of course, gradually disappears as the pit is 
worn away. 

At three years and a half, or between that and four, the next pair of nippers will 
be changed, and the mouth at that time cannot be mistaken. The central nippers 
vwill have attained nearly their full growth. A vacuity will be left where tffe second 
stood, or they will begin to peep above the gum, and the corner ones will be diminished 

in breadth, worn down, and the mark becoming 
small and faint. At this period, likewise, the 
second pair of grinders will be shed. Previously 
to this may be the attempt of the dealer to give 
to his three-years-old an additional year, but the 
fraud will be detected by an examination similar 
to that which has been already described. 

At four years, the central nippers will be fully 
developed; the sharp edge somewhat worn off 
and the mark shorter, wider, and fainter. The 
next pair will be up, but they will be small, with 
the mark deep, and extending quite across them. 
The corner nippers will be larger than the inside 
ones, yet smaller than they were, and flat, and 
the mark nearly effaced. The sixth grinder will 
hive risen to a level with the others, and the tushes will begin to appear. 

Now, more than at any other time, will the dealer be anxious to put an additional 
year upon the animal, for the difference between a four-years-old colt, and a five-years- 
old horse, in strength, utility, and value, is very great; but, the want of wear in the 
other nippers — the small size of the corner ones — the little growth of the tush — the 
smallness of the second grinder — the low fore-hand — the legginess of the colt, and 
the thickness and little depth of the mouth, will, to the man of common experience 
among horses, at once detect the cheat. 

The tushes (see p. 142) are four in number, two in each jaw, situated between the 
nippers and the grinders — much nearer to the former than the latter, and nearer in the 




148 ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH. 

lower jaw than in the upper, but this distance increasing in both jaws with the age 
of the animal. In shape it somewhat resembles a cone ; it protrudes about an inch 
from the gum, and has its extremity sharp-pointed and curved. At the age now under 
consideration, the tushes are almost peculiar to the horse, and castration does not 
appear to prevent or retard their development. All mares, however, have the germs 
of them in the chambers of the jaw, and they appear externally in the majority of old 
mares. Their use is not evident. Perhaps in the wild state of the animal they are 
weapons of oflence, and he is enabled by them more firmly to seize, and more deeply 
wound his enemy. 

The breeder often attempts to hasten the appearance of the tush, and he cuts deeply 
through the gum to remove the opposition which that would afford. To a little exten 
he succeeds. He may possibly gain a few weeks, but not more. After all, there is 
much uncertainty as to the appearance of the tush, and it may vary from the fourth 
year to four years and six months. It belongs, in the upper jaw, both to the inferior 
and superior maxillary bones (see n. p. 70) ; for, while its fang is deeply imbedded 
in the inferior maxillary, the tooth penetrates the process of the superior maxillary at 
the union of those bones. 

At four years and a half, or betv/een that and five, the last important change takes 
place in the mouth of the horse. The corner nippers are shed, and the permanent 
ones begin to appear. The central nippers are considerably worn, and the next pair 
are commencing to show marks of usage. The tush has now protruded, and is gene- 
rally a full half-inch in height; externally it has a rounded prominence, with a groove 
on either side, and it is evidently hollowed within. The reader needs not to be told 
that after the rising of the corner nipper the animal changes its name — the colt becomes 
a horse, and the filly a mare. 

At five years the horse's mouth is almost perfect. The corner nippers are quite up, 

with the long deep mark irregular on the inside ; 
and the other nippers bearing evident tokens of 
increasing wearing. The tush is much grown — 
the grooves have almost or quite disappeared, 
and the outer surface is regularly convex. It is 
still as concave within, and with the edge nearly 
as sharp as it was six months before. The sixth 
molar is quite up, and the third molar is wanting. 
This last circumstance, if the general appearance 
of the animal, and particularly his forehead and 
the wearing of the centre nippers, and the growth 
and shape of the tushes, are likewise carefully 
attended to, will prevent deception, if a late four- 
years-old is attempted to be substituted for a five. 
The nippers may be brought up a few months 
before their time, and the tushes a few weeks, but the grinder is with difficulty dis- 
placed. The three last grinders and the tusbes are never shed. 

At six years the mark on the central nip- 
pers is worn out. There will still be a differ- 
ence of colour in the centre of tlie tooth. The 
cement filling the hole, made by the dipping 
in of the enamel, will present a browner hue 
than the other part of the tooth, and it will bo 
evidently surrounded by an edge of enamel, 
and there will even remain a little depression 
in the centre, and also a depression round the 
case of enamel : but the deep hole in the cen- 
tre of the teeth, with the blackened surface 
which it presents, and the elevated edge of 
enamel, will have disappeared. Persons not 
much accustomed to horses have been puzzled 
here. They expected to find a plain surface 
of a unifiirm colour, and knew not what con- 
elnsion to draw when there was both discolouration and irregularity. 





THE PROCESS OF TEETHING. 



'49 




In the next incisors the mark is shorter, broader, and fainter ; and in the corner teetP 
the edges of the enamel are more regular, and the surface is evidently worn. The 
tush h;is attained its full growth, being nearly or quite an inch in length ; convex out- 
ward, concave within; tending to a point, and the extremity somewhat curved. The 
third grinder is fairly up ; and all the grinders are level. 

The horse may now be said to have a perfect mouth. All the teeth are produced, 
*ully grown, and have hitherto sustained no material injury. During these important 
changes of the teeth, the animal has suffered less than could be supposed possible. 
In children, the period of teething is fraught with danger. Dogs are subject to con- 
vulsions, and hundreds of them die, from the irritation caused by the cutting or shed- 
ding of their teeth ; but the horse appears to 
feel little inconvenience. The gums and palate 
are occasionally somewhat hot and swollen ; 
but the slightest scarification will remove this. 
The teeth of the horse are more necessary to 
him than those of the other animals are to 
them. The child may be fed, and the dog 
will bolt his food ; but that of the horse must 
be well ground down, or the nutriment cannot 
be extracted from it. 

At seven years, the mark, in the way in 
which we have described it, is worn out in 
the four central nippers, and fast wearing 
away in the corner teeth ; the tush also is 
beginning to be altered. It is rounded at the 
point ; rounded at the edges ; still round without ; and beginning to get round inside. 
At eight years old, the tush is rounder in every way; the mark is gone from all the 
bottom nippers, and it may almost be said to be out of the mouth. There is nothing 
remaining in the bottom nippers that can afterwards clearly show the age of the horse, 
or justify^the most experienced examiner in giving a positive opinion. 

Dishonest dealers have been said to resort to a method of prolonging the mark in 
the lower nippers. It is called bishoping, from the name of the scoundrel who invented 

it. The horse of eight or nine years old is 
thrown, and with an engraver's tool a hole 
is dug in the now almost plain surface of the 
corner teeth, and in shape and depth resem- 
bling the mark in a seven-years-old horse. 
The hole is then burned with a heated iron, 
and a permanent black stain is left. The 
next pair of nippers are sometimes lightly 
touched. An ignorant man would be very 
easily imposed on by this trick : but the 
^^ ^^ irregular appearance of the cavity — the diffu- 
^l^y sion of the black stain around the tushes, the 
sharpened edges and concave inner surface 
// of which can never be given again — the 
■^"-^ marks on the upper nippers, together with 
the general conformation of the horse, can never deceive the careful examiner. 

Horsemen, after the animal is eight years old, are accustomed to look to the nippers 
in the upper jaw, and some conclusion has been drawn from the appearances which 
they present. It cannot be doubted that the mark remains in them for some years 
after it has been obliterated from the nippers in the lower jaw ; because the hard sub- 
stance, or kind of cement, by which the pit, or funnel, in the centre of the tooth is 
occupied, does not reach so high, and there is a greater depth of tooth to be worn 
away, in order to come at it. To this, it may be added that the upper nippers are not 
so much exposed to friction and wear as the under. The lower jaw alone is moved, 
and pressed forcibly upon the food : the upper jaw is without motion, and has only to 
resist that pressure. * 

There are various opinions as to the intervals between the disappearance ot Uie 
13* 




15« ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH. 

marks from the different cutting-teeth in the upper jaw. Some have averaged it al 
two years, and others at one. The author is inclined to adopt the latter opinion, and 
then the age will be thus determined : at nine years, the mark will be worn out from 
the middle nippers — from the next pair at ten, and from all the upper nippers at 

eleven. During these periods, the tush is likewise undergoing a manifest change 

it is blunter, shorter, and rounder. In what degree this takes place in the different 
periods, long and most favourable opportunities for observation can alone enable the 
horseman to decide. 

The tushes are exposed to but little wear and tear. The friction against them must 
be sligjit, proceeding only from the passage of the food over them, and from the motion 
of the tongue, or from the bit; and their alteration of form, although generally as we 
have described it, is frequently uncertain. The tush will sometimes be blunt at eight ; 
at other times it will remain pointed at eighteen. The upper tush, although the latest 
in appearing, is soonest worn away. 

Are there any circumstances to guide our judgment after this] There are those 
which will prepare us to guess at the age of the horse, or to approach within a few 
years of it, until he becomes very old ; but there are none which will enable us accu- 
rately to detemiine the question, and the indications of age must now be taken from 
the shape of the upper surface of the nippers. At eight, they are all oval, the leno-th 
of the oval running across from tooth to tooth ; but as the horse gets older, the teeth 
dimmish in size — and this commencing in their width, and not in their thickness. 
They become a little apart from each other, and their surfaces are rounded. At nine, 
the centre nippers are evidently so ; at ten, the others begin to have the oral shortened. 
At eleven, the second pair of nippers are quite rounded ; and at thirteen, the cornei 
ones have that appearance. At fourteen, the faces of the central nippers become 
somewhat triangular. At seventeen, they are all so. At nineteen, the angles begin 
to wear off, and the central teeth are again oval, but in a reversed direction, viz. from 
outward, inward ; and at twenty-one, they all wear this form. This is the opinion of 
some Continental veterinary surgeons, and Mr. Percivall first presented them to us in 
an Lnglish dress. 
I It would be folly to expect perfect accuracy at this advanced age of the horse, when 
we are bound to confess that the rules which we have laid down for determining thia 
matter at an earlier period, although they are recognised by horsemen generally, and 
referred to in courts of justice, will not guide us in every case. Stabled horses have 
the mark sooner worn out than those that are at grass ; and a crib-biter may deceive 
the best Judge by one or two years. The age of the horse, likewise, beino- fomierlv 
calculated from the 1st of May, it was exceedingly difficult, or almost impossible, to 
determine whether the animal was a late foal of one year, or an early one of the next. 
At nine or ten, the bars of the mouth become less prominent, and their reo-ular dimi- 
nution vyill designate increasing age. At eleven or twelve, the lower nippers chancre 
their original upright direction, and project forward or horizontally, and become of a 
yellow colour. They are yellow, because the teeth must grow, in order to answer to 
their wear and tear; but the enamel which covered their surface when they were first 
produced cannot be repaired ; and that which wears this yellow colour in old age, is 
the part which in youth was in the socket, and therefore destitute of enamel. 

The general indications of old age, independent of the teeth, are deepenintr of the 
hollows over the eyes; grey hairs, and particularly over the eyes and about the 
niuzzle ; thinness and hanging down of the lips ; sharpness of the withers ; sinking 
ot the back ; lengthening of the quarters ; and the disappearance of windfalls, sna- 
vins, and tumours of every kind. ^ 

Of the natural age of the horse, we should form a very erroneous estimate from the 
early period at which he is now worn out and destroyed. Mr. Blaine speaks of a 
gentleman who had three horses that died at the ages of thirty-five, thirty-seven and 
thirty-mne. Mr. Cully mentions one that received a ball in his neck, a. .he battle of 
Preston, in 1715, and which was extracted at his death, in 1758 ; and Mr, Percival) 
gives an account of a barge-horse that died in his sixty-second year. 

There cannot be a severer satire on the English nation than this, that, from the 
absurd practice of running our race-horses at two and th»ee years old, and workin.. 
others, in various ways, long before their limbs are knit or their strength developed. 



DISEASES OF THE TEETH. 15j 

and cruelly exacting from them services far beyond their powers, their age does not 
3-ueracre a sixth part of that of the last-mentionad horse. The scientilic author of the 
" Animal Kingdom" declares, that " it may be safely asserted, that more horses are 
consumed in England, in every ten;|fears, than in any other country in the world in 
ten times that period, except those which perish in war." 

This affair has, with the English, been too long considered as one of mere profit 
.md loss ; and it has been thought to be cheaper to bring the young horse early into 
work, and prematurely to exhaust his strength, than to maintain him for a long period, 
and at a considerable expense, almost useless. The matter requires much considera- 
tion, and much reformation, too. 

DISEASES OF THE TEETH. 

Of the diseases of llie teeth in the horse, we know little. Carious or hollow teeth 
are occasionally, but not often, seen ; but the edges of the grinders, from the wearing 
off" of the enamel, or the irregular growth of the teeth, become rough, and wound the 
inside of the cheek ; it is then necessary to adopt a summary, but effectual method of 
cure ; namely, to rasp them smooth. Many bad ulcers have been produced in the 
mouth by the neglect of this. 

The teeth sometimes grow irregularly in length, and this is particularly the case 
with the grinders, from not being in exact opposition to each other when the mouth 
is shut. The growth of the teeth still going on, and there being no mechanical 
opposition to it, one of the back teeth, or a portion of one of them, shoots up con- 
siderably above the others. Sometimes it penetrates the bars above, and causes 
soreness and ulceration ; at other times it interferes partially, or altogether, with the 
grinding motion of the jaws, and the animal pines away without the cause being 
suspected. Here the saw should be used, and the projecting portion reduced to a 
level with the other teeth. The horse that has once been subjected to this operation 
should afterwards be frequently examined, and especially if he loses condition : and, 
indeed, every horse that gets thin or out of condition, without fever, or other apparent 
cause, should have his teeth and mouth carefully examined, and especially if, without 
any indication of sore throat, he quids — partly chewing and then dropping — ^liis food, 
or if he holds his head somewhat on one side, while he eats, in order to get the food 
between the outer edges of the teeth. A horse that has once had very irregular teeth 
is materially lessened in value, for, although they may he sawn down as carefully as 
possible, they will project again at no great distance of time. Such a horse is to all 
intents and purposes unsound. In order to be fit for service, he should be in posses- 
sion of his full natural powers, and these powers cannot be sustained without perfect 
nutrition, and nutrition would be rendered sadly imperfect by any defect in the 
operation of mastication. Not only do some diseases of the teeth render the act of 
mastication difficult and troublesome, but, from the food acquiring a fcetid odour 
during its detention in the mouth, the horse acquires a distaste for aliment altogether. 

The continuance of a carious tooth often produces disease of the neighbouring ones, 
and of the jaw itself. It should therefore be removed, as soon as its real state is 
evident. Dreadful cases of fungus haematodes have arisen from the irritation caused 
by a carious tooth. 

The mode of extracting the teeth requires much reformation. The hammer and the 
punch should never be had recourse to. The keyed instrument of the human subject, 
but on a larger scale, is the only one that should be permitted. r 

This is th^e proper place to speak more at length of the effect of dentition on the 
system generally. Horsemen in general think too lightly of it, and they scarcely 
dream of the animal suffering to any considerable degree, or absolute illness bemg 
produced ; yet he who has to^do with young horses will occasionally discover a con- 
siderable degree of febrile affection, which he can refer to this cause alone. Fever, 
cough, catarriial affections generally, disease of the eyes, cutaneous affections, diar- 
rhcea, dysentery, loss of appetite, and general derangement, will frequently be traced 
by the careful observer to irritation from teething. 

It is a rule scarcely admitting of the slightest deviation, that, when young horses, 
are labouring under any febrile affection, the mouth should be examined, and if the 
tushes are prominent and pushing against the gums, a crucial incision should be 



152 ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH. 

made across them. " In this way," says Mr. Percivall, " I have seen catarrhal anil 
bronchial inflammations abated, coughs relieved, lymphatic and other glandular 
tumours about the head reduced, cutaneous eruptions got rid of, deranged bowels 
restored to order, appetite returned, and lost cor)|(|Jition repaired."* 

THE TONGUE. 

The tongue is the organ of taste. It is also employed in disposing the food for 
Dcing gruund lietwcen the teeth, and afterwards collecting it together, and conveying 
It to ihe back i)rirt of the mouth, in order to be swallowed. It is likewise the main 
instrument in dtglutition, and the canal through which the water passes in the act of 
drinking. Thc^ root of it is firmly fixed at the bottom of the mouth by a variety of 
muscles ; the fore part is loose in the mouth. It is covered by a continuation of the 
membrane that lines the mouth, and which, doubling beneath, and confining the 
motions of tlie tongue, is called its frwnum, or bridle. On the back of the tongue, 
this membrane is thickened and roughened, and is covered with numerous conical 
papilie, or little eminences, on which the fibres of a branch of the fifth pair of nerves 
expand, communicating the sense of taste. The various motions of the tongue are 
accomplished by means of the ninth pair of nerves. The substance of the tongue is 
composed of muscular fibres, with much fatty matter interposed between them, and 
which gives to this organ its peculiar softness. 

DISEASES OF THE TONGUE. 

The tongue is sometimes exposed to injury from carelessness or violence in the act 
of drenching or administering a ball, it J3eing pressed against and cut by the edges 
of the grinders. A little diluted tincture of myrrh, or alum dissolved in water, or 
even nature unassisted, will speedily heal the wound. The horse will sometimes bite 
his tongue, most frequently in his sleep. If the injury is trifling, it requires little 
care; but, in some instances, a portion of the tongue has been deeply lacerated or 
bitten off. The assistance of a veterinary practitioner is here required. 

There are some interesting accounts of the results of this lesion. INIr. Dickens of 
Kimbolton found a portion of the tongue of a mare, extending as far as the fr8enulum 
beneath, lying in the manger in a strangely lacerated condition, and fast approaching 
to decomposition. He had her cast, and, excising all the unhealthy portions, he 
dressed the wound with chloride of soda and tincture of myrrh. In less than a week 
the laceration was nearly healed, and, soon afterwards, she could eat with very little 
difficulty, and keep herself in good condition. The injury was proved to have been 
inflicted by a brutal horscbreaker, in revenge of some slight affront.| 

A curious case is recorded in the Memoirs of the Society of Calvados. A horse 
was difficult to groom. The soldier who had tlie care of him, in order the better to 
managfe him, fixed in his mouth and on his tongue a strong chain of iron, deeply 
serrated, while another man gave to this chain a terrible jerk whenever the horse was 
disposed to be rebellious. The animal, under such torture, became unmanageable, 
and the man who held the chain sawing away with all his strength, the tongue was 
completely cut off at tlie point which separates its base from the free portion of it. 
The wound healed favourably, and he was soon able to manage a mash. After that 
some hay was given to him in small quantities. He took it and forii.cd it into a kind 
of pellet with his lipL., and then, pressing it against the bottom of his manger, he 
gradually forced it sufficiently back into the mouth to be enabled to seize it with his 
grinders. 

Another horse came to an untimely end in a singular way. He had scarcely eaten 
anything for three weeks. He seemed to be unable to swallow. The channel 
beneath the lower jaw had much enlargement about it. There was not any known 
cause for this, nor any account of violence done to the tongue. At length a tumour 
appeared under the jaw. INIr. Young of Muirhead punctured it, and a considerable 
quantity of purulent matter escaped. The horse could drink his gruel after this, but 
not take any solid food. A week afterwards he was found dead. Upon separating 
the head from the tiunk, and cutting transversely upon the tongue, nearly opposite to 

*Pernivairs Hippopathology, vol. ii., p. 173. t Veterinarian, vol. vi., p. 22. 



THE SALIVARY GLANDS. 153 

ihe scccnd grinder, a needle was found lying- longitudinally, and wliichhad penetrated 
from the side to the inferior portion of the tongue. It was an inch and a quarter in 
length, and the neighbouring substance was in a state of gangrene. 

Vesicles will sometimes appear along the under side of the tongue, which will 
increase to a considerable size. The tongue itself will be much enlarged, the animal 
will be unaljle to swallow, and a great quantity of ropy saliva will drivel from the 
mouth. This disease often exists without the nature of it being suspected. If the 
mouth is opened, one large bladder, or a succession of bladders, of a purple hue, will 
be seen extending along the whole of the under side of the tongue. If they are lanced 
freely and deeply, from end to end, the swelling will very rapidly abate, and any 
little fever that remains may be subdued by cooling medicine. The cause of this 
disease is not clearly known. 

THE SALIVARY GLANDS. 

In order that the food may be properly comminuted preparatory to digestion, it is 
necessary that it should be previously moistened. The food of the stabled horse, 
however, is dry, and his meal is generally concluded without any fluid being offered 
to him. Nature has made a provision for this. She has placed in the neighbournood 
of the mouth various glands to secrete, and that plentifully, a limpid fluid, somewhat 
saline to the taste. This fluid is conveyed from the glands into the mouth, by various 
ducts, in the act of chewing, and, being mixed with the food, renders it more easily 
ground, more easily passed afterwards into the stomach, and better fitted for diges- 
tion. 

The principal of these is the parotid gland (see cut p. 125). It is placed in the 
hollow which extends from the root of the ear to the angle of the lower jaw. A por- 
tion of it, (/, is represented as turned up, to show the situation of the blood-vessels 
underneath. In almost every case of cold connected with sore throat, an enlargement 
of the parotid gland is evident to the feeling, and even to the eye. It is composed 
of numerous small glands connected together, and a minute tube proceeding from 
each, to carry away the secreted fluid. These tubes unite in one common duct. At 
the letter m, the parotid duct is seen to pass under the angle of the lower jaw, together 
with the submaxillary artery, and a branch of the jugular vein, and they come out 
again at w. At r, the duct is seen separated from the other vessels, climbing up the 
cheek, and piercing it to discharge its contents into the mouth, opposite to the second 
grinder. The quantity of fluid thus poured into the mouth from each of the parotid 
glands amounts to a pint and a half in an hour, during the action of mastication ; and, 
sometimes, when the duct has been accidentally opened, it has spirted out to the dis- 
tance of several feet. 

The parotid gland sympathises with every inflammatory affection of the upper part 
of the throat, and therefore it is found swollen, hot, and tender, in almost every catarrh 
or cold. The catarrh is to be treated in the usual way ; while a stimulating applica- 
tion, almost amounting to a blister, well rubbed over the gland, will best subdue the 
inflammation of that body. 

In bad strangles, and, sometimes, in violent cold, this gland will be much enlarged 
and ulcerated, or an obstruction will take place in some part of the duct, and the 
accumulating fluid will burst the vessel, and a fistulous ulcer will be formed that will 
be very difficult to heal. A veterinary surgeon alone will be competent to the treat- 
ment of either case ; and the principle by which he will bo guided, will be to heal 
the abscess in the gland as speedily as he can, and, probably, by the application of 
the heated iron : or, if the ulcer is in the duct, either to restore the passage through 
the duct, or to form a new one, or to cut off" the flow of the saliva by the destruction 
of the gland. 

A second source of the saliva is from the suhmaxiUary glands, or the glands under 
the jaw. One of them is represented at s, p. 125. The submaxillary glands occupy 
tlie space underneath and between the sides of the lower jaw, and consist of numer- 
ous small bodies, each with its proper duct, uniting together, and forming on each 
side a common duct or vessel that pierces through the muscles at the root of the 
tongue, and opens in little projections, or heads, upon the frscnum, or bridle of the 
tongue, al)ont an inch and a half from the front teeth. When the horse has catarrh 



154 ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH. 

or cold, these glands, like tlie parotid gland, enlarge. This is often to be observed 
after strangles, and several distinct kernels are to be felt under the jaw. It has 
already been stated that they may be distinguished from the swellings that accom- 
pany or indicate glanders, by their being larger, generally not so distinct, more in the 
centre of the channel, or space between the jaws, and never adhering to the jaw- 
bones. The farriers call them vives, and often adopt cruel and absurd methods to 
disperse them, — as burning them with a lighted candle, or hot iron, or even cutting 
them out. They will, in the majority of instances, gradually disperse in proportion 
as the disease which produced them subsides ; or they will yield to slightly stimu- 
lating embrocations ; or, if they are obstinate in their continuance, they are of no fur- 
ther consequence, than as indicating that the horse has laboured under severe cold or 
strangles. 

During catarrh or inflammation of the mouth, the little projections marking the 
opening of these ducts on either side of the bridle of the tongue are apt to enlarge, 
and the mouth under the tongue is a little red, and hot and tender. The farriers call 
tliese swellings BARBS or paps; and as soon as they discover them, mistaking the 
effect of disease for the cause of it, they set to work to cut them close off. The 
bleeding that follows this operation somewhat abates the local inflammation, and 
affords temporary relief; but the wounds will not speedily heal. The saliva continues 
to flow from the orifice of the duct, and, running into the irregularities of the wound, 
causes it to spead and deepen. Even when it heals, the mouth of the duct being fre- 
quently closed, and the saliva continuing to be secreted by the submaxillary gland, 
it accumulates in the duct until that vessel bursts, and abscesses are formed which 
eat deeply under the root of the tongue, and long torment the poor animal. When, 
after a great deal of trouble, they are closed, they are apt to break out again foi 
months and years afterwards. 

All that is necessary with regard to these paps or barbs is to abate the inflamma- 
tion or cold that caused them to appear, and they will very soon and perfectly sub- 
side. He who talks of cutting them out is not fit to be trusted with a horse. 

A third source of saliva is from glands under the tongue — the sublingual glands, 
which open by many little orifices under the tongue, resembling little folds of the 
skin of the mouth, hanging from the lower surface of this organ, or found on the bot- 
tom of the mouth. These likewise sometimes enlarge during catarrh or inflamma- 
tion of the mouth, and are called gigs, and bladders, and Jlaps in the mouth. They 
have the appearance of small pimples, and the farrier is too apt to cut them away, or 
burn them off. The better way is to let them alone — for in a few days they will gen- 
erally disappear. Should any ulceration remain, a little tincture of myrrh, or a solu- 
tion of alum, will readily heal them. 

Beside these three principal sources of saliva, there are small glands to be found 
on every part of the mouth, cheeks, and lijjs, which pour out a considerable quantity 
of fluid, to assist in moistening and preparing the food. 

STRANGLES. 

This is a disease principally incident to young horses — usually appearing between 
the fourth and fifth year, and oftener in the spring than in any other part of the year. 
It is preceded by cough, and can at first be scarcely distingushed from common cough, 
except that there is more discharge from the nostril, of a yellowish colour, mixed 
with pus, and generally without smell. There is likewise a considerable discharge 
of ropy fluid from the mouth, and greater swelling than usual under the throat. This 
swelling increases with uncertain rapiditj% accompanied by some fever, and disincli- 
nation to eat, partly arising from the fever, but more from the pain which the animal 
feels in the act of mastication. There is considerable thirst, but after a gulp or two 
the horse ceases to drink, yet is evidently desirous of continuing his draught. In 
the attempt to swallow, and sometimes when not drinking, a convulsive cough comes 
on, which almost threatens to suff'ocate the animal — and thence, probably, the name 
of the disease.* 

* Old Gervase Markham gives the following description of this disease, and of the origin 
of its nime "It is," says he, " a great and hard swelling between a horse's nether chaps 



STRANGLES. 155 

The tumour is under the jaw, and about the centre of the channel. It soon fills the 
whole of the space, and is evidently one uniform body, and may thus be distinguished 
from glanders, or the enlarged glands of catarrh. In a few days it becomes more 
prominent and soft, and evidently contains a fluid. This rapidly increases ; the 
tumour bursts, and a great quantity of pus is discliarged. As soon as the tumour has 
broken, the cough subsides, and the horse speedily mends, although some degree oi 
weakness may hang about him for a considerable time. Few horses, possibly none, 
escape its attack ; but, the disease having passed over, the animal is free from it foi 
the remainder of his life. Catarrh may precede, or may predispose to, the attack, 
and, undoubtedly, the state of the atmosphere has mucli to do with it, for both its 
prevalence and its severity are connected with certain seasons of the year and changes 
of the weather. There is no preventive for the disease, nor is there anything con- 
tagious about it. Many strange stories are told with regard to this ; but the explana- 
tion of the matter is, that when several horses in the same farm, or in the same 
neighbourhood, have had strangles at the same time, they have been exposed to the 
same powerful but unknown exciting cause. 

Messrs. Percivall and Castley have come the nearest to a satisfactory view of the 
nature of strangles. Mr. Castley* says, that " the period of strangles is often a much 
more trying and critical time for young horses than most people seem to be aware of; 
that when colts get well over this complaint, they generally begin to thrive and 
improve in a remarkable manner, or there is sometimes as great a change for the 
worse : in fact, it seems to effect some decided constitutional change in the animal." 

Mr. Percivall adds, " the explanation of the case appears to me to be, that the 
animal is suffering more or less from what I would call slrangle-fever, — a fever the 
disposition and tendency of which is to produce local tumour and abscess, and, most 
commonly in that situation, underneath the jaws, in which it has obtained the name 
of strangles." 

Professor Dick, of Edinburgh, adds that which is conclusive on the subject, that 
" although the disease commonly terminates by an abscess under the jaw, yet it may, 
and occasionally does, give rise to collections of matter on other parts of the surface." 

To this conclusion then we are warranted in coming, that strangles is a specifiB 
affection to which horses are naturally subject at some period of their lives, and the 
natural cure of which seems to be a suppurative process. From some cause, of the 
nature of which we are ignorant, this suppurative process usually takes place in the 
space between the branches of the maxillary bone, and occurring there it appears in 
the mildest form, and little danger attends. When the disease is ushered in by con- 
siderable febrile distyjbance, and the suppuration takes place elsewhere, the horse too 
frequently sinks under the attack. ^ 

The treatment of strangles is very simple. As the essence of the disease consists 
in the formation and suppuration of the specific tumour, the principal, or almost the 
sole attention of the practitioner, should be directed to the hastening of these pro- 
cesses : therefore, as soon as the tumour of strangles is decidedly apparent, the part 
should be actively blistered. Old practitioners used to recommend poultices, which, 
from the thickness of the horse's skin, must have very little effect, even if they could 
be confined on the part ; and from the difficulty and almost impossibility of this, and 
their getting cold and hard, they necessarily weakened the energies of nature, and 
delayed the ripening of the tumour. Fomentations are little more effectual. A blister 
will not only secure the completion of the process, but hasten it by many days, and 
save the patient much pain and exhaustion. It will produce another good effect — it 
will, previously to the opening of the tumour, abate the internal inflammation and 
soreness of the throat, and thus lessen the cough and wheezing. 

As soon as the swelling is soft on its summit, and evidently contains matter, it 
should be freely and deeply lanced. It is a bad, although frequent practice, to suffer 
the tumour to burst naturally, for a ragged ulcer is formed, very slow to heal, ana 

upon the rootes of his tongue, and about his throat, which swelling, if it be not prevented, wiU 
stop the horse's windpipe, and so strangle or choke him* from which effect, and none other 
the name of this disease tooke its derivation." 
* Vet., iii., 406, and vi., 607. 



»56 ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH. 

difficuU of treatment. If the incision is deep and large enough, no second collection 
of matter will be formed : and that which is already there may be suffered to run out 
slowly, all pressure with the fingers being avoided. The part should be kept clean, 
and a little friar's balsam daily injected into the wound. 

The remainder of the treatment will depend on the symptoms. If there is much 
fever, and evident affection of the chest, and which should carefully be distinguished 
from the oppression and choking occasioned by the pressure of the tumour, it will be 
proper to bleed. In the majority of cases, however, bleeding will not only be unne- 
cessary, but injurious. It will delay the suppuration of the tumour, and increase the 
subsequent debility. A few cooling medicines, as nitre, emetic tartar, and perhaps 
digitalis, may be given, as the case requires. The appetite, or rather the ability to 
eat, will return with the opening of the abscess. Bran-mashes, or fresh-cut grass or 
tares, should be liberally supplied, w^iich will not only afford sufficient nourishment 
to recruit the strength of the animal, but keep the bowels gently open. If the weak- 
ness is not great, no farther medicine will be wanted, except a dose of mild physic in 
order to prevent the swellings or eruptions which sometimes succeed to strangles. In 
cases of debility, a small quantity of tonic medicine, as chamomile, gentian, oi 
ginger, may be administered.* 

THE PHARYNX. 

Proceeding to the back of the mouth, we find the pharynx {carrying or conveying 
the food towards the stomach). It commences at the root of the tongue (see 7, 8 and 
9, p. 72) ; is separated from the mouth by the soft palate (7), which hangs down from 
the palatine bone at 8, and extends to the epiglottis or covering to the windpipe 
When the food has been sufficiently ground by the teeth, and mixed with the saliva, 
it is gathered together by the tongue, and by the action of the cheeks and tongue, and 
back part of the mouth, forced against the soft palate, which, giving way, and being 
raised upwards towards the entrance into the nostrils, prevents the food from proceed- 
ing that way. It passes to the pharynx, and the soft palate again falling down, pre- 
vents its return to the mouth, and also prevents, except in extreme cases, the act of 
vomiting in the horse. "Whatever is returned from the stomach of the horse, passes 
through the nose, as the cut will make evident. 

The sides of the pharynx are lined with muscles which now begin powerfully to 
contract, and by that contraction the bolus is forced on until it reaches the gullet (10), 
which is the termination of the pharynx. Before, however, the food proceeds so far, 
it has to pass over the entrance into the windpipe (3), and should any portion of it 
enter that tube, much inconvenience and danger might result; therefore, this opening 
is not only lined by muscles which close it at the pleasure of the animal, but is like- 
wise covered by a heart-like elastic cartilage, the epiglottis (2), with its back towards 
the pharynx, and its hollow towards the aperture. The epiglottis yields to the pres- 
sure of the bolus passing over it, and lying flat over the opening into the windpipe, 
and prevents the possibility of anything entering into it. No sooner, however, has 

* Mr. Percivall gives the following description of some untoward cases: — "The sub- 
maxillary tumour is often knotted and divided on its first appearance, as if the glands received 
the primary attack. As it spreads, it becomes diffused in the cellular tissue included in the 
space between the sides and branches of the lower jaw, involving all the subcutaneous parts 
contained in that interval indiscriminately in one uniform mass of tumefaction. While this 

feneral turgescence is going on, various parts in the immediate vicinity often take on the same 
ind of action. In particular, the salivary glands, the parotid, sublingual, the throat., the 
pharynx and laryn.v, the nose, the lining membrane, the nostrils, the sinuses, the mouth, the 
tongue, the cheeks, the lips — in fine, in some violent cases, the whole head appears to be 
involved in one general mass of tumefaction, while every vent is running over with discharge. 
The patient experiencing this violent form of disease is in a truly pitiable plight. While 
purulent matter is issuing in profusion from his swollen nostrils, and slaver foams out from 
between his tumefied lips, it is distressing to hear the noise that he makes in painful and 
laboured efforts to breathe. There is imminent danger of suffocation in such a case as this; 
and even although some relief, so far as the breathing is concerned, may be obtained from the 
operation of hronchotomy , yet, from the pain and irritation he is suffering, added to the impo? 
sibility of getdng aliment into his stomach, he must speedily sink to rise no more." — 
Veterinarian, vol. vi, p. 611. 



POLL-EVIL. liyi 

ihe food passed over it, than it rises again by its own elasticity, and leaves the upper 
part of the windpipe once more open for the purpose of breathing. The voice of ani 
inals is produced by the passage of air through this aperture, communicating certain 
vibrations to certain folds of the membrane covering the part, and these vibrations 
being afterwards modified in their passage through the cavities of ihe nose. In ordei 
to understand the diseases of these parts, the anatomy of the neck generally must be 
considered. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NECK AND 
NEIGHBOURING PARTS. 

The neck of the horse, and of every animal belonging to the class mammalia, except 
one species, is composed of seven bones called vertebrae, moveable or turning upon 
each other (see cut, p. 68). They are connected together by strong ligaments, and 
form so many distinct joints, in order to give sufficiently extensive motion to this 
important part of the body. The bone nearest to the skull is called the atlas (see cut, 
p. 68, and "•, p. 72), because, in the human being, it supports the head. In the horse 
the head is suspended from it. It is a mere ring-shaped bone, with broad projections 
sideways ; but without the sharp and irregular processes which are found on all the 
others. The pack-wax, or ligament, by which the head is principally supported 
(/, p. 72), and which is strongly connected wdth all the other bones, passes over this 
without touching it, by which means the head is much more easily and extensively 
moved. The junction of the atlas with the head is the seat of a very serious and 
troublesome ulcer, termed 

POLL-EVIL. 

From the horse rubbing and sometimes striking his poll against the lower edge of 
the manger, or hanging back in the stall and, bruising the part with the halter — or 
from the frequent and painful stretching of the ligaments and muscles by unnecessary 
tight reining, and, occasionally, from a violent blow on the poll, carelessly or wan- 
tonly inflicted, inflammation ensues, and a swelling appears, hot, tender, and painful. 
It used to be a disease of frequent occurrence, but it is now, from better treatment of 
the animal, of comparatively rare occurrence. 

It has just been stated, that the ligament of the neck passes over the atlas, or first 
bone, without being attached to it, and the seat of inflammation is between the liga- 
ment and the bOne beneath ; and being thus deeply situated, it is serious in its nature 
and difficult of treatment. 

The first thing to be attempted is to abate the inflammation by bleeding, physic, 
and the application of cold lotions to the part. In a very early period of the case a 
blister might have considerable effect. Strong purgatives should also be employed. 
By these means the tumour will sometimes be dispersed. This system, however, 
must not be pursued too far. If the swelling increases, and the heat and tenderness 
likewise increase, matter will form in the tumour ; and then our object should be to 
hasten its formation by warm fomentations, poultices, or stimulating embrocations. 
As soon as the matter is formed, which may be known by the softness of the tumour, 
and before it has time to spread around and eat into the neighbouring parts, it should 
be evacuated. Now comes the whole art of treating poll-evil; the opening into the 
tumour must be so contrived that all the matter shall rim out, and continue afterwards to 
run out as quickly as it is formed, and not collect at the bottom of the ulcer, irritating 
and corroding it. This can be effected by a seton alone. The needle should enter 
at the top of the tumour, penetrate through its bottom, and be brought out at the side 
of the neck, a little below the abscess. Without anything more than this, except 
14 



158 ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NECK. 

frequent fomentation with warm water, in "order to keep the part clean, and to obviate 
inflammation, poll-evil in its early stage will frequently be cured. 

If the ulcer has deepened and spread, and threatens to eat into the ligaments of the 
joints of the neck, it may be necessary to stimulate its surface, and perhaps painfully 
so, in order to bring it to a healthy state, and dispose it to fill up. In extreme cases, 
some highly stimulating application may be employed, but nothing resembling the 
scalding mixture of the farriers of the olden time. This is abominable ! horrible I ! 
All measures, however, wall be ineffectual, unless the pus or matter is, by the use of 
seti-us, perfectly evacuated. The application of these setons will require the skill 
and anatomical knowledge of the veterinary surgeon. In desperate cases, the wound 
may not be fairly exposed to the action of the caustic without the division of the liga- 
ment of the neck. This may be effected with perfect safety ; for although the liga- 
ment is carried on to the occipital bone, and some strength is gained by this prolon- 
gation of it, the main stress is on the second bone ; and the head will continue to be 
supported. The divided ligament, also, will soon unite again, and its former useful- 
ness will be restored when the wound is healed. 

The second bone of the neck is the dentala, having a process like a tooth, by which 
it forms a joint with the first bone. In the formation of that joint, a portion of the 
spinal marrow, which runs through a canal in the centre of all these bones, is exposed 
or covered only by ligament; and by the division of the marrow at this spot an animal 
is instantly and humanely destroyed. The operation is c-aWeA pithing, from the name 
{the pith) given by butchers to the spinal marrow. 

The other neck, or rack bones, as they are denominated by the farrier, (B. p. 68,) 
are of a strangely irregular shape, yet bearing considerable resemblance to each other. 
They consist of a central bone, perforated for the passage of the spinal marrow with 
a ridge on the top for the attachment of the ligament of the neck, and four irregular I 
plates or processes from the sides, for the attachment of muscles ; at the base of one ! 
of which, on either side, are holes for the passage of the large arteries and veins. At 
the upper end of each, is a round head or ball, and at the lower end, a cavity or cup, 
and the head of the one being received into the cup of the other, they are unittd 
together, forming so many joints. They are likewise united by ligaments from these 
processes, as well as the proper ligaments of the joints, and so securely, that no dis- 
location can take place between any of them, except the first and second, the conse- i 
quence of which would be the immediate death of the animal. I 

The last, or seyenth bone, has the elevation on the back or top of it continued into ■ 
a long and sharp prolongation (a spinous process), and is the beginning of that ridge 
of bones denominated the ivithers (see cut, pp. G8 and 167) ; and as it is the base of 
the column of neck bones, and there must be a great pressure on it from the weight 
of the head and neck, it is curiously contrived to rest upon and uuite with the two 
first ribs. 

THE MUSCLES AND PROPER FORM OF THE NECK. 

The bones of the neck serve as the frame-work to which numerous muscles con 
cerned in the motions of the head and neck are attached. The weight of the head 
and neck is supported by the ligament without muscular aid, and without fatigue to 
the animal ; but in order to raise the head higher, or to lower it, or to turn it in every 
direction, a complicated system of muscles is necessary. Those whose office it is to 
raise the head are most numerous and powerful, and are placed on the upper and side 
part of the neck. The cut in p. 125 contains a few of them. 

c marks a tendon common to two of the most important of thern, the spknius, or 
splint-like muscle, and the complexus major, or larger complicated muscle. The 
spknius constitutes the principal bulk of the neck above, arising from the ligament of 
thf> neck all the way down it, and going to the processes of all the bones of the neck, 
but the first, and tendons running from the upper part of it, to the first bone of the 
neck, and to a process of the temporal bone of the head. Its action is sufficiently 
evident, namely, very powerfully to elevate the head and neck. The principal beauty 
of the neck depends on this muscle. It was admirably developed in the horse of 
whose neck the annexed cut gives an accurate delineation. 

If the curve were quite regular from the poll to the withers, we should call it a 



MUSCLES AND PROPER FORM OF THE NECK. 



159 




perfect neck. It is rather a long neck, and we do not like it the less for that. In the 

carriage-horse, a neck that is not half 
concealed by the collar is indispensable, 
so far as appearance goes ; and it is only 
the horse with a neck of tolerable leno-th 
that will bear to be reined up, so as to 
give this part the arched and beautiful 
appearance which fashion demands. It 
is no detriment to the riding-horse, and 
there are few horses of extraordinary 
speed that have not the neck rather long. 
The race-horse at the top of his speed 
not only extends it as far as he can, that 
the air-passages may be as straiglit as 
he can make them, and that he may 
therefore be able to breathe more freely, 
but the weight of the head and neck, and 
the effect increasing with their distance 
from the trunk, add materially to the 
rapidity of the animal's motion. It has 
been said, that a horse with a long neck 
will bear heavy on the hand ; neither the 
length of the neck nor even the bulk of the head has any influence in causing this. 
They are both counterbalanced by the power of the ligament of the neck. The set- 
ting on of the head is most of all connected with heavy bearing on the hand, and a 
short-necked horse will bear heavily, because, from the thickness of the lower part 
of the neck, consequent on its shortness, the head cannot be rightly placed, nor, gene- 
rally, the shoulder. 

Connected with the splenius muscle, and partly produced by it, are the thickness 
and muscularity of the neck, as it springs from the shoulders, in this cut; the height 
at which it comes out from them forming nearly a line with the withers ; and the 
manner in which it tapers as it approaches the head. The neck of a well-formed 
horse, however fine at the top, should be muscular at the bottom, or the horse will 
generally be weak and worthless. Necks devoid of this muscularity are called loose 
necks by horsemen, and are always considered a very serious objection to the animal. 
If the neck is thin and lean at the upper part, and is otherwise well shaped, the horse 
will usually carry himself well, and the head will be properly curved for beauty of 
appearance and ease of riding. When an instance to the contrary occurs, it is to be 
traced to very improper management, or to the space between the jaws being unna- 
turally small. 

The splenitis muscle, although a main agent in raising the head and neck, may be 
too large, or covered with too much cellular substance or fat, thus giving an appear- 
ance of heaviness, or even clumsiness to the neck. This peculiarity of form consti- 
tutes the distinction between the perfect horse and the mare, and also the gelding, 
unless castrated at a very late period. 

This tendon, c, belongs also to another muscle, which makes up the principal bulk 
of the lower part of the neck, and is called the complexus major, or larger complicated 
muscle. It arises partly as low as the transverse processes of the four or five first 
bones of the back, and from the five lower bones of the neck ; and the fibres from 
these various sources uniting together, form a very large and powerful muscle, the 
largest and strongest in the neck. As it approaches the head, it lessens in bulk, and 
terminates partly with the splenius, in this tendon, hut is principally inserted into the 
back part of the occipital bone, by the side of the ligament of the neck. In the cut, 
p. 125, almost its whole course can be distinctly traced. Its office is to raise the neck 
and elevate the head ; and being inserted into such a part of the occiput, it will more 
particularly protrude the nose, while it raises the head. Its action, however, may be 
too powerful ; it may be habitually so, and then it may produce deformity. The back 
of the head being pulled back, and the muzzle protruded, the horse cannot by possi- 
bility carry his head well. He will become what is technically called a star-gazer; 



J GO ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NECK. 

— heavy in hand, boring upon the hit, and unsafe. To remedyithis, recourse is had, 
and in the majority of cases without avail, to the martingale, against which the horse 
is continually fighting, and which is often a complete annoyance to the rider. Such 
a horse is almost useless for harness. 

Inseparable from this is another sad defect, so far as the beauty of the horse is 
concerned ; — he becomes etue-necked ,• i. e. he has a neck like a ewe — not arched 
above and straight below, until near to the head, but hollowed above and projecting 
below ; and the neck rising low out of the chest, even lower, sometimes, than the 
points of the shoulders. There can scarcely be anything more unsightly in a horse. 
His head can never be got fairly down ; and the bearing rein of harness must be to 
him a source of constant torture. In regarding, however, the length and the form of 
the neck, reference must be had to the purpose for which the horse is intended. In a 
hackney, few things can be more abominable than a neck so disproportioned — so long, 
that the hand of the rider gets tired in managing the head of the horse. In a race- 
horse, this lengthening of the neck is a decided advantage. 

Among the muscles employed in raising the head, are the comphxus minores 
(smaller complicated), and the redi (straight), and the oblique muscles of the upper 
part of the neck, and belonging principally to the two first bones of the neck, and 
portions of which may be seen under the tendon of the sphnius c, and between it and 
the ligament a. 

Among the muscles employed in lowering the head, some of Vfhich are given in 
the same cut, is the sterno-muxillaris, d, belonging to the breast^bone, and the upper 
jaw. It can likewise be traced, although not quite distinctly, in the cut, p. 159. It 
lies immediately under the skin. It arises from the cartilage projecting from, or con- 
stituting the front of the breast-bone (H, p. 68), and proceeds up the neck, of no 
great bulk or strength. At about three-fourths of its length upward, it changes to a 
flat tendon, which is seen (c?, p. 125) to insinuate itself between the parotid and sub- 
maxillary glands, in order to be inserted into the angle of the lower jaw. It is used 
in bending the head towards the chest. 

Another muscle, the termination of which is seen, is the levator humeri, raiser of the 
shoulder, h. This is a much larger muscle than the last, because it has more duty to 
perform. It rises from the back of the head and four first bones of the neck and the 
ligament of the neck, and is carried down to the shoulder, mixing itself partly with 
some of the muscles of the shoulder, and finally continued down to, and terminating 
on, the humenis (J, p. 68). Its office is double. If the horse is in action, and the 
head and neck are fixed points, the contraction of this muscle will draw forward the 
shoulder and arm ; if the horse is standing, and the shoulder and arm are fixed points, 
this muscle will depress the head and neck. 

The muscles of the neck are all in pairs. One of them is found on each side of the 
neck, and the office which has been attributed to them can only be accomplished when 
both act together ; but supposing that one alone of the elevating muscles should act, 
the head would be raised, but it would at the same time be turned towards that side. 
If one only of the depressor muscles were to act, the head would be bent downwards, 
but it would likewise be turned towards that side. Then it will be easily rfeen, that 
by this simple method of having the muscles in pairs, provision is made for every 
kind of motion, upwards, downwards, or on either side, for which the animal can 
possibly have occasion. Little more, of a practical nature, could be said of the 
muscles of the neck, although they are proper and interesting studies for the anato- 
mist. 

This is the proper place to speak of the mane ,• that long hair which covers the crest 
of the neck, and adds so much to the beauty of the animal. This, however, is not its 
only praise. In, a wild state, the horse has many battles to fight, and his neck, 
(iepiivnd of the mane, would be a vulnerable part. The hair of the mane, the tail, 
and the legs, is not shed in the same manner as that on the body. It does not fall so 
regularly, nor so often ; for if all were shed at once, the parts would be left for a long 
time defenceless. 

The mane is generally dressed so as to lie on the right side — some persons divide 
it equally on both sides. For ponies, it used to be cut off near the roots, only a few 
stumps being left to stand perpendicularly. This was termed the hog-mane. The 



BLOOD. v^ESSELS AND VEINS OF THE NECK. IGl 

groom sometimes bestows a great deal of pains in getting the mane of his iiorse into 
good and fashionable order. It is wetted, and plaited, and loaded with lead ; ana 
every hair that is a little too long is pulled out. The mane arid tail of the heavy 
draught-horse are seldom thin ; but on the well-bred horse, the thin, well-arranged 
mane is very ornamental.* 

THE BLOOD-VESSELS OF THE NECK. 

Running down the under part of the neck, are the principal blood-vessels, going to 
and returning from the head, with the windpipe and gullet. Our cut could not give 
a view of the arteries that carry the blood from the heart to the head, because they 
are too deeply seated. The external arteries are the carotid, of which there are tvv'o. 
They ascend the neck on either side, close to the windpipe, until tiiey have reached 
tlie middle of the neck, where they somewhat diverge, and lie more deeply. They 
are covered by the sterno-maxillaris muscle, which has been just described, and are 
separated from the jugulars by a small portion of muscular substance. Having 
reached the larynx, they divide into two branches, the external and tlie internal ; the 
first goes to every part of the face, and the second to the brain. 

The vertebral arteries rlin through canals in the bones of the neck, supplying the 
neighbouring parts as they climb, and at length enter the skull at the large hole in the 
occipital bone, and ramify on and supply the brain. 

Few cases can happen, in which it would be either necessary or justifiable to bleed 
from an artery. Even in mad-staggers, the bleeding is more practicable, safer, and 
more effectual, from the jugular vein, than from the temporal or any other artery. If 
an artery is opened in the direction in which it runs, there is sometimes very great 
difficulty in stopping the bleeding; it has even been necessary to tie the vessel, in 
order to accomplish this purpose. K the artery is cut across, its coats are so elastic, 
that the two ends are often immediately drawn apart under the flesh at each side, and 
are thereby closed ; and after the first gush of blood, no more can be obtained. 

THE VEINS OF THE NECK. 

The external veins which return the blood from the head to the heart are the jugu- 
lars. The horse has but one on either side. The human being and the ox have two. 
The jugular takes its rise from the base of the skull ; it then descends, receiving 
other branches in its way towards the angle of the jaw and behind the parotid gland ; 
and emerging from that, as seen at t, p. 125, and being united to a large branch from 
the face, it takes its course down the neck. Veterinary surgeons and horsemen have 
agreed to adopt the jugular, a little way below the union of these two branches, as 
the usual place for bleeding ; and a very convenient one it is, for it is easily got at, 
and the vessel is large. The manner of bleeding, and the states of constitution and 
disease in which it is proper, will be hereafter spoken of; an occasional consequence 
of bleeding being at present taken under consideration. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE VEIN. 

It is usual and proper, after bleeding, to bring the edges of the wound carefully 
together, and to hold them in contact by inserting a pin through the skin, with a little 
tow twisted round it. In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred the wound quickly heals, 
and gives no trouble ; but in a few instances, from using a blunt instrument, or a dirty 
or rusty one ; or striking too hard and bruising the vein ; or, in the act of pinning 
up, pulling the skin too far from the neck and suffering some blood to insinuate itself 
into the cellular texture ; or neglecting to tie the horse up for a little while, and thus 
enabling him to rub the bleeding place against the manger and tear out the pin; or 
from the animal being worked immediately afterward ; or the reins of the bridle rub- 
bing against it; or several blows having been clumsily given, and a large and ragged 
■wound made; or from some disposition to inflammation about the horse (for the 
bleeder is not always in fault) the wound does not heal, or if it closes for a little 
while, it re-opens. A slight bleeding appears — some tumefaction commences — the 
edges of the orifice separate, and become swollen and red — a discharge of sanious, 

* Stewart's Stable CEconomy, p. 110. 
H" V 



162 ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NECK. 

blooily fluid proceeds from the wound, followed, perhaps, in a few days by punilent 
matter. The neck swells, and is hot and tender both above and below the incision. 
The lips of the wound become everted — the swelling increases, particularly above 
the wound, where the vein is most hard and cordy — the horse begins to loatbe'his 
food, and little abscesses form round the orifice. The cordiness of the vein rapidly 
increases. Not only the vein itself has become obstructed and its coats thickened, 
but the cellular tissue inflamed and hardened, and is an additional source of irritation 
and torture. 

The thickening of the vein extends to the bifurcation above : it occupies both 
branches, and extends downward to the chest — even to the very heart itself, and the 
oat'ent dies. 

The '"^■o grand questions here are, the cause and the cure. The first would seem 
to admit of an easy reply. A long list of circumstances has been just given which 
would seem to refer the matter entirely to the operator; yet, on the other hand, expe- 
rience tells us that he has little to do with these morbid effects of bleeding. Mr. 
Percivall states, that Mr. Cherry tried several times to produce inflammation by the 
use of rusty lancets, and escharotics of various kinds, and ligatures, and frequent 
separation and friction of the granulating edges, but in vain. Professor Spooner tried 
to produce the disease, but could not. 

On the other hand, it is well known that wliile inflammation rarely or never follows 
the operation of bleeding by some practitioners, others are continually getting into 
scrapes about it. The writer of this work had three house-pupils, two of whom he 
used to trust to bleed his patients, and no untoward circumstance ever occurred; but 
as surely as he sent the third, he had an inflamed vein to take care of. 

There is something yet undivulged in the process of healing the vein, or in the 
circumstances by which that healing is prevented. The most powerful causes pro- 
bably are, that the lips of the wound have not been brought into immediate apposi- 
tion, or that a portion of the hair — a single hair is sufiicient — has insinuated itself. 
The horse has not, perhaps, had his head tied up to the rack after bleeding, which 
should always be done for at least an hour, during which time the extravasated blood 
will become firmly coagulated, and the flow of blood to the heart will establish its 
uninterrupted course. It is also probable that atmospheric agency may be concerned 
in the affair, or a diseased condition of the horse, and particularly a susceptibility i 
of taking on inflammatory action, although the exciting cause may be exceedingly I 
slight. ' 

Of the means of cure it is difficult to speak confidently. The wound should be 
carefully examined — the divided edges brought into exact apposition, and any haii 
interposed between them removed — the pin withdrawn or not, according to circum- 
stances — the part carefully and long fomented, and a dose of physic administered. 
If two or three days have passed and the discharge still remains, the application of 
the budding-iron — not too large or too hot — may produce engorgement of the neigh- 
bouring parts, and union of the lips of the wound. This should be daily, or every 
second day, repeated, according to circumstances. A blister applied over the orifice, 
or as far as the mischief extends, will often be serviceable. Here, likewise, the 
parts will be brought into contact with each other, and pressed together, and union 
may be effected. " Sometimes," says Mr. Cartwright, " when the vein is in an 
ulcerative state, I have laid it open, and applied caustic dressing, and it has healed 
up. I have lately had a case in which five or six abscesses had formed above the 
original wound, and the two superior ones burst through the parotid gland, the extent 
of the ulceration being evident in the quantity of saliva thav flowed through ead; 
orifice."* 

The owner of the horse will find it his interest to apply to a veterinary practitionei 
as soon as a case of inflamed vein occurs. 

Should the vein be destroj^ed, the horse will not be irreparably injured, and per- 
haps, at no great distance of time, scarcely injured at all ; for nature is ingenious in 
making provision to carry on the circulation of the blood. All the vessels convey 
ing the blood from the heart to the different parts of the frame, or bringing it back 



Abstract of the Veterinary Medical Association, vol. iv. p. 185 



I 



THE PALATE — THE LARYlNX. 163 

again to the heart, communicate with each other by so many channels, and in such 
various ways, that it is impossible by the closure or loss of any one of them long 
materially to impede the flow of the vital current. If the jugular is destroyed, the 
blood will circulate through other vessels almost as freely as before; but the horse 
could not be considered as sound, for he might not be equal to the whole of the work 
required of him. 

THE PALATE — (resumed). 

At the back of the palate (see p. 72), and attached to the crescent-shaped border of 
the palatine bone, is a dense membranous curtain. Its superior and back surface is 
a continuation of the lining membrane of the nose, and its anterior or inferior one, 
that of the palate. It is called the velum palati, or veil of the palate. It extends as 
far back as the larynx, and lies upon the dorsum of the epiglottis, and is a perfect 
veil or curtain interposed between the cavities of the nose and mouth, cutting off all 
communication between them. Tied by its attachment to the palatine bone, it will 
open but a little way, and that only in one direction. It will permit a pellet of food 
to pass into the cesophagus ; but it will close when any pressure is made upon it from 
behind. Two singular facts necessarily follow from this : the horse breathes through 
the nostrils alone, and these are capacious and easily expansible to a degree seen in 
no other animal, and fully commensurate to the wants of the animal. 

It is also evident that, in the act of vomiting, the contents of the stomach must be 
returned through the nostril, and not through the mouth. On this account it is that 
the horse can with great difficulty be excited to vomit. There is a structure at the 
entrance of the stomach which, except under very peculiar circumstances, prevents "its 
return to the throat, and consequently to the mouth. 

The muscles of this singular curtain are very intelligibly^nd correctly described by 
Mr. Percivall, in his " Anatomy of the Horse," to which the reader is referred. The 
same remark is applicable to a very singular and important bone, and its muscular 
apparatus, the os hyoides. 

THE LARYNX 

Is placed on the top of the windpipe (see 1, p. 72), and is the inner guard of the 
lungs, if any injurious substance should penetrate so far ; it is the main protection 
against the passage of food into the respiratory tubes, and it is at the same time the 
instrument of voice. In this last character it loses much of its importance in the 
quadruped, because in the dumb animal it is a beautiful piece of mechanism. 

The Epiglottis (see 2, p. 72) is a heart-shaped cartilage, placed at the extremity 
of the opening into the windpipe, with its back opposed to the pharynx, so that when 
a pellet of food passes from the pharynx in its way to the oesophagus, it presses down 
the epiglottis, and by this means, as already described, closes the aperture of the 
larynx, and prevents any portion of the food from entering it. The food having 
passed over the epiglottis, from its own elasticity and that of the membrane at its 
base, and more particularly the power of the hyo-epiglotideus muscle, rises again and 
resumes its former situation. 

The Thyroid Cartilage (see 1, p. 72) occupies almost the whole of the external 
part of the larynx, both anteriorly and laterally. It envelopes and protects all the 
rest; a point of considerable importance, considering the injury to which the larynx 
is exposed, by our system of curbing and tight reining. It also forms a point of 
attachment for the insertion of the greater part of the delicate muscles by which the 
other cartilages are moved. 

The beautiful mechanism of the larynx is governed or worked by a somewhat com- 
plicated system of muscles, for a description of which the reader is referred to the 5th 
vol. of The Veterinarian, p. 447. It is plentifully supplied with nerves from the res- 
piratory system, and there are also frequent anastomoses with the motor nerves of the 
spinal cord. The sole process of respiration is partly under the control of the will, 
and the muscles of the larynx concerned in one stage of it are likewise so, but ttiey 
also act independently of the will, for during sleep and unconsciousness the machine 
continues to work. 

The origin of the artery which supplies these parts with blood is sometimes derived 
from the main trunk of the carotid, but oftener it is a branch of the thyroideal artery. 



.64 ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NECK. 

The lining membrane is a continuation of that of the pharynx above and the 
trachea below. It is covered witli innnmerable follicular glands, from whose mouths 
there oozes a mucous fluid that moistens and lubricates its surface. It is possessed 
of very oreat sensibility, and its function requires it. It is, as has been already 
stated, the inner guard of the lungs, and the larynx must undergo a multitude of 
chano"es of form in order to adapt itself to certain changes in the act of respiration, 
and in order to produce the voice. The voice of the horse is, however, extremely 
limited, compared with that of the human being; the same sensibility, therefore, is 
not required, and exposed as our quadruped slaves are to absurd and barbarous usage, 
too great sensibility of any part, and particularly of this, would be a curse to the 
animal. 

THE TRACHEA OR WINDPIPE. 

The course of the inspired air from the larynx to the lungs is now to be traced, and 
it will be found to be conveyed through a singularly constructed tube (6, p. 72), 
passing along the anterior portion of the neck, and reaching from the lower edge of 
the cricoid cartilage (11, p. 72) to the lungs. In the commencement of its course 
it is somewhat superficially placed, but as it descends towards the thorax it becomes 
gradually deeper and more concealed. In order to discharge its functions as an air- 
tube, it is essential that it should always be pervious, or, at least, that any obstruc- 
tion to the process of respiration should be but momentary. Attached to a part 
endowed with such extensive motion as the neck, it is also necessary that it should 
be flexible. It is composed of cartilage, an exceedingly elastic substance, and at the 
Bame time possessing a certain degree of flexibility. 

The windpipe is composed of cartilage, but not of one entire piece, for that would 
necessarily be either too tmck and firm to be flexible, or if it were sufficiently flexible 
to accommodate itself to the action of the neck, it would be too weak to resist even 
common pressure or injury, and the passage through it would often be inconveniently 
or dangerously obstructed. Besides, it is necessary that this tube should occasionally 
admit of elongation to a considerable degree. When the neck is extended in the act 
of grazing or otherwise, the trachea must be lengthened. 

The structure of the cartilage of the windpipe is admirably adapted to effect every 
purpose. It is divided into rings, fifty or fifty-two in number, each possessing suffi- 
cient thickness and strength to resist ordinary pressure, and each constituting a joint 
with the one above and below, and thus admitting of all the flexibility that could be 
required. These rings are connected together by an interposed fibro-ligamentous 
substance, extensible, elastic, and yet so strong that it is scarcely possible to rupture 
it; and the fibres of that ligament not running vertically from one to another, and 
therefore admitting of little more motion than the rotation of the head, but composed 
of two layers running obliquely, and in contrary directions, so as to adapt themselves 
to every variety of motion. 

These rings are thickest in front, and project circularly, opposing an arch-like form. 
There, too, the ligament is widest, in order to admit of the greatest motion in the 
direction in which it is most needed, when the head is elevated or depressed. Late- 
rally these rings are thinner, because they are, to a great degree, protected by the 
surro\mding parts; and, posteriorly, they overlap each other, and the overlapping 
portions are connected together by a strong ligamentous substance. This, while it 
does not impede the motion of the tube, gives firmness and stability to it. 

Within the trachea is another very curious structure. At the points at which, 
posteriorly, the rings begin to bend inwardly, a muscle is found stretching across tha 
windpipe, dividing the canal into two unequal portions — the anterior one constituting 
the proper air-passage, and tlie posterior one occupied by cellular texture. It is to 
give additional strength to parts. It is the tie which prevents the arch from spurring 
out. In the natural state of the windpipe this muscle is, probably, quiescent ; but 
when any considerable pressure is made on the crown of the arch at the upper part 
by tight reining, or at the lower by an ill-made collar, or any where by brutal or 
accidental violence, this muscle contracts, every serious expansion or depression of 
the arch is prevented, and the part is preserved from serious injury. 

It may also be readily imagined that, when in violent exertion, every part of thf 
respiratory canal is on the stretch, this band may preserve the windpipe from injur) 



TRACHEOTOMY. 165 

or laceration. There are many beautiful points in the physiolo^ ot the horse which 
deserve much greater attention than has hitherto been paid to them. 

The windpipe sliould project from the neck. It should almost seem as if it were 
detached from the neck, for two important reasons: first, that it may easily enter 
oetween the channels of the jaw, so that the horse may be reined up without suifering 
inconvenience ; and next, that being more loosely attached to the neck, it may more 
readily adapt itself to the changes required than if it were enveloped by fat, or muscle 
to a certain degree unyielding: therefore, in every well-formed neck — and it will be 
seen in tlie cut (j). 159) — it is indispensable that the windpipe should be prominent 
and loose on the neck. This is not required in the heavy cart-horse, and we do not 
often find it, because he is not so much exposed to those circumstances which will 
hurry respiration, and require an enlargement in the size of the principal air-tube. 

When the trachea arrives at the thorax, it suddenly alters its form, in order to adapt 
itself to the narrow triangular aperture through which it has to pass. It preserves the 
same cartilaginous structure ; for if it has not the pressure of the external muscles, or 
of accidental violence, to resist, it is exposed to the pressure of the lungs when th.cy 
are inflating, and it shares in the pressure of the diaphragm, and of the intercostal 
muscles, in the act of expiration. Having entered the chest, it passes a little to the 
right, leaving the oesophagus, or gullet, on the left; it separates from the dorsal ver- 
tebrae ; it passes through the duplicature of the mediastinum to the base of the heart, 
and it divides beneatli the posterior aorta. Its divisions are called the bronchial tubes, 
and have much to do with the well-being of the horse. 

Its rings remain as perfect as before, but a new portion of cartilage begins to pre- 
sent itself: it may be traced as high as the tenth ring from the bottom; it spreads 
over the union between the posterior terminations of the rings ; it holds them in closer 
and firmer connexion with each other ; it discharges the duty of the transverse muscle, 
which begins here to disappear, and the support of the cervical and dorsal vertebrae; 
it prevents the separation of the rings when the trachea is distended ; it spreads down 
upon, and defends the commencement of the bronchial tubes. Some other small plates 
of cartilage reach a considerable way down the divisions of the bronchi, and the last 
ring has a central triangular projection, which covers and defends the bifurcation of 
the trachea. 

TRACHEOTOMY. 

The respiratory canal is occasionally obstructed, to an annoying and dangerous 
degree. Polypi have been described as occupying the nostrils ; long tumours have 
formed in them. Tumours of other kinds have pressed into the pharynx. The tumour 
of strangles has, for a while, occupied the passage. The larynx has been distorted ; 
the membrane of the windpipe, on the larynx, has been thickened, and ulcers have 
formed in one or both, and have been so painful that the act of breathing was labo- 
rious and torturing. In all these cases it has been anxiously inquired whether there 
might not be established an artificial opening for the passage of the air, when the 
natural one could no longer be used ; and it has been ascertained that it is both a sim- 
ple and safe operation, to excise a portion of the trachea, on or below the point of 
obstruction. 

The operation must be performed while the horse is standing, and secured by a 
fdde-lyie, for he would, probably, be suffocated amidst the struggles with which he 
would resist the act of throwing. The twitch is then firmly fixed on the muzzle ; the 
operator stands on a stool or pail, by which means he can more perfectly command 
the part, and an assistant holds a scalpel, a bistoury, scissors, curved needles armed, 
and a moist sponge. 

The operator should once more examine the whole course of the windpipe, and the 
different sounds which he will be able to detect by the application of the ear,_and like- 
wise the different degrees of temperature and of tenderness which the finger will detect, 
will guide to the seat of the evil. 

The hair is to be closely cut off from the part, the skin tightened across the trachea 
with tlie thumb and fingers of the left hand, and then a longitudinal incision cautiously 
made through the skin, three inches in length. This is usually effected when there 
is no express indication to the contrary on the fifth and sixth rings ; a slip from which, 
and the connecting ligament above and below, about half the width of each ring, should 



166 ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NECK. 

be excised with the intervening ligament. The remaining portion will then be strong 
enough to retain the perfect arched form of the trachea. 

If the orifice is only to be kept open while some foreign body is extracted, or tumour 
removed, or ulcer healed, or inflammation subdued, nothing more is necessary than to 
Keep the lips of the wound a little apart, by passing some thread through each, and 
tili«rhtly everting them, and tying the threads to the mane. 

if, however, there is any permanent obstruction, a tube will be necessary. It should 
be two or three inches long, curved at the top, and the external orifice turning down- 
wards with a little ring on each side, by which, through the means of tubes, it may 
be retained in its situation. 

The purpose of the operation being answered, the flaps of integument must be 
I)rouo-ht over the wound, the edges, if necessary, diminished, and the parts kept in 
apposition by a few stitches. The cartilage will be perfectly reproduced, only the 
rings will be a little thicker and wider. 

The following account will illustrate the use and the danger of the tracheotomy 
tube. A mare at Alfort had great distortion of the rings of the trachea. She breathed 
with difficulty. She became a roarer almost to suffocation, and was quite useless. 
Tracheotomy was effected on the distorted rings, and a short canula introduced. She 
was so much relieved that she trotted and galloped immediately afterwards without 
the slightest distress. Six months later she again began to roar. It seemed that the 
rings were now distorted below the former place. 

M. Barthelemy introduced another canula, seven inches long, and which reached 
below the new distortion. She was once more relieved. She speedily improved in 
condition, and regularly drew a cabriolet at the rate of seven or eight miles in the 
hour; and this she continued to do for three years, when the canula became accident- 
ally displaced in the night, and she was found dead in the morning. 

THE BRONCHIAL TUBES. 

The windpipe has been traced through its course down the neck into the chest. It 
is there continued through the mediastinum to the base of the heart, and then divided 
into two tubes corresponding with the two divisions of the lungs — the Bronchial 
Tubes. These trunks enter deeply into the substance of the lungs. They presently 
subdivide, and the subdivision is continued in every direction, until branches from the 
trachea penetrate every assignable portion and part of the lungs. They are still air- 
passages, carrying on this fluid to its destination, for the accomplishment of a vital 
purpose. 

They also continue exposed to pressure ; but it is pressure of a new kind, a pressure 
alternately applied and removed. The lungs in which they are embedded alternately 
contract and expand ; and these tubes must contract and expand likewise. Embedded 
in the lungs, the cartilaginous ring of the bronchi remains, but it is divided into five 
or six segments connected with each other. The lungs being compressed, the seg- 
ments overlap each other, and fold up and occupy little space ; but the principle of 
elasticity is still at work; and as the pressure is removed, they start again, and 
resume their previous form and calibre. It is a beautiful contrivance, and exquisitely 
adapted to the situation in which these tubes are placed, and the functions they hav<> 
to discharge. 

But we must oause a little and consider the structuip and functions of tlie chesl. 



THE CHEST, 



€7 



CHAPTER VI. 
THE CHEST. 




a The. first rib. 

h 'i'hb cariilages of the eleven hindermost, or false ribs, connected toc^cther, and uniting witti 

that oi tjie seventh or last true rib. 
c The breast-bone. 
d The top, or point, of the withers, which are fortned by the lengthened spinous, or upright 

processes ol the ten or eleven first bones of the back. The bones of the back aru 

eighteen in number. 
c The ribs, usually eighteen on each side ; the seven first united to the breast-bone by car- 
, „, ".''^g^ ! '"'^ cartilages ot the remaining eleven united to each other, as at 6. 

/ That portion of the spine where the loins commence, and composed of live bones. 
g The bones forming the hip, or haunch, and into the Iwle at the bottom of which the head 

of the thigh-bone is received. 
h The portion of the spine belonging to the haunch, and consisting of five pieces. 
i The bones of the tail, usually fifteen in number 

The chest, in the horizontal position in which it is placed in the cut, is of a some 
what oval figure, with its extremities truncated. The spine is its roof; the sternum, 
or breast, its floor; the ribs, its sides; the trachea, oesophagus, and great blood- 
vessels passing through its anterior extremity and the diaphragm, being its posterior. 
It is contracted in front, broad and deep towards the central boundary, and ao-ain 
contracted posteriorly. It encloses the heart and the lungs, the origin of the arterial, 
and the termination of the venous trunks and the collected vessels of the absorbents. 
The windpipe penetrates into it, and the oesophagus traverses its whole extent. 

A cavity whose contents are thus important should be securely defended. The 
roof is not composed of one unyielding prolongation of bone, which might possibly 
have been strong enough, yet would have subjected it to a thousand rude and danger- 
ous shocks; but there is a curiously-contrived series of bones, knit together by strong 
ligaments and dense cartilaginous substance, forming so many joints,''each possessed 
but of little individual motion, but the whole united and constituting a column of 
such exquisitely-contrived flexibility and strength, that all concussion is avoided, and 
no external violence or weight can injure that which it protects. It is supported 
chiefly by the anterior extremities, and beautiful are the contrivances adopted to 
prevent injurious connexion. There is no inflexible bony union between the shoulders 
and <he chest; but while the spine is formed to neutralise much of the concussion 
that might be received — while the elastic connexions between the'vertebraj of the 
back, alternately affording a yielding resistance to the shock, and regaininor theii 
natural situation when the external force is removed, go far, by this ulayful motioi;. 
to render harinless the rudest motion — there is a provision made by tno attachmein 
of the shoulder-blade to the chest calculated to prevent the possibility of any ruoe 
concussion reaching the thorax,* 



■ u ^l^^'" ^^y^ ^^- Percivall, " the entire rib been one solid piece of bone, a violent blov/ 
might have broken it to pieces. On the other hand, had the ribs been composed from end to 



I6S THE CHEST. 

At- the shoulder is a muscle of immense strength, and tendinous elastic composition, 
the ierratus major, spreading over the internal surface of the shoulder-blade and a 
portion of the chest. A spring of easier play could not have been attached to the 
carriage of any invalid. It is a carriage hung by springs betvi^een the scapulae, and 
a delightful one it is for easy travelling; while there is combined with it, and the 
union is not a little difficult, strength enough to resist the jolting of the roughest road 
and the most rapid pace. 

Laterally there is sufficient defence against all common injury by the expansion of 
the shoulder over the chest from between the first and second to the seventh rib ; and 
behind and below that there is the bony structure of the ribs, of no little strength; 
and their arched form, although a flattened arch ; and the yielding motion at the base 
of each rib, resulting from its jointed connexion with the spine above and its cartila- 
ginous union with the sternum below. 

A still more important consideration with regard to the parietes of the thorax is the 
manner in which they can adapt themselves to the changing bulk of the contents of 
the cavity. The capacity of the chest is little affected by the external contraction 
and dilatation of the heart, for when its ventricles are collapsed its auricles are 
distended, and when its auricles are compressed its ventricles expand ; but with 
regard to the lungs it is a very different affair. In their state of collapse and expan- 
sion they vary incomparative bulk, one-sixth part or more, and, in either state, it is 
necessary for the proper discharge of the function of respiration that the parietes of 
the chest should be in contact with them. 

The ribs are eighteen in number on either side. Nine of them are perfect, and 
"ommonly called the true, or, more properly, sternal ribs, extending from the spine to 
"The sternum. The remaining nine are posterior and shorter, and are only indirectly 
sonnected with the sternum. 

The ribs are united to the corresponding vertebrae, or bones of the spine, so as to 
Form perfect joints — or, rather, each rib forms two joints. The head of the rib is 
received between the vertebrae and bones of the spine, before and behind, so that it 
shall always present two articulating surfaces ; one opposed to the vertebra imme- 
diately before, and the other to that immediately behind, and both forming one joint, 
with a perfect capsular ligament, and admitting of a rotary motion. The head of 
the rib seems to be received into the cartilaginous ligamentous substance between the 
vertebrae. Nothing could be more admirably devised for motion, so far as it is 
required, and for strength of union, that can scarcely be broken. 

Before the ribs reach the sternum, they terminate in a cartilaginous prolongation, 
or the lower part of the rib may be said to be cartilaginous. There is between the 
bony part and this cartilage, a joint with a true capsular ligament, and admitting of a 
certain degree of motion ; and where it unites with the sternum, there is a fourth 
joint, with a perfect and complete capsular ligament. 

The cartilages of the posterior ribs are united to the bony portion by a kind of joint. 
They are not, however, prolonged so far as the sternum ; but the extremity of one lies 
upon the body of that which is immediately before it, bound down upon it by a cellular 
substance approaching to the nature of ligament, yet each having some separate 
motion, and all of them connected indirectly with the sternum, by means of the last 
sternal rib. It is an admirable contrivance to preserve the requisite motion which 
must attend every act of breatbing, every extension and contraction of the chest, with 
a degree of strength which scarcely any accident can break through. 

The. sternum, or breast-bone, is more complicated than it at first appears to be. It 
constitutes the floor of the chest, and is a long flat spongy bone, fixed between the 
ribs on cither side, articulating with these cartilages, and serving as a point of sup- 
port to them. It is composed of from seven to nine pieces, united together by car- 
tilao-e ; and whatever changes may take place in other parts of the frame, this cartilagp 
is not converte'd to bone, even in extreme old age, although there may, possibly, be. 
some spots of ossific matter found in it. 

end of cartilage only, the form of the arch could not have been sustained, but, sooner or later, 
it must have" lient inward, and so have encroached upon the cavity of the chest as to have 
compressed the organs of respiration and circtilation to that degree that could not but have 
ended in suffocation and death of the animal. It was only the judicious and well-arranged 
combination of bone and gristle in the construction of the chest that could answer tlie ends an 
all-wise Providence had in view." — Veterinarian, vol. xv. p. 184. 



THE CHEST. 169 

The. point of the breast-bone may be occasionally injured by blows, or by the pres- 
sure of the collar. It has been, by brutal violence, completely broken otf from tho 
sternum ; but oftener, and that from some cruel usage, a kind of tumour has been 
formed on the point of it, which has occasionally ulcerated, and j)roved very difficult 
to heal. 

The front of the chest is a very important consideration in the structure of the horse. 
It should be prominent and broad, and full, and the sides of it well occupied. When 
the breast is narrow, the chest has generally the same appearance : the animal is flat- 
sided, the proper cavity of the chest is diminished, and the stamina of the horse are 
materially diminished, although, perhaps, his speed for short distances may not be 
affected. When the chest is narrow, and the fore legs are too close together, in 
addition to the want of bottom, they will interfere with each other, and there will be 
wounds on the fetlocks, and bruises below the knee. 

A chest too broad is not desirable, but a fleshy and a prominent out. , yet even this, 
perhaps, may require some explanation. When the' fore legs appear to recede, and to 
shelter themselves under the body, there is a faulty position of the fore limbs, a bend, 
or standing over, an unnatural lengthiness about the fore parts of the breast, sadly 
disadvantageous in progression. 

There is also a posterior appendix to the sternum, which is also cartilaginous. It 
is called the ensifm-m cartilage, although it bears little resemblance to a sword. It is 
flat and flexible, yet strong, and serves as the commencement of the floor, or support 
of the abdomen. It also gives insertion to some of the abdominal muscles, and more 
conveniently than it could have been obtained from the body of the sternum. 

The Intercostal Muscles. — The borders of the ribs are anteriorly concave, thin and 
sharp — posteriorly rounded, and presenting underneath a longitudinal depression, or 
channel, in which run both blood-vessels and nerves. I'he space between them is 
occupied by muscular substance, firmly attached to the borders of the ribs. These 
muscles are singularly distributed ; their fibres cross each other in the form of an X. 
There is a manifest advantage in this. If the fibres ran straight across from rib to 
rib, they might act powerfully, but their action would be exceedingly limited. A 
short muscle can contract but a little way, and only a slight change of form or dimen- 
sion can be produced. B}^ running diagonally from rib to rib, these muscles are 
double the length they could otherwise have been. It is a general rule, with regard 
to muscular action, that the power of the muscle depends on its bulk, and the extent 
of its action on its length. 

The ribs, while they protect the important viscera of the thorax from injury, are 
powerful agents in extending and contracting the chest in the alternate inspiration 
and expiration of air. In what proportion they discharge the labour of respiration, 
is a disputed question, and into the consideration of which we cannot enter, until 
something is known of the grand respiratory muscle — the diaphragm. Thus far, 
however, may be said, that they are not inactive in natural respiration, although they 
certainly act only a secondary part ; but in hurried respiration, and when the demand 
for arterialised blood is increased by violent exertion, they are valuable and powerful 
auxiliaries. 

This leads to a very important consideration, the most advantageous form of the 
chest for the proper discharge of the natural or extraordinary functions of the thoraciu 
viscera. The contents of the chest are the lungs and the heart: — the first, to render 
the blood nutrient and stimulating, and to give or restore to it that vitality which will 
enable it to support every part of the frame in the discharge of its function, and 
devoid of which, the complicated and beautiful machine is inert and dead ; and tho 
second, to convey this purified arterialised blood to every part of the frame. 

In order to produce, and to convey to the various parts, a sufficient quantity ot 
blood, these organs must be large. If it amounts not to hypertrophy, the larger th»> 
heart and the larger the lungs, the more rapid the process of nutrition, and the mons 
perfect the discharge of every animal function. 

Then it might be imagined that, as a circle is a figure which contains more than 
any other of equal girth and admeasurement, a circular form of the chest would be 
n\ost advantageous. Not exactly so; for the contents of the chest are alternately 
expanding and contracting. The circular chest could not expand, but every change 
of forn. would be a diminution of capacity. 

That form of chest which approaches nearest to a circle, while it admits of sufficient 
15 w 



170 THE CHEST. 

expansion and contraction, is the bfest — certainly for some animals, and for all under 
peculiar circumstances, and witli reference to the discharge of certain functions. 
This was the grand principle on which Mr. Bakewell proceeded, and on which ail 
our improvements in the breeding of cattle were founded. 

This principle holds good with regard to some breeds of horses. We value the 
heavy draught-horse not only on account of his simple muscular power, but the 
weitrht which, by means of that power, he is able to throw into the collar. A light 
horse may be preferable for light draught; but we must oppose weiglit to weight, 
when our loads are heavy. In the dray-horse, we prize thi? circular chest, not only 
that he may be proportionably heavier before — to him no disrdvantage — but that, by 
means of the increased capacity of his chest, he may obtain the bullc and size which 
best lit him for our service. But he would not do for speed — he would not do for 
ordinary quick exertion; and if he were pushed far beyond his pace, he would become 
broken-winded, or have inflamed lungs. 

Some of our saddle-horses and cobs have barrels round enough, and we value them 
on account of it, for they are always in condition, and they rarely tire. But when 
we look at them more care/ully, there is just that departure from the circular form of 
which mention has been made — that happy medium between the circle and the ellipse, 
which retains the capacity of ilie one and the expansibility of the other. Such a 
horse is invaluable for common purposes, but he is seldom a horse of speed. If he 
is permitted to go his own pace, and that not a slow one,. he will work on for ever; 
but if he is too much hurried, he is soon distressed. 

The Broad Deep Chest. — Then for the usual purposes of the road, and more partic- 
ularly for rapid progression, search is made for that form of the chest which shall 
unite, and to as great a degree as possible, considerable capacity in a quiescent state, 
and the power of increasing that capacity when the animal requires it. There must 
be the broad chest for the production of muscles and sinews, and the deep chest, to 
give the capacity or power of furnishing arterial blood equal to the most rapid ex- 
haustion of vitality. 

This form of the chest is consistent with lightness, or at least with all the light- 
ness that can be rationally required. The broad-chested horse, or he that, with mod- 
erate depth at the girtii, swells and barrels out immediately behind the elbow, may 
have as light a forehead and as elevated a wither as the horse with the narrowest 
chest; but the animal with the barrel approaching too near to rotundity is invariably 
heavy about the shoulders and low in the withers. It is to the mixture of the Ara- 
bian blood that we principally owe this peculiar and advantageous formation of the 
cliest of the horse. The Arab is light; some would say too much so before: but 
immediately behind the arms the barrel almost invariably swells out, and leaves 
plenty of room, and where it is most wanted for the play of the lungs, and at the 
same time where the weight does not press so exclusively on the fore-legs, and expose 
the feet to concussion and injury. 

Many horses with narrow chests, and a great deal of daylight under them, have 
plenty of spirit and willingness for work. They show themselves well off, and ex- 
liibit the address and gratify the vanity of their riders on the parade or in the park, 
but they have not the appetite nor the endurance that will carry them through three 
successive days' hard work. 

Five out of six of the animals that perish from inflamed lungs are narrow-chested, 
and it might be safely afiirmed that the far greater part of those who are lost in the 
field after a hard day's run, have been horses whose training has been neglected, or 
who have no room for the lungs to expand. The most important of all points in the 
conformation of the horse is here elucidated. An elevated wither, or oblique shoulder, 
or powerful quarters, are great advantages ; but that which is most of all connected 
with the general health of the animal, and with combined fleetness or bottom, is a 
deep, and broad, and swelling chest, with sufficient lengthening of the sternum, o 
breast-bone, beneath. 

If a chest that cannot expand with the increasing expansion and labour of the lungs 
13 so serious a detriment to the horse, everything that interferes with the action of the 
intercostal muscles is carefully to be avoided. Tight girthing ranks among these, 
and foremost among them. The closeness with which the roller is buckled on in the 
stable must be a serious inconvenience to the horse ; and the partially depriving these 
'niisdes of their power of action, for so many hours in every day, must indispose 



THE SPINE AND BACK. 171 

Uiein for labour when quicker and fuller respiration is required. At all events, a tighi 
grirth, though an almost necessary nuisance, is a very considerable one, when all the 
exertion of which he is capable is required from the horse. Who has not perceived 
the address with which, by bellying out the chest, the old horse renders every attempt 
to girth him tight comparatively useless ; and when a horse is blown, what imme- 
diate relief has ungirthing him afforded, by permitting the intercostals to act with 
greater power ] 

A point of consequence regarding the capacity of the chest, is the length or short- 
ness of the carcase; or the extent of the ribs from the elbow backward. Some horses 
are wh?it is caWed ribbed hfi me ; there is but little space (see cuts pp. 68 and 167) 
between the last rib and the hip-bone. In others the distance is considerably greater, 
and is plainly evident by the falling in of the flank. The question then is, what 
service is required from the horse 1 If he has to carry a heavy weight, and has 
much work to do, he should be ribbed home — the last rib and the hip-bone should 
not be far from each other. There is more capacity of chest and of belly — there is 
less distance between the points of support — and greater strength and endurance. 
A hackney (and we would almost say a hunter) can scarcely be too well ribbed 
home. 

If speed, however, is required, there must be room for the full action of the hinder 
limbs ; and this can only exist where there is sufficient space between the last rib 
and the hip-bone. The owner of the horse must make up his mind as to what he 
wants from him, and be satisfied if he obtains that; for, let him be assured that he 
cannot have everything, for this would require those differences of conformation that 
cannot possibly exist in the same animal. 

The thorax, or chest, is formed by the spine/, above (p. 167) the ribs c, on either 
side ; and the sternum, or breast-bone, c, beneath. 

THE SPINE AND BACK. 

The spine, or back, consists of a chain of bones from the poll to the extremity of 
the tail. It is made up of twenty-three bones from the neck to the haunch; eigh- 
teen, called dorsal vertebrae, composing the back ; and five lumbar vertebras, occupy- 
ing the loins. On this part of the animal the weight or burden is laid, and there 
are two things to be principally considered, easiness of carriage and strength. If 
the back were composed of unyielding materials — if it resembled a bar of wood oi 
iron, much jarring or jolting, in the rapid motion of the animal, could not possibly 
be endured. In order to avoid this, as well as to assist in turning, the back is divided 
into numerous bones ; and between each pair of bones there is interposed a cartila- 
ginous substance, most highly elastic, that will yield and give way to every jar, not 
so much as to occasion insecurity between the bones, or to permit considerable motion 
between any one pair, but forming altogether an aggregate mass of such perfect elas- 
ticity, that the rider sits almost undisturbed, however high may be the action, or how- 
ever rapid the pace. 

Strength is as important as ease ; therefore these bones are united together with pe- 
culiar firmness. The round head of one is exactly fitted to the cup or cavity of that 
immediately before it; and between them is placed the elastic ligamentous substance, 
which has been just described, so strong, that in endeavouring to separate the bones 
of the back, they will break before this substance will give way. In addition to this 
there are ligaments running along the broad under-surface of these bones — ligaments 
between each of the transverse processes, or side projections of the bones — ligaments 
between the spinous processes or upright projections, and also a continuation of the 
strong ligament of the neck running along the whole course of the back and loins, 
lengthening and contracting, as in the neck, with the motions of the animal, and 
forming a powerful bond of union between the bones. 

By these means the hunter will carry a heavy man without fatigue or strain through 
a long chase; and those shocks and jars are avoided which would be annoying to the 
rider, and injurious and speedily fatal to the horse. 

These provisions, however, although adequate to common or even severe exertion, 

' will not protect the animal from the consequences of brutal usage; and, therefore, if 

the horse is mu^h overweighted, or violently exercised, or too suddenly pulled upon 

his haunches, these ligaments are strained. Inflammation follows. The ligaments 

become changed to bone, and the joints of the back lose their sprinf^iness and ease of 



172 THE CHEST. 

motion ; or rather, in point of fact, they cease to exist. On account of the too hard 
service required from them, and especially before they had gained their full strength, 
there are few old horses who have not some of the bones of the back or loins anchy- 
losed — united together by bony matter and not by ligament. When this exists to any 
considerable extent, the horse is not pleasant to ride — he turns with difficulty in his 
stall — he is unwilling to lie down, and when down to rise again, and he has a 
singular straddling action. Such horses are said to he broken-backed or chinked in the 
chine. 

Fracture of the bones of the back rarely occurs, on account of their being so strongly 
united by ligaments, and defended by muscular substance. If a fracture of these 
bones does happen, it is during the violent struggles after the horse has been cast for 
an operation. 

The length of the back is an important consideration. A long-backed horse will 
be easy in his paces, because the increased distance between the fore and hind legs, 
which are the supports of the spine, will afiFord greater room for the play of the joints 
of the back. A long spring has much more play than a short one, and will better 
obviate concussion. A long-backed horse is likewise formed for speed, for there is 
room to bring his hinder legs more under him in the act of gallopping, and thus more 
powerfully propel or drive forward the body : but, on the other hand, a long-backed 
horse will be comparatively weak in the back, and easily overweighted. A long 
spring may be easily bent or broken. The weight of the rider, likewise, placed 
farther from the extremities, will act with mechanical disadvantage upon them, and 
be more likely to strain them. A short-backed horse may be a good hackney, and 
able to carry the heaviest weight, and possess great endurance ; but his paces will 
not be so easy, nor his speed so great, and he may be apt to overreach. 

The comparative advantage of a long or short carcase depends entirely on the use 
for which the horse is intended. For general purposes the horse with a short carcase 
is very properly preferred. He will possess health and strength ; for horses of this 
make are proverbially hardy. He will have sufficient easiness of action not to fatigue 
the rider, and speed for every ordinary purpose. Lengtli of back will always be 
desirable when there is more than usual substance generally, and particularly when 
the loins are wide, and the muscles of the loins large and swelling. The two requi- 
sites, strength and speed, will then probably be united. 

The back should be depressed a little immediately behind the withers ; and then 
continue in an almost straight line to the loins. This is the form most consistent 
with beauty and strength. Some horses have a very considerable hollow behind the 
withers. They are said to be saddle-backed. It seems as if a depression were pur- 
posely made for the saddle. Such horses are evidently easy goers, for this curve 
inward must necessarily increase the play of the joints of the back: but in the same 
proportion they are weak and liable to sprain. To the general appearance of the 
horse, this defect is not in any great degree injurious ; for the hollow of the back la 
uniformly accompanied by a beautifully arched crest. 

A few horses have the curve outward. They are said to be roach-backed, from the 
supposed resemblance to the arched back of a roach. This is a very serious defect; 
— altogether incompatible with beauty, and materially diminishing the usefulness of 
the animal. It is almost impossible to prevent the saddle from being thrown on the 
shoulders, or the back from being galled ; — the elasticity of the spine is destroyed ; 
. — the rump is badly set on ; — the hinder legs are too much under the animal ; — he is 
continually overreaching, and his head is carried awkwardly low. 

THE LOINS. 

The loins are attentively examined by every good horseman. They can scarcely 
be too broad and muscular. The strength of the hack, and especially, the strength 
of the hinder extremities, will depend materially on this. The breadth of the loins 
is regulated by the length of the transverse or side processes of that part. The bodies 
of the bones of the loins are likewise larger than those of the back; and a more dove- 
tailed kind of union subsists between these bones than between those of the l^ack. 
Every provision is made for strengtii here. The union of the back and loins should 
be carefully observed, for there is sometimes a depression between them. A kind of 
line is drawn across, which shows imperfection in the construction of the spine, and 
in leofarded as an indication of weakress. 



THE WITHERS. — MUSCLES OF THE BACK.' 173 

THE WITHERS. 

The spinous or upright processes of the dorsal vertebrae, or bones of the back, above 
tne upper part of the shoulder, are as remarkable for their length as are the transverse 
or side processes of the bones of the loins. They are flattened and terminated by 
rough blunted extremities. The elevated ridge which they form is called the withers. 
It will be seen in the cuts (pp. G8 and 167), that the spine of the first bone of tlie 
back has but little elevation, and is sharp and upright. The second is longer and 
inclined backward ; the third and fourth increases in length, and the fiith is the 
longest ; — they then gradually shorten until the twelfth or thirteenth, which becomes 
level with the bones of the loins. 

High withers have been always, in the mind of the judge of the horse, associated 
with good action, and generally with speed. The reason is plain enough : — they 
afford larger surfeee for the attachment of the muscles of the back ; and in proportion 
to the elevation of the withers, these muscles act with greater advantage. The risinor 
of the fore parts of the horse, even in the trot, and more especially in the gallop, 
depends not merely on the action of the muscles of the legs and shoulders, but on 
those of the loins, inserted into the spinous processes of these bones of the back, and 
acting with greater power in proportion as these processes, constituting the withers, 
are lengthened. The arm of the lever to which the power is applied will be longer; 
and in proportion to the length of this arm will be the ease and the height to which 
a weight is raised. Therefore good and high action will depend much on elevated 
withers. 

It is not difficult to understand how speed will likewise be promoted by the same 
conformation. The power of the horse is in his hinder quarters. In them lies the 
main spring of the frame, and the fore-quarters are chiefly elevated and thrown for- 
ward to receive the weight forced on them by the action of the hinder quarters. In 
proportion, however, as the fore-quarters are elevated, will they be thrown farther 
forward, or, in other words, will the stride of the horse be lengthened. Yet many 
racers have the forehand low. The unrivalled Eclipse was a remarkable instance of 
this ; but the ample and finely proportioned quarters, and the muscularity of the thigh 
and fore-arm, rendered the aid to be derived from the withers perfectly unnecessary 
The hea\'y draught-horse does not require elevated withers. His utility depends 
on the power of depressing his fore-quarters, and throwing their weight fully into 
the collar; but for common work in the hackney, in the farmer's horse, and in the 
hunter, well-formed withers will be an essential advantage, as contributing to good 
and safe action, and likewise to speed. 

MUSCLES OF THE BACK. 

The most important muscles which belong to this part of the frame are principally 
those which extend from the continuation of the ligament of the neck, along the whole 
of the back and loins ; and likewise from the last cervical bone ; — the supe.rficiaUs and 
transversalis coslarum, or superficial and transverse muscles of the ribs, going from 
this ligament to the upper part ef the ribs to elevate them, and to assist in the expan- 
sion of the chest ; also the large mass of muscle, the longissimxts dorsi, or longest mus- 
cle of the back, from the spinous and transverse processes of the vertebras to the nbs, 
and by which all the motions of the spine, and back, and loins, to which allusion has 
been made, are principally produced; by which the fore-quarters are raised upon the 
hind ones, or the hind upon the fore ones, according as either of them is the fixed 
point. This is the principal agent in rearing and kicking. 

The last muscle to be noticed is the spinalis dorsi, the spinal muscle of the back, 
from the spinous processes of some of the last bones of the back to those of the fore 
part; — thick and strong about the withers, and broadly attached to them; and more 
powerfully attached, and more strongly acting in proportion to the elevation of the 
withers ; and proceeding on to the three lowest bones of the neck, and therefore mainly 
concerned, as already described, in elevating the fore-quarters, and producing high 
and safe action, and contributing to speed. 

Before the roof of the chest is left,some accidents or diseases to which it is exposed 
most be mentioned. The first is of a very serious nature. 
15* 



174 THE CHEST. 

FISTULOUS WITHERS. 

When the saddle has been suffered to press long upon the withers, a tumour will 
be formed, hot and exceedingly tender. It may sometimes be dispersed by the cool- 
ing applications recommended in the treatment of poll-evil ; but if, in despite of these, 
the swelling should remain stationary, and especially if it should become larger and 
more tender, warm fomentations and poultices, and stimulating embrocations, should 
be diligently applied, in order to hasten the formation of pus. As soon as that can 
be fairly detected, a seton should be passed from the top to the bottom of the tumour, 
so that the whole of the matter may be evacuated, and continue to be discharged as 
it is afterwards formed ; or the knife may be freely used, in order to get at the bottom 
of every sinus. The knife has succeeded many a time when the seton has failed. 
The after treatment must be precisely that which was recommended for a similar dis- 
ease in the poll. 

In neglected fistulous withers the ulcer may be larger and deeper, and more destruc- 
tive than in poll-evil. It may burrow beneath the slioulder-blade, and the pus appear 
at the point of the shoulder or the elbow ; or the bones of the withers may become 
carious. 

Very great improvement has taken place in the construction of saddles for common 
use and in the cavalry service. Certain rules have now been laid down from which 
the saddler should never deviate, and attending to which the animal is saved from 
much suffering, and the mechanic from deserved disgrace. 

The first rule in the fitting of the saddle is, that it should bear upon the back, and 
not on the spine or the withers, for these are parts that will not endure pressure. 

Next in universal application is the understanding that the saddle should have 
everywhere an equal bearing, neither tilting forward upon the points nor backward 
upon the seat. 

When the saddle is on, and the girths fastened, there should remain space sufficient 
between the withers and the pommel for the introduction of the hand underneath the 
latter. 

The points of the tree should clip or embrace the sides without pinching them, or so 
standing outward that the pressure is all downwards, and upon one place, instead of 
being in a direction inwards as well as downwards, so as to be distributed uniformly 
over every part of the point that touches the side. Horses that have low and thick 
withers are most likely to have them injured, in consequence of the continual riding 
forward of the saddle, and its consequent pressure upon them. Fleshy and fat shoul- 
ders and sides are also subject to become hurt by the points of the trees either pinch- 
ing them from being too narrow in the arch, or from the bearing being directly down- 
ward upon them. 

Injury occasionally results from the interruption which a too forward saddle presents 
to the working or motion of the shoulder, and the consequent friction the soft parts 
sustain between the shoulder-blade inwardly, and the points of the saddle-tree 
outwardly.* 

WARBLES, SITFASTS, AND SADDLE GALLS. 

On other parts of the back, tumours and very troublesome ulcers may be produced 
by the same cause. Those resulting from the pressure of the saddle are called war- 
bles, and, when they ulcerate, they frequently become sUfas/s. Warbles are small 
circular bruises, or extravasations of blood, where there has been an undue pressure 
of the saddle or harness. If a horse is subject to these tumours, the saddle should 
remain on him two or three hours after he has returned to the stable. It is only for a 
certain time, however, that this will perfectly succeed, for by the frequent application 
of the pressure the skin and the cellular substance are bruised or otherwise injured, 
jnd a permanent sore or tumour, of a very annoying description, takes place. The 
centre of the sore gradually loses its vitality. A separation takes place from the sur- 
rounding integument, and there is a circular piece of dried and hard skin remaining 
in the centre. This is curiously called a navel gall, because it is opposite to the 
navel. No effort must be made to tear or dissect it off, but stimulating poultices c 
fomentations, or, if these fail, a mild blister, will cause a speedy separation ; and the 

* PercivaU'a Hippopathology, vol. i., p. 199. 



THE THYMUS GLAND. 17£ 

wound will then readily heal by the use of turpentine dressings, more cr less stiniu- 
Uting, according to circumstances. 

Saddle galls are tumours, and sometimes galls or sor^s, arising also from the pres- 
sure and chafing of the saddle. They differ little from the warble, except that there 
is very seldom the separation of the dead part in the centre, and the sore is larger and 
varying in its form. The application of cold water, or salt and water, will generally 
remove excoriations of this kind. 

With regard, however, to all these tumours and excoriations, the humane man will 
have the saddle eased and padded as soon as it begins to be of the least inconvenience 
to the horse. 

MUSCLES OF THE BREAST. 

There are some important muscles attached to the breast connected with that 
expansion of the chest which every horse should possess. In the cut, page 159, are 
seen a very important pair of muscles, the pedorales transversi, or pectoral muscles, 
forming two prominences in the front of the chest, and extending backward between 
the legs. They come from the fore and upper part of the breast-bone ; pass across the 
inward part of the arm, and reach from the elbow almost down to the knee. They 
confine the arm to the side in the rapid motion of the horse, and prevent him from 
being, what horsemen would call, and what is seen in a horse pushed beyond his 
natural power, " all abroad." Other muscles, pedorales magni et parvi, the great 
and little pectorals, rather above but behind these, go from the breast-bone to the 
arm, in order to draw back the point of the shoulder, and bring it upright. Another 
and smaller muscle goes from the breast-bone to the shoulder, to assist in the s.uue 
office. A horse, therefore, thin and narrow in the breast, must be deficient in import- 
ant muscular power. 

Between the legs and along the breast-bone is the proper place in which to insert 
rowels, in cases of inflamed lungs. 

CHEST-FOUNDER. 

These muscles are occasionally the seat of a singular and somewhat mysterious 
disease. The old farriers used to call it anticor and chest-founder. The horse has 
considerable stiffness in moving, evidently not referable to the feet. There is tender- 
ness about the muscles of the breast, and, occasionally, swelling. We believe it to 
be nothing more than rheumatism, produced by suffering the horse to remain too long 
tied up, and exposed to the cold, or riding him against a very bleak wind. Some- 
times a considerable degree of fever accompanies this ; but bleeding, physic, a rowel 
in the chest, warm embrocations over the parts affected, warm stabling, and warm 
clcithin^, with occasional doses of antimonial powder, will soon subdue the complaint. 



CHAPTER VII. 
THE CONTENTS OF THE CHEST. 



THE THYMUS GLAND. 

At the entrance of the trachea into the thorax, and ere it has scarcely penetrated 
between the first ribs in the young subject, it comes in contact with an irregular glan- 
dular body, situated in the doubling of the anterior mediastinum. It is " the thymus 
gland," or, in vulgar language, the sweet-bread. In the early period of utero-gesta- 
tion, it is of very inconsiderable bulk, and confined mostly to the chest ; but, during the 
latter months, it strangely developes itself,— the superior cornua protrude out of the 
thorax and climb up the neck, between the carotids and the trachea. They are evi- 
dently connected with the thymus gland, and become parts and portions of the parotid 
glands. 

We are indebted to Sir Astley Cooper for the best account of the anatomical strac- 
..are, ana possible function of the thymus gland. It presents, on being cut into b 



176 CONTENTS OF THE CHEST. 

i^reai number of small cavities, in which the abundant white fluid of the gland is in 
part contained. From those cavities the fluid is transmitted into a general reservoir, 
which forms a common connecting cavity, and is lined by a delicate membrane. Sir 
Astley, and in this he is supported by Professor Miiller, believes that a peculiar albu- 
minous fluid is conveyed by the thymus gland to the veins, through the medium of 
the lymphatics. It has nothing to do with the formation of the blood, in the fcetus 
or the child. 

These two eminent physiologists exert the better part of discretion, by declining 
to give any hypothesis of its function beyond this, that it supplies the lymphatics 
with an albuminous fluid. 

This gland continues to grow for some time after birth, and remains of considera- 
ble size during the first year ; it then gradually diminishes, and, about the period of 
puberty, usually disappears. It has, however, been found in a mare between five and 
six years old. 

THE DIAPHRAGM. 

Bounding the thorax posteriorly,— the base of the cone in the human subject,— the 
interposed curtain between the thorax and the abdomen in the horse, is the diaphragm. 
It is an irregular muscular expansion, proceeding from the inferior surface^of 
the lumbar vertebra posteriorly and superiorly, adhering to the ribs on either 
side, and extending obliquely forward and downward to the sternum; or, rather 
it is a flattened muscle arising from all these points, with its fibres all converg- 
ing towards the centre, and terminating there in an expansion of tendinous substance. 
It is lined anteriorly by the pleura or investing membrane of the thoracic cavity, and 
posteriorly by the peritoneum or investing membrane of the abdominal cavity. 

Ajuiiomy of the Diaphragm. — In the short account which it is purposed to give of 
the structure of the diaphragm, the description of PJr. Percivall will be closely fol- 
lowed. " The diaphragm may be divided into the main circular muscle, with its 
central tendinous expansion forming the lower part, and two appendices, or cnira., 
as they are called, from their peculiar shape, constituting its superior portion. The 
fleshy origin of the grand muscle may be traced laterally and inferiorly, commencino' 
from the cartilage of the eighth rib anteriorly, and closely following the union of the 
posterior ribs with their cartilages ; excepting, however, the two last. The attach- 
ment is peculiarly strong; it is denticulated; h encircles the whole of the lateral and 
inferior part of the chest, as far as tlie sternum, where it is connected with the ensi- 
form cartilage. Immediately under the loins are the appendices of the diaphragm, 
commencing on the right side, from the inferior surfaces of the five first lumbar ver- 
tebra by strong tendons, which soon become muscular, and form a kind of pillar; 
and, on the left, proceeding from the two first lumbar vertebra; only, and from the 
sides rather than the bodies of these vertebra;, and these also unite and form a shorter 
pillar, or leg. The left crus or appendix is shorter than the right, that it may be 
more out of the way of pressure from the left curvature of the stomach, which, with 
the spleen, lies underneath. Opposite to the 17th dorsal vertebra, these two pillars 
unite and form a thick mass of muscles, detached from the vertebra;, and leaving a 
kind of pouch between them and the vertebra;. They not only unite, but they declis- 
sate : their fibres mingle and again separate from each other, and then proceed ouAvard 
to the central tendinous expansion towards which the fibres from the circular muscle, 
and the appendices, all converge.'' 

_ The diaphragm is the main agent, both in ordinary and extraordinary respiration ; 
It assists also in the expulsion of the urine, and it is a most powerful auxiliary in 
the act of parturition. In its quiescent state, it presents its convex surface towards 
the thorax, and its concave one towards the abdomen. The anterior convexity abuts 
upon the lungs ; the posterior concavity is occupied by some of the abdominal viscera. 
The effect of the action of this muscle, or tlie contraction of its fibres, is to lessen the 
convexity towards the chest, and the concavity towards the abdomen : or perhaps, by 
a powerful contraction, to cause it to present a plane surface either way. The abdo- 
minal viscera that must be displaced in order to effect this, have considerable bulk and 
weight ; and when the stomach is distended with food, and the motion required from the 
diaphragm in rapid breathing is both quick and extensive, there needs some strong, firm, 
elastic, substance to bear it. The forcible contact and violent pressure would bruise 
and otherwise injure a mere muscular expansion ; and therefore ^-e have this tendi- 



RUPTURE OF THE DIAPHRAGM. ^77 

nous expansion, comparatively devoid of sensibility, to stand the pressure and ihc 
shocK. which will always be greatest at the centre. 

Yet it is subject to injury and disease of a serious and varied character. WhaU 
ever may be the original seat of thoracic or abdominal ailment, tlie diaphrao-ni soon 
becomes irritable and inflamed. This accounts for the breathing of the horse being 
so much atfepted under every inflammation or excitement of the chest or belly. The 
irritability of this muscle is often evinced by a singular spasmodic action of a portion, 
or the wliole of it. 

Mr. Castley thus describes a case of it: — "A horse had been very much distressed 
in a run of nearly thirteen miles, witiiout a check, and his ride-r stopped, on the road 
towards home, to rest him a little. With difficulty he was brought to the stable. 
Mr. Castley was sent for, and he says, — ' When I first saw the animal, his breathing 
and attitude indicated the greatest distress. The prominent symptom, however, was 
a convulsive motion, or jerking of the whole body, audible at several yards' distance, 
and evidently proceeding from his inside ; the beats appeared to be about forty in a 
minute. On placing my hand over the heart, the action of that organ could be felt, 
but very indistinctly ; the beating evidently came from behind the heart, and was 
most plainly to be felt in the direction of the diaphragm. Again placing my hand on 
the abdominal muscles, the jerks appeared to come from before, backwards; the 
impression on my mind, therefore, was, that this was a spasmodic aflection of the 
diaphragm, brought on by violent distress in running.' "* 

Mr. Castley's account is inserted thus at length, because it was the first of the kind 
on record, with the exception of an opinion of IMr. Apperley, which came very near 
to the truth. " When a horse is very much exhausted after a long run with hounds, 
a noise will sometimes be heard to proceed from his inside, which is often erroneously 
supposed to be the beating of his heart, whereas it proceeds from the excessive 
motion of the abdominal muscles. "-j" 

I\[r. Castley shall pursue his case, (it will be a most useful guide to the treatment 
of these cases) : — " Finding that there was little pulsation to be felt at the submaxillary 
artery, and judging from that circumstance that any attempt to bleed at that time would 
be worse than useless, I ordered stimulants to be given. We first administered three 
ounces of spirit of nitrous ether, in a bottle of warm water; but this producing no 
good effect, we shortly afterwards gave two drachms of the sub-carbonate of ammonia 
in a ball, allowing the patient, at the same time, plenty of white water to drink. 
About a quarter of an haur after this, he broke out into a profuse perspiration, which 
continued two hours, or more. The breathing became more tranquil, but the convul- 
sive motion of the diaphragm still continued without any abatement. After the 
sweating had ceased, the pulse became more perceptible, and the action of the heart 
more distinct, and I considered this to be the proper time to bleed. When about ten 
pounds had been extracted, I thought that the beating and the breathing seemed to 
increase ; the bleeding was stopped, and the patient littered up for the night. In the 
morning, the affection of the diaphragm was much moderated, and about eleven o'clock 
it ceased, after continuing eighteen or nineteen hours. A little tonic medicine was 
afterwards administered, and the horse soon recovered his usual appetite and spirits.":}: 

Later surgeons administer, and with good effect, opium in small doses, togethei 
with ammonia, or nitric ether, and have recourse to bleeding as soon as any reaction 
is perceived. 

Over-fatigue, of almost every kind, has produced spasm of the diaphragm, and so 
has over-distension of the stomach with grass. 

RUPTURE OF THE DIAPHRAGM. 

This is an accident, or the consequence of disease, very lately brought under the 
cognizance of the veterinary surgeon. The first communication of its occurrence was 
from Mr. King, a friend of Mr. Percivall.§ It occurred in a mare that had been ridden 
sharply for half a dozen miles, when she was full of grass. She soon afterwards 
exhibited symptoms of broken-wind, and, at length, died suddenly, while standing in 
the stable. The diaphragm was lacerated on the left side, through its whole extent, 
throwing the two cavities into one. 

* The Veterinarian, 1831, p. 247. t Nimrod on the Condidon of Hunters, p. 18S 

t The Veterinarian, 1831, p. 248. ^ The Veterinarian, 1823, p. 101. 



178 CONTENTS OF THE CHEST. 

Since that period, from the increasing and very proper habit of examining every 
dead horse, cases of this accident liave rapidly nmltiplied. It seems that it .nay 
follow any act of extraordinary exertion, and efforts of every kind, particularly on a full 
stomach, or when the bowels are distended with green or other food likely to generate 
gas.* Considerable caution, however, should be exercised when much gaseous fluid 
is present ; for the bowels may be distended, and forced against the diaphragm to 
such a degree, as to threaten to burst. 

An interesting case of rupture of the diaphragm was related by Professor Spooner, 
at one of the meetings of tlie Veterinary Medical Association. A horse having been 
saddled and bridled for riding, was turned in his stall and fastened by the bit-straps. 
Something frightened him — he reared, broke the bit-strap, and fell backward. On the 
foUowino- morning, he was evidently in great pain, kicking, heaving, and occasionally 
lying down. Mr. S. was sent for to examine him, but was not told of the event of 
the preceding day. He considered it to be a case of enteritis, and treated it accord- 
inTly. He bled him largely, and, in the course of the day, the horse appeared to be 
decidedly better, every symptom of pain having vanished. The horse was more 
lively — he ate with appetite, but his bowels remained constipated. 

On the following day there was a fearful change. The animal was suffering sadly 
— the breathing was laborious, and the membrane of the nose intensely red, as if it 
■were more a case of inflanmiation of the lungs than of the bowels. The bowels 
were still constipated. The patient was bled and physicked again, but without 
avail. He died ; and there was found rupture of the diaphragm, protrusion of intes- 
tine into the thoracic cavit}'', and extensive pleural and peritoneal inflammation. 

In rupture of the diaphragm, the horse usually sits on his haunches, like a dog; 
but this is far from being an infallible symptom of the disease. It accompanies 
introsusception, as well as rupture of the diaphragm. The weight of the intestines 
may possibly cause any protruded part of them to descend again into the abdomen. 

This muscle, so important in its ofiice, is plentifully supplied with blood-vessels. 
As the posterior aorta passes beneath the crura of the diaphragm, it gives out some- 
times a single vessel which soon bifurcates ; sometimes two branches, which speedily 
plunge into the appendices or crura, while numerous small vessels, escaping from 
them, spread over the central tendinous expansion. As the larger muscle of the 
diaphragm springs from the sides and the base of the chest, it receives many ramifica- 
tions from the internal pectoral, derived from the anterior aorta ; but more from the 
posterior intercostals which spring from the posterior aorta. 

The veins of the diaphragm belong exclusively to the posterior vena cava. There 
are usually three on either side ; but they may be best referred to two chief trunks 
which come from the circumference of the diaphragm, converge towards the centro, 
and run into the posterior cava as it passes through the tendinous expansion. 

The functional nerve of the diaphragm, or that from which it derives its principal 
action, and which constitutes it a muscle of respiration, is the phrenic or diaphragmatic. 
Although it does not proceed from that portion of the medulla oblongata which gives 
riee to the glosso-pharyngeus and the par vagum, yet there is sufficient to induce us 
to suspect that it arises from, and should be referred to, the lateral column between 
the superior and inferior, the sensitive and motor nerves, and which may be evidently 
traced fiom the pons varolii to the very termination of the spinal chord. 

The diaphragm is the main agent in the work of respiration. The other muscles 
are mere auxiliaries, little needed in ordinary breathing, but affording the most 
important assistance, when the breathing is more than usually hurried. The mecha- 
nism of respiration may be thus explained : — Let it be supposed that the lungs are in 
a quiescent state. The act of expiration has been performed, and all is still. From 
some cause enveloped in mystery — connected with the will, but independent of it — 
some stimulus of an unexplained and unknown kind — the phrenic nerve acts on the 
diaphragm, and that muscle contracts; and, by contracting, its convexity into the, 
chest is diminished, and the cavity of the chest is enlarged. At the same time, and 
by some consentaneous influence, the intercostal muscles act — with no great force, 
indeed, in undisturbed breathing; but, in proportion as they act, the ribs rotate ojf 
their axes, their edges are thrown outward, and thus a twofold effect ensues : — the 
posterior margin of the chest is expanded, the cavity is plainly enlarged, and also, by 
the partial rotation of every rib, the cavity is still more increased. 

* PercivaU's Hippopathology, vol. ii., No. 1, p. 152. 



THE PLEURA. ^79 

By some other consentaneous influence, the spinal accessory nerve likewisp exerts 
Its power, and the sterno-maxillaris muscle is stimulated by the anterior division of it 
and the motion of the head and neck corresponds with and assists that of the chest- 
wlule the posterior division of the accessory nerve, by its anastamoses with the motoi 
nerves of the levator humeri and the splenius, and many other of the muscles of the 
neck and the shoulder, and by its direct influence on the rhomboideus, associates 
almost every muscle of the neck, the shoulder, and the chest, in the expansion of the 
thorax. These latter are muscles, which, in undisturbed respiration, the animal 
scarcely needs; but which are necessary to him when the respiration is much 
disturbed, and to obtain the aid of which lie will, under pneumonia, obstinately stand 
until he falls exhausted or to die. 

_ The cavity of the chest is now enlarged. But this is a closed cavity, and between 
Its contents and the parietes of the chest a vacuum would be formed ; or rather an 
inequality of atmospheric pressure is produced from the moment the chest beo-ins to 
dilate. As the diaphrag-m recedes, there is nothing to counterbalance the pressure of 
the atmospheric air communicating with the lungs through the medium of tiie nose 
and mouth, and it is forced into the respiratory tubes already described, and tlie lungs 
are expanded and still kept in contact with the receding walls of the chest. There is 
no sucking, no inhalent power in the act of inspiration! it is the simple enlaro-emeni 
of the chest from the entrance and pressure of the air. ^ 

From some cause, as inexplicable as that which produced the expansion of the 
chest, the respiratory nerves cease to act; and the diaphragm, by the inherent 
elasticity of its tendinous expansion and muscular fibres, returns to its natural form, 
once more projecting its convexity into the thorax. The abdominal muscles, also^ 
which had been put on the stretch by the forcing of the viscera into the posterior part 
of the abdomen by means of the straightening of the diaphragm, contract, and 
accelerate the return of that muscle to its quiescent figure; and the ribs, all armed 
with elastic cartilages, reoain their former situation and figure. The muscles of the 
shoulder and the chest relax, a portion of the lungs are pressed on every side, and the 
air with which they were distended is again forced out. There is only one set of 
muscles actively employed in expiration, namely, the abdominal : the elasticity of 
the parts displaced in inspiration being almost sufficient to accomplish the purpose. 

The lungs, however, are not altogether passive. The bronchial tubes, so far as 
they can be traced, are lined with cartilage, divided and subdivided for the purpose 
of folding up when the lungs are compressed, but elastic enough to afford a yielding 
resistance against both unusual expansion and contraction. In their usual state the 
air-tubes are distended beyond their natural calibre ; for if the parietes of the thorax 
are perforated, and the pressure of the atmosphere rendered equal within and without 
them, the lungs immediately collapse. 

THE PLEURA. 

The walls of the chest are lined, and the lungs are covered by a smooth glistening 
memU'rane, the ■pleura. It is a serous membrane, so called from the nature of its 
exhalation, in distinction from the mucous secretion yielded by the membrane of the 
air-passages. The serous membrane generally invests the most important organs, 
and always those that are essentially connected with life ; while the mucous mem- 
brane lines the interior of the greater part of them. The pleura is the investing 
membrane of the lungs, and a mucous membrane the lining one of the bronchial tubes. 

Among the circumstances principally to be noticed, with regard to the pleura, is 
the polish of its external surface. The glistening appearance of the lungs, and of the 
inside of the chest, is to be attributed to the membrane by which they are covered, 
and by means of which the motion of the various organs is freer and less dangerous. 
Although the lungs, and the bony walls which contain them, are in constant approxi- 
mation with each other, both in expiration and inspiration, yet in the frequently 
hurried and violent motion of the animal, and, in fact, in every act of expiration and 
inspiration, of dilatation and contraction, much and injurious friction would ensue if 
the surfaces did not glide freely over each other by means of the peculiar polish o' 
this membrane. 

Every serous membrane has innumerable exhalent vessels upon its surface, tront 
which a considerable quantity of fluid is poured out. In life and during health it 
exists in the chest only as a kind of dew, just sufficient to lubricate the surfacea 



180 CONTENTSOFTHECHEST. 

When the chest is opened soon after death, we recognize it in the steam that arise;-., 
and in a few drops of fluid, which, heing condensed, are found at the lowest part of 
the chest. 

The quantity, however, wliich is exhaled from all the serous membranes, must ba 
very great. It is perhaps equal or superior to that which is yielded by the vessels 
on the surface of the body. If very little is found in ordinary cases, it is because the 
absorbents are as numerous and as active as the exhalents, and, during health, that 
which is poured out by the one is taken up by the other; but in circumstances of dis- 
ease, either when the exhalents are stimulated to undue action, or the power of the)|j 
absorbents is diminished, the fluid rapidly and greatly accumulates. Thus we have'] 
hydrotliorax or dropsy of the chest, as one of the consequences of inflammation of the 
chest ; and the same disturbed balance of action will produce similar eflusion in ctlici 
cavities. 

The extensibility of membrane generally is nowhere more strikingly displayed tlian 
in the serous membranes, and particularly in that under consideration. How diflerenl 
the bulk of the lungs before the act of inspiration has commenced, and after it has 
been completed, and especially in the laborious respiration of disease or rapid exer- 
tion ! In either state of the lungs the pleura is perfectly fitted to that which it 
envelopes. 

The pleura, like other serous membranes, is possessed of very little sensibility. 
Few nerves from the sensitive column of the spinal chord reach it. Acute feeling 
would render these men.branes generally, and this membrane in particular, unfit for 
the function they have to discharge. It has too much motion, even during sleep ; and 
far too forcible friction with the parietes of the thorax in morbid or hurried respiration 
to render it convenient or useful for it to possess much sensation. Some of those 
anatomists whose experiments on the living animal do no credit to their humanity, 
have given most singular proof of the insensibility, not only of these serous mem- 
branes, but of the organs which they invest. Bichat frequently examined the spleeiJ 
of dogs. He detached it from some of its adhesions, and left it protruding from tli^ 
wound in the abdomen, in order " to study the phenomena;" and he saw "them tear 
ing off that organ, and eating it, and thus feeding upon their own substance." In 
some experiments, in which part of their intestines were left out, he observed them 



bT 



'I 



as soon as they had the opportunity, tear to pieces their own viscera without an 
visible pain. 

Although it may he advantageous that these important organs shall be thus devoid 
of sensibility when in health, in order that we may be unconscious of their action and 
motion, and that they may be rendered perfectly independent of the will, yet it ia 
equally needful that, by the feeling of pain, we should be warned of the existence of 
any dangerous disease: and thence it happens that this membrane, and also the organ 
which it invests, acquire under inflammation tlie highest degree of sensibility. I'he 
countenance of the horse labouring under pleurisy or pneumonia will sufficiently indi- 
cate a state of suffering ; and the spasm.ed bend of his neck, and his long and a'ffxiou 
and intense gaze upon his side, tell us that that suffering is extreme. 

Nature, however, is wise and benevolent even here. It is not of every morbid 
affection, or morbid change, that the animal is conscious. If a mucous membrane is 
diseased, he is rendered painfully aware of that, for neither respiration nor digestior 
could be perfectly carried on while there was any considerable lesion of it; but, or 
the other hand, we find tubercles in the parenchyma of the lungs, or induration or 
hepatization of their substance, or extensive adhesions, of which there were few or 
no indications during life 

The pleura adheres intimately to the ribs and to the substance of the lungs; yet it 
is a very sintjular connexion. It is not a continuance of the same organisation ; it is 
not an interchange of vessels. The organ and its membrane, although so closely 
connected for a particular purpose, yet in very many cases, and where it would leas 
of all be suspected, have little or no sympathy with each other. Inflammation of thf 
lungs v/ill sometimes exist, and will run on to ulceration, while the pleura will bf 
very little affected : and, much oftener. the pleura will be the seat of inflammatioi 
and will be attended by increased exhalation to such an extent as to sufi'ocate the 
animal, and yet the lungs will exhibit little other morbid appearance ttian that of 
mere compression. The disease of a mucous membrane spreads to other parts — thai 



THE LlJNGy— rilJi. HE A 11 r. 181 

tf a serous one is generallj' isolated. It was to limit the progress of disease that (Mb 
Mfference of structure between the organ and its membrane was contrived. 

The investing membrane of the lungs and that of the heart are in continual contact 
vith each other, but they are as distinct and unconnected, as if they were placed in 
lifferent parts of the frame. Is there no meaning in this] 

It is to preserve the perfect independence of organs equally important, yet altogether 
different in structure and function — to oppose an insuperable barrier to hurtful sym- 
pathy between them, and especially to cut off the communication of disease. 

Perhaps a little light begins to be thro^^n on a circumstance of which we have 
occasional painful experience. While we may administer physic, or mild aperients 
at least, in pleurisy, not only with little danger, but with manifest advantage, we 
onay just as well give a dose of poison as a physic-ball to a horse labouring under 
pneumonia. The pleura is connected with the lungs, and with the lungs alone, and 
the organisation is so different, that there is very little sympathy between them. A 
physic-ball may, therefore, act as a counter-irritant, or as giving a new determination 
to the vital current, without the propagation of sympathetic irritation ; but the lungs 
or the bronchial tubes that ramify through them are continuous with the mucous mem- 
branes of the digestive as well as all the respiratory passages; and on account of the 
continuity and similarity of organisation, there is much sympathy between them. If 
there is irritation excited at the same time in two different portions of the same mem- 
iirane, it is probable that, instead of being shared between them, the one will be trans- 
ferred to the other — will in(-rease or double the other, and act with fearful and fatal 
violence. 

THE LUNGS. 

The lungs are the seat of a peculiar circulation. They convey through their com- 
paratively little bulk the blood, and ether fluids scarcely transformed into blood, or 
soon separated from it, w-hich traverse the whole of the frame. They consist of count- 
less ramifications of air-tubes and blood-vessels connected together by intervening 
cellular substance. 

They form two distinct bodies, the right somewhat larger than the left, and are 
divided from each other by the duplicature of the pleura, which has been already 
described — the mediastinum. Each lung has the same structure, and properties, and 
nses. Each of them is subdivided, the right lobe consisting of three lobes, and the 
left of two. Tjie intention of these divisions is probably to adapt the substance of 
the lungs to the form of the cavity in which they are placed, and to enable them more 
perfectly to occupy and fill the chest. 

If one of these lobes is cut into, it is found to consist of innumerable irregularly 
formed compartments, to which anatomists have given the name of lobules, or little 
lobes. They are distinct from each ctlier. and impervious. On close examination, 
they can be subdivided almost without end. There is no communication between 
!hem, or if perchance such communication exists, it constitutes the disease known by 
the name of hrolten ivind. 

On the delicate membrane of which these cells are composed, innumerable minute 
blood-vessels ramify. They proceed from the heart, through the medium of the^w/- 
niimary artery — they follow all tlie subdivisions of the bronchial tubes — they ramify 
upon the membrane of these multitudinous lobules, and at length return to the heart, 
through the medium of the pulmonary veins, the character of the blood which they 
contain being essentially changed. The mechanism of this, and the effect produced 
must be briefly considered. 

THE HEART. 

The heart is placed between a doubliYig of the pleura — the mediastinum ; by means 
of which it is supported in its natural situation, and all dangerous friction between 
these important organs is avoided. It is also surrounded by a membrane or bag of 
its own, called the pericardium, whose office is of a similar nature. By means of 
the heart, the blood is circnlated through the frame. 

It is composed of four cavities— two above, called auricles, from their supposed 
resemblance to the ear of a dog; and two below, termed ventricles, occupying the sub- 
stance of the heart. In point of fact, there are two hearts— the one on the left side 
impelling the blood throuo-h the frame, the other on the right side conveying it through 
16 



182 CONTEKTS OF THE CHEST. 

the pulmonary system; but, united in the manner in which they are, their juneticn) 
contiihutes to'their mutual strength, and both circulations are carried on at the same 
time 

Th" first is the arterial circulation. No function can be discharged — ^life cannot 
exist, without the presence of arterial blood. The left ventricle that contains it con- 
tracts, and by the power of that contraction, aided by other means, which the limits 
of our work will not permit us to describe, the blood is driven through the whole 
arterial circulation — the capillary vessels and the veins — and returns again to the 
heart, but to the right ventricle. The other division of this viscus is likewise 
employed in circulating the blood thus conveyed to it, but is not the same fluid which 
was contained in the left ventricle. It has gradually lost its vital power. As it has 
passed along, it has changed from red to black, and from a vital to a poisonous fluid. 
Ere it can again convey the principle of nutrition, or give to each organ that impulse 
or stimulus which enables it to discharge its function, it must be materially changed. 

When the right ventricle contracts, and the blood is driven into the lungs, it passes 
over the gossamer membrane of which the lobules of the lungs have been described 
as consisting; the lobules being filled with the air which has descended through the 
bronchial tubes in the act of inspiration. This delicate membrane permits some of 
the principles of the air to permeate it. The oxygen of the atmosphere attracts and 
combines vvitli a portion of the superabundant carbon of this blood, and the expired 
air is poisoned with carbonic acid gas. Some of the constituents of the blood attract 
a portion of the oxygen of the air, and obtain their distinguishing character and pro- 
perties as arterial blood, and being thus revivified, it passes on over the membrane of 
the lobes, unites into small and then leirger vessels, and at length pours its full stream 
of arterial blood into the left auricle, thence to ascend into tl^e ventricle, and to be dif- 
fused over the frame. 

DISEASES OF THE HEART. 

It may be readily supposed that an organ so complicated is subject to disease. Il 
is so to a fearful extent; and it sympathises with the maladies of every other part. 
Until lately, however, this subject has been shamefully neglected, and the writers on 
the veterinary art have seemed to be unaware of the importance of the organ, and the 
maladies to which it is exposed. The owner of the horse and the veterinary profes- 
sion generally, are deeply indebted to Messrs. Percivall and Pritchard*^ for much 
valuable inform-ation on this subject. The writer of this work acknowledges his 
obligation to both of these gentlemen. To Dr. Hope also, and particularly to Laennec, 
we owe much. Mr. Percivall well says, "This class of diseases maybe regarded as 
the least advanced of any in veterinary medicine — a circumstance not to be ascribed 
so much to their comparative rarity, as to their existing undiscovered, or rathe? 
being confounded during life with other disorders, and particularly with pulmonary 
affections." 

The best place to examine the beating of the heart is immediately behind the 
elbow, on the left side. The hand applied flat against the ribs will give the number 
of pulsations. The ear thus applied will enable the practitioner better to ascertain 
the character of the pulsation. The stethoscope affords an uncertain guide, for it cat* 
not be flatly and evenly applied. 

Pericarditis. — The bag, or outer investing membrane of the heart, is liable 
inflammation, in which the effused fluid l>ecomes organized, and deposited in layers*, 
increasing the thickness of the pericardium, and the difficulty of the expansion an(J 
contraction of the heart. The only symptoms on which dependence can be pla-'-ed, 
are a quickened and irrejular respiration; a bounding action of the heart in an ear]v 
stage of the disease; but that, as the fluid increases and becomes concrete, assuming 
a feeble and fluttering character. 

Hydrops Pericardii is the term used to designate the presence of the fluid secrete;? 
in consequence of this inflammation, and varying from a pint to a gallon or more. 
In addition to the symptoms already described, there is an expression of alarm and 
anxiety in the countenance of the animal which no other malady produces. The 
horse generally sinks from other disease, or from constitutional irritation, before ths 

• See Pritchard's papers in the Veterinarian, vol. vs., and Percivall's Hippopatholowv, yd 
a., Pan L 



DISEASES OF THE HEART. 1S3 

cavity of the pericardium is filled ; or if he lingers on, most dreadful palpitations 
and throbbings accompany the advanced stage of the disease. It is seldom or never 
that this disease exists alone, but is combined with dropsy of the chest or abdomen. 

Carditis is the name given to inllammation of the muscular substance ol the heart. 
A well authenticated instance of inflammation of the substance of the heart does not 
stand on record. Some other organ proves to be the chief seat of mischief, even 
when the disturbance of the heart has been most apparent. 

Inflammation of the Lining of the Heart Mr. Simpson relates, in the Vete- 
rinarian for 1834, a case in which there were symptoms of severe abdominal pain; 
tlie respiration was much disturbed, and the ainion of the heart took on an extraordi- 
nary character. Three or four beats succeeded to each other, so violently as to shako 
tlie whole frame, and to be visible at the distance of several yards, with intervals of 
quietude for five minutes or more. At length this violent beating became constant. 

On dissection both lungs were found to be inflamed, the serum in the pericardium 
increased in quantity, and the internal membrane of the heart violently inflamed, with 
spots of ecchymosis. 

This would seem to be a case of inflammation of the heart ; but in a considerable 
proportion of the cases of rabies, these spots of ecchymosis, and this general inflam- 
mation of the heart, are seen. 

Hvperthrophv is an augmentation or thickening of the substance of the heart; 
and although not dreamed of a few years ago, seems now to be a disease of no'rare 
occurrence among horses. The heart has been known to acquire double its natural 
volume, or the auricle and ventricle on one side have been thus enlarged. Mr. 
Thomson of Bath relates, in The Veterinarian, a very singular case. A horse was 
brought with every appearance of acute rheumatism, and was bled and physicked. 
On the following day he was standing with his fore legs widely extended, the nos- 
trils dilated, the breathing quick and laborious, the eyes sunk in their orbits, the 
pupils dilated, his nose turned round almost to his elbow, sighing, and his counte- 
nance showing approaching dissolution. 

The pulse had a most irregular motion, and the undulation of the jugular veins 
was extending to the very roots of the ears. He died a few hours afterwards. 

The lungs and pleura were much inflamed ; the pericardium was inflamed and dis- 
tended by fluid ; the heart was of an enormous size and greatly inflamed ; both the 
auricles and ventricles were filled with coagulated blood ; the greater part of the 
chordaj tendineae had given way ; the valves did not approximate to perform their 
function, and the heart altogether presented a large disorganized muss, weighing thir- 
ty-four pounds. The animal worked constantly on the farm, and had never been put 
to quick or very laborious work. 

Dilatation is increased capacity of the cavities of the heart, and the parietes be- 
ing generally thinned. It is probable that this is a more frequent disease than is 
generally supposed; and from the circulating power being lessened, or almost sus- 
pended, on account of the inability of the cavities to propel their contents, it is ac- 
companied by much and rapid emaciation. In the Gardens of the Zoological Society 
of London this is a disease considerably frequent, and almost uniformly fatal. It 
attacks the smaller animals, and particularly the quadrumana, and has been found 
in the deer and the zebra. It is characterised by slow emaciation, and a piteous 
expression of the countenance ; but the mischief is done when these symptoms ap- 
pear. 

Ossification of the Heart. — There are but too many instances of this both in 
the right and the left auricles of the heart, the aortic valves, the abdominal aorta, 
and also the bronchial and other glands. Mr. Percivall observes of one of these 
cases, that " the cavity could have been but a passive receptacle for the blood, and 
the current must have been continued without any or with hardly any fresh impulse." 

Of AIR in the heart destroying the horse, there are some interesting accounts; 
and also of rupture of the heart, and aneurism, or dilatation of the aorta, both thoracic 
and alidominal, and even farther removed from the heart and in the iliac artery. The 
symptoms that would certainly indicate the existence of aneurism are yet unknown, 
except tenderness about the loins and gradual inability to work, are considered as 
such : but it is interesting to know of the existence of these lesions. Ere long the 
veterinary surgeon may possibly be able to guess at them, although he will rarely 



184 CONTENTS OF THE CHEST. 

have more power in averting the consequences of aneurism than the human surgeon 
possesses with regard to his patient. 

This will be the proper place to describe a little more fully the circulation of the 
blood, and various circumstances connected with that most important process. 

THE ARTERIES. 

The vessels which carry the blood from the heart are called arteries {keeping air — 
the ancients thought that they contained air). They are composed of three coats; 
the outer or elastic is that by which they are enabled to yield to the gush of blood, and 
enlaro-e their dimensions as it is forced along them, and by which also they contract 
ao-ain as soon as the stream has passed ; the middle coat is a muscular one, by which 
this contraction is more powerfully performed, and the blood urged on in its course; 
the inner or membranous coat is the mere lining of the tube. 

This yielding of the artery to the gush of blood, forced into it by the contraction 
of the heart, constitutes 

THE PULSE. 

The pulse is a very useful assistant to the practitioner of human medicine, and 
much more so to the veterinary surgeon, whose patients cannot describe either the 
seat or degree of ailment or pain. The number of pulsations in any artery will give 
the number of the beatings of the heart, and so express the irritation of that organ, 
and of the frame generally. In a state of health, the heart beats in a farmer's horse 
about thirty-six times a minute. In the smaller, and in the thorough-bred horse, the 
pulsations are forty or forty-two. This is said to be the standard pulse — the pulse 
of health. It varies singularly little in horses of the same size and breed, and where 
it beats naturally there can be little materially wrong. The most convenient place 
to feel the pulse, is at the lower jaw (p. 68) a little behind the spot where the sub- 
maxillary artery and vein, and the parotid duct, come from under the jaw. There 
the number of pulsations will be easily counted, and the character of the pulse, a 
matter of fully equal importance, will be clearly ascertained. Many horsemen put 
the hand to the side. They can certainly count the pulse there, but they can do no- 
thing more. We must be able to press the artery against some hard body, as the 
jaw-bone, in order to ascertain the manner in which the blood flows through it, and 
the quantity that flows. 

When the pulse reaches fifty or fifty-five, some degree of fever may be apprehended, 
and proper precaution should be taken. Seventy or seventy-five will indicate a dan- 
gerous state, and put the owner and the surgeon not a little on the alert. Few horses 
long survive a pulse of one hundred, for, by this excessive action, the energies of 
nature are speedily worn out. 

Some things, however, should be taken into account in forming our conclusion from 
the frequency of the pulse. Exercise, a warm stable, and fear, will wonderfully 
increase the number of pulsations. 

When a careless, brutal fellow goes up to a horse, and speaks hastily to him, and 
handles him roughly, he adds ten beats per minute to the pulse, and will often be 
misled in the opinion he may fcrrn of the state of the animal. A judicious person 
will approach the patient gently, and pat and soothe him, and even then the circula- 
tion, probably, will be a little disturbed. He should take the additional precaution 
of noting the number and quality of the pulse, a second time, before he leaves tlie 
animal. 

If a (inick pulse indicate irritation and fever, a slow pulse will likewise characterise 
diseases of an opposite description. It accompanies the sleepy stage of staggers, and 
every malady connected with deficiency of nervous energy. 

The heart may not only be excited to more frequent, but also to more violent action. 
It may contract more powerfully upon the blood, which will be driven with greater 
'brce through the arteries, and the expansion of the vessels will be greater and more 
sudden. Then we have the hard pulse — the sure indicator of considerable fever, and 
calling for the immediate and free use of the lancet. 

Sometimes the pulse may he hard and jerking, and yet small. The stream though 
forcible is not great. The heart is so irritable that it contracts before the ventricle 
is properly filled. The practitioner knows that this indicates a dangerous state of 
disease. It is an almost invariable accompaniment of inflammation of the bowels. 



INFLAMMATION. J85 

A weak pulse, when the arterial stream flows slowly, is caused by the feeble action 
of the heart. It is the ref erse of fever, and expressive of debility. 

The oppressed pulse is when the arteries seem to be fully distended with blood. 
There is obstruction somewhere, and the action of the heart can hardly force the 
stream along, or communicate pulsation to the current. It is the case in sudden 
inriammation of the lungs. They are overloaded and gorged with blood, which can- 
not find its way through their minute vessels. This accounts for the well-known facx 
of a copious bleeding increasing a pulse previously oppressed. A portion being 
removed from the distended and choked vessels, the remainder is able to flow on. 
_ There are many other varieties of the pulse, which it would be tedious here to par- 
ticularise ; it must, however, be observed, that during the act of bleeding, its state 
should be carefully observed. Many veterinary surgeons, and gentlemen too, are apt 
to order a certain quantity of blood to be taken away, but do not condescend to super- 
intend the operation. This is unpardonable in the surgeon and censurable in the 
owner of the horse. The animal is bled for some particular purpose. There is some 
state of disease, indicated by a peculiar quality of the pulse, whieli we are endeavour- 
ing to alter. The most experienced practitioner cannot tell what quantity of blood 
must be abstracted in order to produce the desired efl"ect. The change of the pulse 
can alone indicate when the object is accomplished; therefore, the operator should 
have his finger on the artery during the act of bleeding, and, comparatively regardless 
of the quantity, continue to take blood, until, in inflammation of the lungs, the op- 
pressed pulse becomes fuller and more distinct, or the strong pulse of considerable 
fever is evidently softer, or the animal exhibits symptoms of faintness. 

The arteries divide as they proceed through the frame, and branch out into innu- 
merable minute tubes, termed capillaries (hair-like tubes), and they even become so 
small as to elude the sight. The slightest puncture cannot be inflicted without wound- 
ing some of them. 

In these little tubes, the nourishment of the body and the separation of all the vari- 
ous secretions is performed, and in consequence of this, the blood is changed. When 
these capillaries unite together, and begin to enlarge, it is found to be no longer arte- 
rial, or of a florid red colour, but venous, or of a blacker hue. Therefore the principal 
termination of the arteries is in veins. The point where the one ends, and the other 
commences, cannot be ascertained. It is when red arterial blood, having dis- 
charged its function by depositing the nutritious parts, is changed to venous or black / 
blood. , / 

Branches from the ganglial or sympathetic nerves wind round these vessele^^Md 
endue them with energy to discharge their functions. When the nerves communicate 
too much energy, and these vessels consequently act with too much power, inflamma' 
lion is produced. If this disturbed action is confined to a small space or a single 
organ, it is said to be local, as inflammation of the eye, or of the lungs ; but when 
this inordinate action spreads from its original seat, and embraces the whole of the 
arterial system, /eyer is said to be present, and this usually increases in proportion as 
the local disturbance is observable, and subsides v»'ith it 

INFLAMMATION. 

Local inflammation is characterised by redness, swelling, heat, and pain. The 
redness proceeds from the greater quantity of blood flowing through the part, occa- 
sioned by the increased action of the vessels. The swelling arises from the same 
cause, and from the deposit of fluid in the neighbouring substance. The natural heat 
of the body is produced by the gradual change which takes place in the blood, in 
passing from an arterial to a venous state. If more blood is driven through the capil- 
laries of an inflamed part, and in which this change is effected, more heat will neces- 
sarily be produced there ; and the pain is easily accounted for by the distension and 
pressure which must be produced, and the participation of the nerves in the disturb- 
ance of the surrounding parts. 

If inflammation consists of an increased flow of blood to and through the part, the 
ready way to abate it is to lessen the quantity of blood. If we take away tlie fuel, 
tlie fire will go out. All other means are comparatively unimportant, contrasted with 
hleedlno;. Blood is generally abstracted froii the jugular vein, and so t!ie general 
qaantitv may be lessened ; biit if it can be taken from the neighbourhood of tiie dis- 
eased part, it v/ill be productive of tenfold benefit. One quart of blood abstracted from 
16* V 



ISC CONTENTS Of THE CHEST. 

the foot in acute founder, by unloading the vessels of the inflamed part, and enabling 
them to contract, and, in that contraction, to acquire tone Snd power to resist future 
distension, will do more yood than live quarts taken from the general circulation. An 
ounce of blocd obtained by scarifying the swelled vessels of the inflamed eye, will 
give as much relief to that organ as a copious bleeding from the jugular. It is a prin- 
ciple in the animal frame which should never be lost sight of by the veterinary sux- 
o-eon, or the horseman, that if by bleeding the process of inflammatron can once be 
checked, — if it can be suspended but for a little while, — although it may return, it is 
never with the same degree of violence, and in many cases it is got rid of entirely. 
Hence the necessity of bleeding early, and bleeding largely, in inflammation of the 
luno's, or of the bowels, or of the brain, or of any important organ. Many horses are 
lost for want or insufficiency of bleeding, but we never knew one materially injured 
by the most copious extraction of blood in the early stage of acute inflammation. The 
horse will bear, and with advantage, the loss of an almost incredible quantity of blood, 

four quarts taken from him, will be comparatively little more than one pound taken 

from the human being. We can scarcely conceive of a considerable inflammation of 
any part of the horse, whether proceeding from sprains, contusions, or any other 
cause in which bleeding, local (if possible), or general, or both, will not be of essen- 
tial service. 

Next in importance to bleeding, is purging. Something may be removed from the 
bowels, the retention of which would increase the general irritation and fever. The 
quantity of blood will be materially lessened, for the serous or watery fluid which is 
separated from it by a brisk purge, the action of which in the horse continues probably 
more than twenty-four hours, is enormous. While the blood is thus determined to 
the bowels, less even of that which remains will flow through the inflamed part. 
When the circulation is directed to one set of vessels, it is proportionately diminished 
in other parts. It was flrst directed to the inflamed portions, and they were overloaded 
and injured, — it is now directed to the bowels, and the inflamed parts are relieved. 
While the purging continues, some degree of languor and sickness is felt; and the 
force of the circulation is thereby diminished, and the rrpneral excitement lessened. 
The importance of physic in every case of considerable external inflammation, is suffi- 
ciently evident. If the horse is laid by for a few days from injury of the foot, or 
sprain, or poll-evil, or wound, or almost any cause of inflammation, a physic-ball 
should be given. 

In cases of internal inflammation, much judgment is required to determine when a 
purgative may be beneficial or injurious. In inflammation of the lungs or bowels, it 
should never be given. There is so strong a sympathy between the various contents 
of the cavity of the chest, that no one of them can be inflamed to any great extent, 
without all the others being disposed to bec('me so; and, therefore, a dose of physic 
in inflamed lungs, would perhaps be as fatal as a dose of poison. The excitement 
produced on the bowels by the purgative may run on to inflammation, which no 
medical skill can stop. 

The means of abating external inflammation are various, and seemingly contra- 
dictory. The heat of the part very naturally and properly led to the application of 
cold embrocations and lotions. Heat has a strong tendency to equalize itself, or to 
leave that substance which has a too great quantity of it, or little capacity to retain it, 
for another which has less of it, or more capacity. Hence the advantage of cold appli- 
cations, by which a great deal of the unnatural heat is speedily abstracted from the 
inflamed part. The foot labouring under inflammation is put into cold water, or the 
horse is made to stand in water or wet clay. Various cold applications are also used 
to sprains. The part is wetted with diluted vinegar, or goulard, or salt and water. 
When benefit is derived frcm these applications, it is to be attributed to their coldness 
alone. Water, especially \\hen cooled below the natural temperature, is as good an 
application as any that can be used. Nitre dissolved in water, will lower the tem- 
perature of the fluid many degrees; but the lotion must be applied immediately after 
the salt has been dissolved. A bandage may be afterwards applied to strcngthe'^ the 
limb, but during the continuance of active inflammation, it would only confine .he 
hc^at of the part, or prevent it from benefiting by the salutary influence of the cohl 
produced by the evaporation of the water. 

Sometimes, however, we resort to warm fomentations, and if benefit is derived from 
Iheir use, it is to be traced to the warmth of the fluid, more than to any medicinal pr^i* 



FEVER. .87 

perty in it. Warm water will do as much good to the horse, who has so thick a sliin, 
as any decoction of cliaraomile, or marsh-mallow, or poppy, heads, or any nostrum 
that the farrier may reconnnend. Fomentations increase the warmth of the skin, and 
c])e\\ the pores of it, and promote perspiration, and thus lessen the tension and swelling 
of tlie part, assuage pain, and relieve inflammation. Fomentations, to be beneficial, 
should be long and frequently applied, and at as great a degree of heat as can be used 
without giving the animal pain. Poultices are more permanent, or longer-continued 
tbmentations. The part is exposed to the influence of warmth and moisture for many 
hours or days without intermission, and perspiration being so long kept up, the dis- 
tended vessels will be very materially relieved. The advantage derived from a poul- 
tice is attributable to the heat and moisture, which, by means of it, can be long applied 
to the skin, and it should be composed of materials which will best retain this moisture 
and heat. The bran poultice of the farrier is, consequently, objectionable. It is 
never perfectly in contact with the surface of the skin, and it becomes nearly dry in a 
few hours, after which it is injurious rather than beneficial. Linseed-meal is a much 
better material for a poultice, for, if properly made, it will remain moist during many 
hours. 

It is occasionally very diflicult to decide when a cold or a hot application is to be 
used, and no general rule can be laid down, except that in cases of superficial inflam- 
mation, and in the early stage, cold lotions will be preferable; but, when the inflam- 
mation is deeper seated, or fully established, warm fomentations will be most ser- 
viceable. 

Stimulating applications are frequently used in local inflammation. When the 
disease is deeply seated, a stimulating application to the skin will cause some irrita- 
tion and inflammation there, and lessen or sometimes remove the original malady ; 
hence the use of rowels and blisters in inflammation of the chest. Inflammation to a 
high degree, cannot exist in parts that are near each other. If we excite it in one, we 
shall abate it in the other, and also, by the discharge which we establish from the 
one, we shall lessen the determination of blood to the other. 

Stimulating and blistering applications should never be applied to a part already 
inflamed. A fire is not put out by heaping more fuel upon it. Hence tire mischief 
which the farrier often does by rubbing his abominable oils on a recent sprain, hot 
and tender. Many a horse has been ruined by this absurd treatment. When the 
heat and tenderness have disappeared by the use of cold lotions or fomentations, and 
the leg or sprained part remains enlarged, or bony matter threatens to be deposited, it 
may be right to excite inflammation of the skin by a blister, in order to rouse the 
deeper-seated absorbents to action, and enable them to take up this deposit; but, 
except to hasten the natural process and eflTects of inflammation, a blister, or stimu- 
lating application, should never be applied to a part already inflamed. 

FEVER. 

Fever is general increased arterial action, either without any local affection, or in 
consequence of the sympathy of the system with inflammation in some particular 
part. 

The first is pure fever. Some have denied that that exists in the horse, but they 
must have been strangely careless observers of the diseases of tliat animal. The truth 
of the matter is, that the usual stable management and general treatment of the horse 
are so absurd, and various parts oi'him are rendered so liable to take on inflammation, 
that pure fever will exist a very little tim-e without degenerating into inflammation. 
The lungs are so weakened by the heated and foul air of the ill-ventilated stable, and 
by sudden changes from almost insufferable heat to intense cold, and the feet are so 
injured by hard usage and injudicious shoeing, that, sharing from the beginning in the 
general vascular excitement which characterises fever, they soon become excited far 
beyond other portions of the frame ; and that which commenced as fever becomes 
inflammation of the lungs or feet. Pure fever, however, is sometimes seen, and runs 
its course regularly. 

It frequently begins with a cold or shivering fit, although this is not essential to 
fever. The horse is dull, unwilling: to move, has a staring coat, and cold legs and 
feet. This is succeeded by warmth of the body; unequal distribution of warmth to 
the leg|; one hot, and the other three cold, or one or more unnaturally warm, ana the 
others unusually cold, but not the deathlike coldness of inflammation of the lungs; 



188 CONTENTS OF THE CHEST. 

the tiulse quick, soft, and often indistinct; the breathing somewhat laborious; but no 
f!ou"li, or pawing', or looking at the flanks. The animal will scarcely eat, and is 
very costive. While the state of purs fever lasts, the shivering fit returns at nearly 
the same hour every day, and is succeeded by the warm one, and that often by a slight 
deo-ree of perspiration; and these alternate during several days until local inflamma- 
tion appears, or the fever gradually subsides. No horse ever died of pure fever. If 
he is not destroyed by inflammation of the lungs, or feet, or bowels succeeding to the 
fever, he gradually recovers. 

What has been said of the treatment of local inflammation will sufficiently indicate 
that which should be resorted to in fever. Fever is general increased action of the 
heart and arteries, and therefore evidently appears the necessity for bleeding, regu- 
lating the quantity of blood by the degree of fever, and usually keeping the finger on 
the artery until some evident and considerable impression is made upon the system. 
The bowels should be gently opened ; but the danger of inflammation of the lungs, 
and the uniformly injurious consequence of purgation in that disease, will prevent the 
administration of an active purgative. A small quantity of aloes may be given morn- 
ing and nio-ht, with the proper fever medicine, until the bowels are slightly relaxed, 
after which nothing more of an aperient quality should be administered. Digitalis, 
emetic tartar, and nitre should be given morning and night, in proportions regulated 
by the circumstances of the case. The horse ehould be warmly clotiied, but be placed 
in a cool and well-ventilated stable. 

Syinpionidtic fever is increased arterial action, proceeding from some local cause. 
No organ of consequence can be much disordered or inflamed without the neighbour- 
ing parts being disturbed, and the whole system gradually participating in the 
disturbance. Inflammation of the feet or of the lungs never existed long or to any 
material extent, without being accompanied by some degree of fever. 

The treatment of symptomatic fever should resemble, that of simple fever, except 
that particular attention must be paid to the state of the part originally diseased. If 
the inflammation which existed there can be subdued, the general disturbance will 
usually cease. 

The arteries terminate occasionally in openings on different surfaces of the body. 
On the skin they pour out the perspiration, and on the ditferent cavities of the frame 
they yield the moisture which prevents friction. In other parts they terminate in 
glands, in which a fluid essentially different from the blood is secreted or separated : 
such are the parotid and salivary glands, the kidneys, the spleen, and the various 
organs or laboratories which provide so many and such different secretions, for the 
multifarious purposes of life ; but the usual termination of arteries is in veins. 

THE VEINS. 

These vessels carry back to the heart the blood which had been conveyed to the 
different parts by the arteries. They have two coats, a muscular and a membranous 
one. Both of them are thin and comparatively weak. They are more numerous and 
much larger than the arteries, and consequently the blood, lessened in quantity by the 
various secretions separated from it, flows more slowly through them. It is forced on 
partly by the first impulse communicated to it by the heart; also, in the extremities 
and external portions of the frame, by the pressure of the muscles ; and in the cavity 
of the chest, its motion is assisted or principally caused by the sudden expansion of 
the ventricles of the heart, after they have closed upon and driven out their contents, 
and thereby causing a vacuum which the blood rushes on to fill. There are curious 
valves in various parts of the veins which prevent the blood from flowing backward 
to its source. 

BOG AND BLOOD SPAVIN. 

The veins of the horse, although their coats are thin compared with those of thft 
arteries, are not subject to the enlargements (varicose veins) which are so frequent, 
and often so painful, in the legs of the human being. The legs of the horse may 
exhibit many of the injurious consequences of hard work, but the veins will, v.ith one 
exception, be unaltered in structure. Attached to the extremities of most of the 
tendons, and between the tendons and other parts, are little bags containing a mucous 
substance to enable the tendons to slide over each other without friction, and^o move 
easily on the neighbouring parts. From violent exercise these vessels are liable to 



BLEEDING. 18D 

enlarge Windgalls and thoroughpins are instances of this. There is one of them 
on the inside of the hock at its bending. This sometimes becomes considerably 
increased in size, and the enlargement is called a bug-spavin. A vein passes over this 
bag, which is pressed between the enlargement and the sliin, and the passage of the 
blood through it is impeded; the vein is consequently distended by the accumulated 
blood, and the distension reaches from this bag as low down as the next valve. This 
is called a bluud-spavln. Blood-spavin then is the consequence of bog-spavin. It 
very rarely occurs, and is, in the majority of instances, confounded with bog-spavin. 

lilood-spavin does' not always cause lameness, except the horse is very hard- 
worked, and then it is doubtful whether the lameness should not be attributed to the 
enlarged mucous bag rather than to the distended vein. Both of these diseases, 
however, render a horse unsound, and materially lessen his value. 

Old farriers used to tie the vein, and so cut off altogether the flow of the blood. 
Some of them, a little more rational, dissected out the bag which caused the disten- 
sion of the vein : but the modern and more prudent way is to endeavour to promote 
the absorption of the contents of the bag. This may be attempted by pressure long 
applied. A bandage may be contrived to take in the whole of the hock, except its 
point ; and a compress made of folded linen being placed on the bog-spavin, may 
confine the principal pressure to that part. It is, however, very difficult to adapt a 
bandage to a joint which admits of such extensive motion; therefore most practi- 
tioners apply two or three successive blisters over the enlargement, when it usually 
disappears. Unfortunately, however, it returns if any extraordinary exertion is 
required from the horse. 

BLEEDING. 

This operation is performed with a fleam or a lancet. The first is the common 
instrument, and the safest, except in skilful hands. The lancet, however, has a more 
surgical appearance, and will be adopted by the veterinary practitioner. A blood- 
stick — a piece of hard wood loaded at one end with lead — is used to strike the fleam 
into the vein. This is sometimes done with too great violence, and the opposite side 
of the coat of the vein is wounded. Bad cases of inflammation have resulted from 
this. If the fist is doubled, and the fleam is sharp and is struck with sufficient force 
with the lower part of the hand, the bloodstick may be dispensed with. 

For general blading the jugular vein is selected. The horse is blindfolded on the 
side on which he is to be bled, or his head turned well away. The hair is smoothed 
along the course of the vein with the moistened finger; then, with the third and little 
fingers of the left hand, which holds the fleam, pressure is made on the vein sufficient 
to bring it fairly into view, but not to swell it too much, for then, presenting a rounded 
surface, it would be apt to roll or slip under the blow. The point to be selected is 
about two inches below the union of the two portions of the jugular at the angle of 
the jaw (see cut, p. 125). The fleam is to be placed in a direct line with the course 
of the vein, and over the precise centre of the vein, as close to it as possible, but its 
point not absolutely touching the vein. A sharp rap with the bloodstick or the hand 
on that part of the back of the fleam immediately over the blade, will cut through the 
vein, and the blood will flow. A fleam with a large blade should always be preferred, 
for the operation will be materially shortened, and this will be a matter of some con- 
sequence with a fidgety or restive horse. A quantity of blood drawn speedily will 
also have far more effect on the system than double the weight slowly taken, while 
the wound will heal just as readily as if made by a smaller instrument. There is no 
occasion to press so hard against the neck with the pail, or can, as some do; a slight 
pressure, if the incision has been large enough and straight, and in the middle of the 
vein, will cause the blood to flow sufficiently fast ; or, the finger being introduced into 
the mouth between the tushes and the grinders, and gently moved about, will keep 
the mouth in motion, and hasten the rapidity of the stream by the action and pressure 
of the neighbouring muscles. 

When sufficient blood has been taken, the edges of the wound should be brought 
closely and exactly together, and kept tosrether by a small sharp pin being passed 
through them. Round this a little tow, or a few hairs from the mane of the horse, 
should be wrapped, so as to cover the whole of the incision ; and the head of the 
horse should be tied up for several hours to prevent his rubbing the part against the 
manger. In bringing the edges of the wound together, and introducing the pin, care 



]Q0 BLEEDING. 

should not be taken to draw the skin too much from the neck, otherwise blood will 
insinuate itself between it and the muscles beneath, and cause an unsightly and 
sometimes troublesome swelling. 

The blood should be received into a vessel, the dimensions of which are exactly 
known, so that the operator may be able to calculate at every period of the bleeding 
the quantity that is subtracted. Care likewise should be taken that the blood flows 
in a regular stream into the centre of the vessel, for if it is suffered to trickle down 
the sides, it will not afterwards undergo those changes by which we partially judge 
of the extent of inflammation. The pulse, however, and the symptoms of the case 
collectively, will form a better criterion than any change in the blood. Twenty-four 
hours after the operation, the edges of the wound will have united, and the pin should 
be withdrawn. When the bleeding is to be repeated, if more than three or four hours 
have elapsed, it will be better to make a fresh incision rather than to open the old 
wound. 

Few directions are necessary for the use of the lancet. They who are competent 
to operate with it, will scarcely require any. If the point is sufficiently sharp the 
lancet can scarcely be too broad-shouldered ; and an abscess lancet will generally 
make a freer incision than that in common use. Whatever instrument is adopted, too 
much care cannot be taken to have it perfectly clean, and very sharp. It should be 
carefully wiped and dried immediately after the operation, otherwise, in a very short 
time, the edges will begin to be corroded. 

For general bleeding the jugular vein is selected as the largest superficial one, and 
most easily got at. In every affection of the head, and in cases of fever or extended 
inflammatory action, it is decidedly the best place for bleeding. In local inflamma- 
tion, blood may be taken from any of the superficial veins. In supposed affections 
of the shoulder, or of the fore-leg or foot, the plafe vein, which comes from the inside 
of the arm, and runs upwards directly in front of it towards the jugular, may be opened. 
In affections of the hind extremity, blood is sometimes extracted from the saphxna, oi 
thigh-vein, which runs across the inside of the thigh. In foot cases it may be taken 
from the coronet, or, much more safely, from the toe ; not by cutting out, as the far- 
rier docs, a piece of the sole at the toe of the frog, which sometimes causes a wound 
diflicult to heal, and followed by festering, and even by canker; but cutting down with 
a fine drawing-knife, called a searcher, at the union between the crust and the sole at 
the very toe until the blood flows, and, if necessary, encouraging its discharge by dip- 
ping the foot in warm water. The mesh-work of both arteries and veins will be here 
divided, and blood is generally obtained in any quantity that may be needed. The 
bleeding may be stopped with the greatest ease, by placing a bit of tow in the little 
groove that has been cut, and tacking the shoe over it.* 

* A great improvement has lately been introduced in the method of arresting arterial 
hsemorrnage. The operation is very simple, and, with common care, successful. The instru- 
ment is a pair of artery forceps, with rather sharper teeth than the common forceps, and the 
blades held close by a slide. The vessel is laid bare, detached from the cellular substance 
around it, and the artery then prasped by the forceps, the instrument deviating a very little 
from the line of the artery. The vessel is now divided close to the forceps, and behind them, 
and the forceps are twisted four or five times round. The forceps are then loosened, and, 
generally speaking, not more than a drop or two of blood will have been lost. This method 
of arresting bleeding has been applied by several scientific and benevolent men with almost 
constant success. It has been readily and effectually practised in docking, and our patients 
have escaped much torture, and tetanus lost many a victim. The forceps have been intro- 
duced, and with much success, in castration, and thus the principal danger of that operation, 
as well as the most painful part of it, is removed. The colt will be a fair subject for this 
experiment. On the sheep and the calf it may be readily performed, and the operator will 
have the pleasing consciousness of rescuing many a poor animal from the unnecessary inflic- 
tion 01 torture. 



MEMBRANE OF THE NOSE. 101 



CHAPTER VIII. 

We now proceed to the consideration of the diseases of the respiratory system. 
THE MEMBRANE OF THE NOSE. 

The mucous membrane of the nose is distinguished from other mucous surfaces, not 
only by its thickness, but its vascularity. The blood-vessels are likewise superficial ; 
they are not covered even by integument, but merely by an unsubstantial mucous coat. 
They are deeper seated, indeed, than in the human being, and they are more protected 
from injury ; and therefore there is far less haemorrhage from the nostril of the horse 
than from that of the human being, whether spontaneous or accidental. Lyino- immp« 
diately under the mucous coat, these vessels give a peculiar, and, to the horseman, a 
most important tinge to the membrane, and particularly observable on the septum. 
They present him with a faithful indication of the state of the circulation, and espe- 
cially in the membranes of the other respiratory passages with which this is con- 
tinuous. 

The horseman and the veterinary surgeon do not possess many of the auxiliaries of 
the human practitioner. Their patients are dumb ; they can neither tell the seat nor 
the degree of pain; and the blunders of the practitioner are seldom buried with tiie 
patient. Well, he must use greater diligence in availing himself of the advantao-es 
that he does possess ; and he has some, and very important ones, too. The varyiuc 
hue of the Schneiderian membrane is the most important of nil ; and, with regard to 
the most frequent and fttal diseases of the horse — those of the respiratory passao-es — 
it gives almost all the information with regard to the state of the circulation in those 
parts that can possibly be required. Veterinarians too generally overlook this. It 
has not yet been sufficiently taught in our schools, or inculcated in our best works on 
the pathology of the horse. 

It is the custom with almost every horseman who takes any pains to ascertain the 
state of his patient, to turn down the lower eyelid, and to form his opinion of the 
degree of general inflammation by the colour which the lining membrane of the lid 
presents. If it is very red, he concludes that there is considerable fever; if it is of a 
pale pinkish hue, there is comparatively little danger. This is a very important 
examination, and the conclusion which he draws from it is generally true : but on the 
septum of the nose he has a membrane more immediately continuous with those of 
the respiratory organs — more easily got at — presenting a larger surface — the ramifica- 
tions of the blood-vessels better seen, and, what is truly important, indicating not only 
the general affection of the membranes, but of those with which he is most of all 
concerned. 

We would then say to every horseman and practitioner, study the character of that 
portion of the membrane which covers the lower part of the membrane of the nose — 
that which you can most readily bring into view. Day after day, and under all the 
varying circumstances of health and disease, study it until you are enabled to recog- 
nise, and you soon will, and that with a degree of exactitude you would have scarcely 
thought possible, the pale pink hue when the horse is in health — the increasing blush 
of red, and the general and uniform painting of the membrane, betokening some excite- 
ment of the system — the streaked appearance when inflammation is threatening or 
commencing — the intensely florid red of inflammation becoming acute — the starting 
of the vessels from their gossamer coat, and their seeming to run bare over the mem- 
brane, when the inflammation is at the highest — the pale ground with patches of vivid 
red, showing the half-subdued but still existing fever — the uniform colour, but some 
what redder than natural, indicating a return to a healthy state of the circulation — the 
paleness approaching to white, accompanying a state of debility, and yet some radia- 
tions of crimson, showing that there is still considerable irritability, and that mischief 
may be in the wind — the pale livid colour warning you that the disease is assuming 
a typhoid character — the darker livid announcing that the typhus is established, and 
that the vital current is stagnating — and the browner, dirty painting, intermingling 
•with and subduing the lividness, and indicating that the game is up. These appear 



82 MEMBRANEOFTHENOSE. 

anccs will be guides to our opinion and treatment, which we can never too highly 
appreciate. 

CATARRH, OR COLD. 

Catarrh, or Cold, is attended by a slight defluxion from the nose — now and then, a 
sliq;hter weeping from the eyes, and some increased labour of breathing, on account 
of the uneasine'ss which the animal experiences from the passage of the air over the 
naturally sensitive, and now more than usually irritable surface, and from the air- 
passage being diminished by a thickening of the membrane. When this is a simply 
local rnllamrnation, attended by no loss of appetite or increased animal temperature, 
it may speedily pass over. 

In many cases, however, the inflammation of a membrane naturally so sensitive, 
and rendered so morbidly irritable by our absurd treatment, rapidly spreads, and 
involves the fauces, the lymphatic and some of the salivary glands, the throat, the 
parotid gland, and the membrane of the larynx. We have then increased discharge 
from the nose, greater redness of the membrane of the nose, more defluxion from the 
eyes, and loss of appetite, from a degree of fever associating itself with the local 
atfection ; and there also being a greater or less degree of pain in the act of swallow- 
ing, and which, if the animal feels this, he will never eat. Cough now appears more 
or less frequent or painful ; but with no great acceleration of the pulse, or heaving 
of the flanks. 

Catarrh may arise from a thousand causes. Membranes, subjected to so many 
sources of irritation, soon become irritable. Exposure to cold or rain, change of 
stable, change of weather, change of the slightest portion of clothing, neglect of 
grooming, and a variety of circumstances apparently trifling, and which they who 
are unaccustomed to horses would think could not possibly produce any injurious 
effect, are the causes of catarrh. In the spring of the year, and while moulting, a 
great many young horses have cough ; and in the dealers' stables, where the process 
of making up the horse for sale is carrying on, there is scarcely one of them that 
escapes this disease. 

In the majority of cases, a few warm mashes, warm clothing, and a warm stable — a 
f»ver-ball or two, with a drachm of aloes in each, and a little antimony in the evening, 
will set all right. Indeed, all would soon be right without any medicine ; and much 
more speedily and perfectly than if the cordials, of which grooms and farriers are so 
fond, had been given. Nineteen horses out of twenty with common catarrh will do 
well; but in the twentieth case, a neglected cough may be the precursor of bronchitis, 
and pneumonia. These chest affections often insidiously creep on, and inflammation 
is frequently established before any one belonging to tlie horse is aware of its exist- 
ence. If there is the least fever, the horse should be bled. A common cold, attended 
by heat of the mouth or indisposition to feed, should never pass without the abstrac- 
tion of blood. A physic-ball, however, should not be given in catarrh without much 
consideration. It can scarcely be known what sympathy may exist between the por- 
tion of membrane already affected, and the mucous membranes generally. In severe 
thoracic affection, or in that which may soon become so, a dose of physic would be 
little better than a dose of poison. If, however, careful investigation renders it evi- 
dent that there is no affection of the lungs, and that the disease has not proceeded 
beyond the fauces, small doses of aloes may with advantage be united with other 
medicines, in order to evacuate the intestinal canal, and reduce the faecal discharge to 
a pultaceous form. 

If catarrh is accompanied by sore throat; if the parotids should enlarge and 
become tender — there are no tonsils, amyndalac, in the horse — or if the submaxillary 
glands should be inflamed, and the animal should quid his food and gulp his water, 
this will be an additional reason for bleeding, and also for warm clothing and a com- 
fortable stable. A hot stable is not meant by the term comfortable, in which the foul 
air is breathed over and over agaih, but a temperature some degrees above that of the 
external air, and where that determination to the skin and increased action of the 
exhalent vessels, which in these c;!ses are so desirable, may take place. Every stable, 
both for horses in sickness and in health, should have in it a thermometer. 

Some stimulating liniment may be applied over the inflamed gland, consisting of 
turpentine or tincture of cantharides, diluted with spermaceti or neat's-foot oil — strong 
enough to produce considerable irritation on the skin, but not to blister, or to destroy 



INFLAMMATION OF THE LARYNX. 193 

ihe hair. A ft embrocation sufficiently powerful, and yet that never destroys the hair, 
consists of equal parts of hartshorn, oil of turpentine, and camphorated spirit, with a 
small quantity of laudanum. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE LARYNX. 

Strictly speaking, this refers to inflammation confined to the larynx; but either 
catarrh or bronchitis, or both, frequently accompany the complaint. 

Its approach is often insidious, scarcely to be distin;Tuished from catarrh, except by 
being- attended with more soreness of throat, and less enlargement of the parotid glands. 
Tliere are also more decided and violent paroxysms of coughing than in common 
catarrh, attended by a gurgling noise, which may be heard at a little distance from 
the horse, and which, by auscultation, is decidedly referrible to the larynx. The 
breathing is shorter and quicker, and evidently more painful than catarrh ; the mem- 
brane of the nose is redder ; it is of a deep modena colour ; and the horse shrinks, 
and exhibits great pain when the larynx is pressed upon. The paroxysms of cough- 
ing become more frequent and violent, and the animal appears at times almost 
suffocated. 

As the soreness of the throat proceeds, the head of the animal is projected, and the 
neck has a peculiar stiffness. There is also much difficulty of swallowing. Con- 
siderable swelling of the larynx and the pharynx ensue, and also of the parotid, sub- 
lingual, and submaxillary glands. As the inflamm-ation increases, the cough becomes 
hoarse and feeble, and in some cases altogether suspended. At the commencement, 
there is usually little or no nasal defluxion ; but the secretion soon appears, either 
pure or mixed with an unusual quantity of saliva. 

Auscultation is a very important aid in the discovery of the nature, and serious or 
trifling character of this disease. It cannot be too often repeated, that it is one of the 
most valuable means which we possess of detecting the seat, intensity, and results of 
the maladies of the respiratory passages. No insrument is r°quired ; the naked ear 
can be applied evenly and flatly, and with a very slight pressure, on any part that it 
is of importance to examine. The healthy sound, when the ear is applied to the 
windpipe, is that of a body of air passing uninterruptedly through a smooth tube ot 
somewhat considerable calibre : it very much resembles the sound of a pair of forge 
bellows, when not too violently worked. 

He who is desirous of ascertaining whether there is any disease in the larynx of a 
horse, should apply his ear to the lower part of the windpipe. If he finds that the air 
passes in and out without interruption, there is no disease of any consequence either 
in the windpipe or the chest; for it would immediately be detected by the loudness or 
the interruption of the murmur. Then let him gradually proceed up the neck, with 
his ear still upon the windpipe. Perhaps he soon begins to recognise a little gurgling, 
grating sound. As he continues to asccjid, that sound is more decisive, mingled with 
an occasional wheezing, wh'.^tling noise. He can have no surer proof that here is the 
impediment to the passage of the air, proceeding from the tliickening of the membrane 
and diminution of the passage, or increased secretion of mucus, which bubbles and 
rattles as the breath passes. By the degree of the rattling or whistling, the owner 
will judge which cause of obstruction preponderates — in fact, he will have discovered 
the seat and the state of the disease and the sooner he has recourse to professional 
advice the better. 

Chronic laryngitis is of more frequent occurrence than acute. Many of the couglis 
♦hat are most troublesome are to be traced to this source. 

In violent cases laryngitis terminates in suffocation ; in others, in thick wind or 
in roaring. Occasionally it is necessary to have recourse to me operation of trache- 
otomy. 

In acute laryngitis the treatment to be pursued is sufficiently plain. Blood rnust 
be abstracted, and that from the jugular vein, for there will then be the combined 
advantage of general and local bleeding. The blood must be somewhat copiously 
withdravvn, depending on the degree of inflammation — the practitioner never for a 
moment forgetting that he has to do with inflammation of a mucous membrane, and 
that what he does he must do quickly. He will have lost the opportunity of strug- 
gling successfully with the disease when it has altered its character and debility hag 
succeeded. The cases must be few and far between when the surgeon rnakes up 
Ws mind to any determinate quantity of blood, and leaves his assistant or his groom 
17 » 



194 INFLAMMATION OF THE TRACHEA— ROARING. 

to abstract it; he must himself bleed, and until the pulse flutters o' ♦he constitution 
is evidently aflfected. 

Next must be given the fever medicine already recommended : the digitalis, nitre, 
and emetic tartar, with aloes. Aloes may here be safely given, because the chest is 
not yet implicated. To this must be added, and immediately, a blister, and a sharp 
one. The surgeon is sure of the part, and he can bring his counter-irritant almost 
into contact with it. 

Inflammation of the larynx, if not speedily subdued, produces sad disorganization 
in this curiously formed and important machine. Lymph is efl;used, morbidly adhe- 
sive, and speedily organised — the membrane becomes thickened, considerably, per- 
manently so — th(! submucous cellular tissue becomes (Edematous ; the inflammation 
spreads from the membrane of the larynx to the cartilages, and difficulty of breath- 
ing, and at length confirmed roaring, ensue. I 

INFLAMMATION OF THE TRACHEA, ' 

Inflammation of the membrane of the larynx, and especially when it has run on 
to ulceration, may rapidly spread, and involve the greater part or the whole of the 
lining membrane of the trachea. Auscultation will discover when this is taking 
place. If the disease is extending down the trachea, it must be followed. A blis- 
ter must reach as low as the rattling sound can be detected, and somewhat beyond 
this. The fever medicines must be administered in somewhat increased doses ; and 
the bleeding must be repeated, if the state of the pulse does not indicate the con- 
trary. 

Generally speaking, however, although the inflammation is now approaching the 
chest, its extension into the trachea is not an unfavourable symptom. It is spread 
over a more extended surface, and is not so intense or untractable. It is involving a 
part of the frame less complicated, and where less mischief can be effected. True, 
if the case is neglected, it must terminate fatally ; but it is coming more within reach, 
and more under command, and, the proper means being adopted, the change is rather 
a favourable one. 

The disorganizations produced in the trachea are similar to some which have been 
described in the larynx. The same formation of organised bands of coagulated 
lymph, the same thickening of membrane, diminution of calibre, and foundation foi 
roaring. 

ROARING. 

The present will be the proper place to speak of that singular impairment of the 
respiratory function recognised by this name. It is an unnatural, loud grunting sound 
made by the animal in the act of breathing when in quick action or on ary sudden 
exertion. On carefully listening to the smmd, it will appear that the roaring is pro- 
duced in the act of inspiration, and not in that of expiration. If the horre is bviskly 
trotted on a level surface, and more particularly if he is hurried up hill, or if he is 
suddenly threatened with a stick, this peculiar sound will be heard artu cannot be 
mistaken. When dishonest dealers are showing a horse that roars, but not to any 
great degree, they trot away gently, and as soon as they are too far for the sound to 
be heard, show off" the best paces of the animal ; on returning, they gradually slacken 
their speed when they come within a suspicious distance. This is sometimes techni- 
cally called " the dealers' long trot." 

Roaring is exceedingly unpleasant to the rider, and it is manifest unsoundness. It 
is the sudden and violent rushing of the air through a tube of diminished calibre; 
and if the impediment, whatever it is, renders it so difficult for the air to pa&s in some- 
what increased action, sufficient cannot be admitted to give an adequate supply of 
drterialized blood in extraordinary or long-continued exertion. Therefore, as impair 
ing the function of respiration, although, sometimes, only on extraordinary occasion? 
it is unsoundness. In as many cases as otherwise, it is a very serious cause of un- 
soundness. The roarer, when hardly pressed, is often blown even to the hazard of 
suffocation, and there are cases on record of his suddenly dropping and dying when 
urged to the top of his speed. 

It must not, however, be taken for granted that the roarer is always worthless. 
There are few hunts in which there is not one of these horses, who acquits himself 
tery fairly in the field ; and it has occasionally so happened that the roarer has been 



ROARING. 195 

t.he very crack horse of the hunt; yet he must be ridden with judgment, and spared 
a \ittle when going up-hill. There is a village in the West Riding of Yorkshire, 
through which a band of smugglers used frequently to pass in the dead of night; 
the horse of the leader, and the best horse of the troop, and on which his owner 
would bid defiance to all pursuit, was so rank a roarer, that he could be heard at a 
considerable distance. The clattering of all the rest scarcely made so much noise as 
the roaring of the captain's horse. When this became a little too bad, and he did 
not fear immediate pursuit, the smuggler used to halt the troop at some convenient 
hayrick on the roadside, and, having suffered the animal to distend his stomach with 
this dry food, as he was always ready enough to do, he would remount and gallop 
on, and, for a while, the roaring was scarcely heard. It is somewhat dithcult to ac- 
count for this. Perhaps the loaded stomach now pressing against the diaphragm, 
that muscle had harder work to displace this viscus in the act of enlarging the chest 
and producing an act of inspiration, and accomplished it mure slowly, and therefore, 
the air passing more slowly by, the roaring was diminished. W^e do not dare to cal 
culate what must have been the increased labour of the diaphragm in moving the load 
cd stomach, nor how much sooner the horse must have been exhausted. This did not 
enter into the owner's reckoning, and probably the application of whip and spur would 
deprive him of the means of forming a proper calculation of it. 

Eclipse was a " high-blower." He drew his breath hard, and with apparent difh 
culty. The upper air-passages, perhaps those of the head, did not correspond with 
his unusually capacious chest ; yet he was never beaten. It is said that he never met 
with an antagonist fairly to put him to the top of his speed, and that the actual effect 
of this disproportion in the two extremities of the respiratory apparatus was not 
thoroughly tested. Mares comparatively seldom become roarers. It appears to be 
difficult, if not impossible, to assign any satisfactory reason for this; but the fact is 
too notorious among horsemen, to admit of doubt. 

Roaring proceeds from obstruction in some portion of the respiratory canal, and 
oftenest m the larynx, for there is least room to spare — that cartilaginous box being 
occupied by the mechanism of the voice : next in frequency it is in the trachea, but, 
m fact, obstruction anywhere will produce it. Mr. Blaine, quoting from a French 
journalist, says, that a piece of riband lodged within one of the nasal fossa; produced 
roaring, and that even the displacement of a molar tooth has been the supposed cause 
of it. "^Polypi in the nostrils have been accompanied by it. Mr. Sewell found, as an 
evident cause of roaring, an exostosis between the two first ribs, and pressing upon 
the trachea ; and Mr. Percivall goes farther, and says that his father repeatedly blis- 
tered and fired a horse for bad^ roaring, and even performed the operation of trache- 
otomy, and at length the roaring being so loud when the horse was led out of the 
stable, that it was^'painful to hear it— the poor animal was destroyed. No thickening 
of the membrane was found, no disease of the larynx or tnchea; but the lungs were 
hepatized throughout the greater part of their substance and many of the smaller 
divisions of the bronchi were so compressed, that they wero hardly pervious. 

Bands nf Coa.irulated Lymph. — A frequent cause of roaring is bands of coagulated 
lymph, morbidly viscid and tenacious, adhering firmly on one side, and by some act 
of coughing brought into contact with and adhering to the other side, and becoming 
gradually organized. At other times there have been rings of coagulated lymph 
adhering to the lining of the trachea, but not organized. In either case they form a 
mechanical obstruction, and will account for the roaring noise produced^ by the air 
rushing violently through the diminished calibre, in hurried respiration. Thickening 
of the "membrane is a more frequent cause of roaring than the transverse bands of 
coao-ulated lymph. In many morbid specimens it is double or treble its natural thick- 
ness, and covered with manifold ulcerations. This is particularly annoying in the 
upper part of the windpipe, where the passages, in their natural state, are narrow 
Thus it is that roaring is the occasional consequence of strangles and catarrh, and 
other affections of the superior passages. 

There is scarcely a horse of five or six years old who has not a portion ot the thy- 
roid cartilao-e ossified. In some cases the greater part of the cartilages are becoming 
bony, or sufficiently so to weaken or destroy their elastic power, and consequently to 
render it impossible for them to be freely and fully acted upon by the delicate muscles 

pf the larynx. . • i *. * »i. 

Chronic cough occasionally terminates in roaring. Some have imagined that thfi 



19G ROARING. 

dealers' habit of cmtghhig the horse, i. e. pressing upon the larynx to make him cough 
in order that they may judc^e of the state of his wind by the sound that is emitted, has 
produced inflammation about tlie larynx, which has terminated in roaring, or assisted 
in producing it. That pain is given to the animal by the rough and violent way in 
which the object is sometimes attempted to be accomplished, is evident enough, and 
this must, in process of time, lead to mischief; but sufficient inflammation and sub- 
sequent ossification of the cartilages would scarcely be produced, to be a cause of 
roarmg. 

The Disease of Draught-Horses generally, — There can be no doubt of the fact, that 
the majority of roarers are draught-horses, and horses of quick draught. They are 
not only subject to the usual predisposing causes of this obstruction, but there is some- 
thing superadded, — resulting from their habits or mode of work, — not indeed necessa- 
rily resulting, but that which, the folly as well as cruelty of man has introduced — the 
system of tight-reining. To a certain extent, the curb-rein is necessary. Without it 
there would be scarcely any command over a wilful horse, and it would need a strong 
arm occasionally to guide even the most willing. Without the curb-rein the horse 
would carry himself low; he would go carelessly along; he would become a stum- 
bler; and if he were disposed at any time to run away, the strongest arm would have ■ 
little power to stop him ; but there is no necessity for the tight rein, and for the long 7 
and previous discipline to which the carriage-horse is subjected. There is no necessity 
that the lower jaw, whether tlie channel is wide or narrow, should be so forced on the 
neck, or that the larynx and the portion of the windpipe immediately beneath it should 
be flattened, and bent, and twisted, and the respiratory passage not only obstructed, 
but in a manner closed. The miscliief is usually done when the horse is young. It 
is effected in some measure by the impatience of the animal, unused to control, and 
suffering pain. In the violent tossing of his head he bruises the larynx, and produces 
inflammation. The head of the riding-liorse is gradually brought to its proper place 
by the hands of the breaker, who skilfully increases or relaxes the pressure, and 
humours and plays with the mouth ; but the poor carriage-horse is confined by a rein 
that never slackens, and his nose is bent in at the expense of the larynx and wind- 
pipe. The injury is materially increased if the head is not naturally well set on, or 
the neck is thick, or the jaws narrow. 

Connected with this is the common notion that crib-biting is a cause of roaring. 
That is altogether erroneous. There is no possible connexion between the com- 
plaints : but one of the methods that used to be resorted to in order to cure crib-biting 1 
might be a cause of roaring, namely, the strap so tightly buckled round the upper I 
part of the neck as to compress, and distort, and paralyse the larynx. 

Facts have established the hereditary predisposition to roaring, beyond the possi- 
bility of doubt. 

In France it is notorious that three-fourths of the horses from Cottentin are roarers, 
and some of them are roarers at six months old ; but about La Hague and Le Bocase, 
not a roarer is known. Tliere is certainly a considerable difTerence in the soil of the 
two districts ; the first is low and marshy, the latter elevated and dry : but tradition 
traces it to the introduction of some foreign horses into Cottentin, who bequeathed 
this infirmity to their progeny. 

In our own country, there is as decisive a proof. There was a valuable stallion in 
Norfolk, belonging to Major Wilson, of Didlington. He was a great favourite, and 
seemed to be getting some excellent stock ; but he was a roarer, and some of the 
breeders took alarm at this. They had occasionally too painful experience of the 
communication of the defects of the parent to his progeny ; and they feared that roar- 
ing might possibly be among these hereditary evils. Sir Charles Bunbury was 
requested to obtain Mr. Cline's opinion on the subject. Mr. Cline was a deservedly 
eminent human surgeon : he had exerted himself in the establishment of the Veteri- 
nary College : he was an examiner of veterinary pupils, and therefore it was supposed 
that he must be competent to give an opinion. He gave one, and at considerable 
length : — "The disorder in the horse," said he, "which constitutes a roarer, is caused 
by a membranous projecfion in a part of the windpipe, and is the consequence of thai 
part having been inflamed from a cold, and injudiciously treated. A roarer, therefore 
IS not a diseased horse, for his lungs and every other part may he perfectly sound 
The existence of roaring in a stallion cannot be of any consequence. It cannot be 
propagated any more than a broken bone, or any other accident." — A fair specimfn 



BRONCIIOCELB. 197 

fif the horse-knowledge of one of the best of the medical examiners c veterinary 
{lupils. 

yir Charles returned full of glee; the good people of Norfolk and Suffolk were 
satisfied ; Major Wilson's horse was in high request: but in a few years a great part 
f the two counties was overrun with roarers, and many a breeder half ruined. 
Roaring is not, however, necessarily hereditary. Mr.. Goodwin, whose name is great 
authority, states that Taurus, a celebrated racer that had become a roarer, had covered 
several mares, and their produce all turned out well, and had won several races. In 
jio instance did his progeny exhibit this defect, notwithstanding that his own family 
wer3 notorious for being roarers. Eclipse also is said to have been a roarer. 

What then is to be done with these animals 1 Abandon them to their fate? No, 
not so ; but there is no necessity rashly to undertake a hopeless affair. All possible 
knowledge must be obtaiiji'd of the origin of the disease. Did it follow strangles, 
catarrh, bronchitis, or any affection of the respiratory passages'? Is it of long stand- 
ing 1 Is it now accompanied by cough or any symptoms of general or local irrita- 
tion ? Can any disorganization of these parts be detected? Any distortion of the 
larynx T Did it follow hreaking-in to harness ] The answer to these questions will 
materially guide any future proceedings. If there is plain distortion of the larynx or 
fxachea, or the disease can be associated, in point of time, with breaking-in to harness, 
or the coachman or proprietor has been accustomed to rein the animal in too tightly 
or too cruelly, or the sire was a roarer, it is almost useless to have anything to do 
with the case. But if it is of rather recent date, and following closely on some dis- 
ease with which it can be clearly connected, careful examination of the patient may 
be commenced. Is there cough 1 Can any heat or tenderness be detected about the 
larynx or trachea? Is there in every part the same uniform rushing noise; or, on 
some particular spot, can a more violent breathing, a wheezing or whistling, or a 
rattling- and oruororlinof, be detected ? Is that wheezintr or rattling either confined to 
one spot, or less sonorous as the car recedes from that spot above or below ; or is it 
diffused over a considerable portion of the trachea ? 

In these cases it would be fair to bleed, purge, and most certainly to blister. The 
e?,r will guide to the part to which the blister should be applied. The physic having 
set, a course of fever medicine should be commenced. It should be considered as a 
case of chronic inflammation, and to be subdued by a continuance of moderate deple- 
tory measures. Probably blood should again be abstracted in less quantity ; a second 
dose of physic should be given, and, most certainly, the b4ister should be repeated, 
or kept discharging by means of some stimulating unguent. The degree of success 
which attends these measures would determine 5.he farther pursuit of them. If no 
relief is obtained after a fortnight or three weekc, perhaps the experimenter would 
ponder on another mode of treatment. He would again carefully explore the whole 
extent of the trachea, and if he could yet refer the rattling or wheezing to the same 
point at which he had before observed it, he would boldly propose tracheutomy, for 
he could certainly cut upon the seat of disease. 

If he found one of these organised bands, the removal of it would afford immediate 
relief; or if he found merely a thickened membrane, no harm would be done ; or the 
loss of blood might abate the local inflammation. No one would eagerly undertake 
a case of roaring; but, having undertaken it, he should give the measures that he 
adopts a fair trial, remembering that, in every chronic case like this, the only hope 
of success depends on perseverance. 

BRONCHOCELE. 

Mr. Percivall is almost the only author who takes notice of enlargement of the 
thyroid glands — two oval bodies below the larynx, and attached to the trachea. The 
nse of them has never been satisfactorily explained. They sometimes grow to the 
size of an e'^rg^ or larger, but are unattended by cough or fever, and are nothing more 
than an eye-sore. The iodine ointt^nt has occasionally been applied with success. 
The blister or the seton may also be useful. 

EPIDEMIC CATARRH. 

Various names are given to this disease — influenza, distemper, catarrhal fever, and 
epidemic catarrh. Its usual history is as follows. 

In the sprino- of the year — a cold, wet spring — ^and that succeeding to a mild wintei, 
17* 



198 EPIDEMIC CATARRH. 

and especially among young horses, and those in high condition, or made up for salt, 
or that have been kept in hot stables, or exposed to the usual causes of inflammalion, 
ihis disease principally, and sometimes almost exclusively, prevails. Those that are 
m moderate work, and that are correspondingly fed, generally escape ; or even when 
it appears in most of the stables in a narrower or wider district, horses in barracks, 
regularly worked and moderately fed, although not entirely exempt, are comparatively 
seldem diseased. 

If it has been observed from the beginning, it will be found that the attack is 
usually sudden, ushered in by shivering, and that quickly succeeded by acceleration 
of pulse, heat of mouth, staring coat, tucked-up belly, diminuiion of appetite, painful 
but not loud cough, heaving at the Hanks, redness of the membrane of the nose, 
swelled and weeping eye, dejected countenance — these are the symptoms of catarrh, 
but under a somewhat aggravated form. ^ 

It clearly is not inflammation of the lungs ; for tlrere is no coldness of the extremi- 
ties, no looking at the flanks, no stilf immovable position, no obstinate standing up. 
It is not simple catarrh ; for as early as the second day there is evident debility. The 
horse staggers as he walks. 

It is inflammation of the respiratory passages generally. It commences in the mem- 
brane of the nose, but it gradually involves the whole of the respiratory apparatus 
Defore the disease has been established four-and-twenty hours, there is frequenily sore- 
throat. The horse quids his hay, and gulps his water. There is no great enlargement of 
tlie glands; the parotids are a little tumefied, the submaxillary somewhat more so, bu} 
not at all equivalent to the degree of soreness. That soreness is excessive, and day aftei 
day the horse will obstinately refuse to eat. Discharge from the nose soon follows 
in considerable quantity : thick, very early purulent, and sometimes fcetid. The 
breathing is accelerated and laborious at the beginning, but does not always increase 
with the progress of the disease — nay, sometimes, a deceitful calm succeeds, and tha 
pulse, quickened and full at first, soon loses its firmness, and although it usually 
maintains its unnatural quickness, yet it occasionally deviates from this, and subsides 
to little more than its natural standard. The extremities continue to be comfortably 
warm, or at least the temperature is variable, and there is not in the manner of the 
animal, or in any one symptom, a decided reference to any particular part or spot, aa 
the chief seat of disease. 

Thus the malady proceeds for an uncertain period : occasionally for several days — 
in not a few instances through the whole of its course, and the animal dies exhausted 
by extensive or general irritation : but in other cases the inflammation assumes a 
local determination, and we have bronchitis or pneumonia, but of no very acute cha- 
racter, yet difficult to treat, from the general debility with which it is connected. 
►Sometimes there are considerable swellings in various parts, as the chest, the belly, 
the extremities, and particularly the head. The brain is occasionally affected ; the 
horse grows stupid ; the conjunctiva is alarmingly red ; the animal becomes gradually 
unconscious, and delirium follows. A curious thickening, that may be mistaken foj 
severe sprain, is sometimes observed about the tendons. It is seen under the knee 
or about the fetlock. It is hot and tender, and tlie lameness is considerable. Thp 
feet occasionally suflTer severely. There is a determination of fever to them far more 
violent than the original disease, and separation of the laminae and descent of the sole 
ensue. It may be easily imagined how roaring may be connected with epidemic 
catarrh ; but it is rarely or never followed by glanders. These changes of situation 
are not fatal, but the practitioner is rather glad to see them, except indeed when the 
feet are attacked ; for the disease seems inclined to shift its situation or character, 
and is more easily subdued. 

The most decided character in this disease is debility. Not the stiff, unwilling 
motion of the horse with pneumonia, and which has been mistaken lor debility — 
every muscle being needed for the purposes of respiration, and therefore imperfectly 
used in locomotion — but actual loss of power in |Jie muscular system generally. The 
horse staggers from the second day. He threateais to fall if he is moved. He is 
sometimes down, permanently down, on the third cr fourth day. The emaciation is 
also occasionally rapid and extreme. 

At length the medical treatment which has been employed succeeds, or nature 
begins to rally. The cough somewhat subsides ; the pulse assumes its natura. 
siaadard ; the countenance acquires a little more animation ; the horse will eat z 



EPIDEMIC CATARRH. 199 

small quantity of some choice thing; and health and strength slowly, very slowly 
indeed, return : but at other times, when there had been no decided change durinw 
the progress of the disease, no manageable metastasis of inflammation while tlicre 
was sufficient power left in the constitution to struggle with it, a strange exacerbation 
flf symptoms accompanies the closing scene. The extremities become deathly cold ; 
the tianks heave ; the countenance betrays greater distress ; the membrane of the nose 
is of an intense red ; and inflammation of the substance of the lungs and congestion 
and death speedily follow. 

At other times the redness of the nostril suddenly disappears; it becomes purple, 
livid, dirty brown, and the discharge is bloody and foetid, the breath and all the 
excretions becoming fojtid too. The mild character of the disease gives way to 
malignant typhus: swellings, and purulent ulcers, spread over ditferent parts of the 
frame, and the animal is soon destroyed. 

Post-mortem Examination. — Examination after death sufficiently displays the real 
character of the disease, inflammation first of the respiratory passages, and, in fatal 
or aggravated cases, of the mucous membranes generally. From the pharynx, to the 
termination of the small intestines, and often including even the larger ones, there 
will not be a part free from inflammation ; the upper part of the trachea will be filled 
with adhesive spume, and the lining membrane thickened, injected, or ulcerated ; the 
lining tunic of the bronchi will exhibit unequivocal marks of inflammation; the sub- 
stance of the lungs will be engorged, and often inflamed ; the heart will partake of 
the same affection ; its external coat will be red, or purple, or black, and its internal 
one will exhibit spots of ecchymosis ; the pericardium will be tiiickened, and the 
pericardiac and pleuritic bags will contain an undue quantity of serous, or bloody- 
serous, or purulent fluid. 

The oesophagus will be inflamed, sometimes ulcerated — the stomach always so ; 
the small intestines will uniformly present patches of inflammation or ulceration. 
The liver will be inflamed — the spleen enlarged — no part, indeed, will have escaped ; 
and if the malady has assumed a typhoid form in its latter stages, the universality 
and malignancy of the ulceration will be excessive. 

This disease is clearly attributable to atmospheric influence, but of the precise 
nature of this influence we are altogether ignorant. It is some foreign injurious 
principle which mingles with and contaminates the air, but whence this poison is 
derived, or how it is diffused, we know not. It is engendered, or it is most prevalent, 
in cold ungenial weather ; or this weather may dispose the patient for catarrh, or 
prepare the tissues to be atfected by causes which would otherwise be harmless, or 
which may at all times exist. 

It is most frequent in the spring of the year, but it occasionally rages in autumn 
and in winter. It is epidemic ,• it spreads over large districts. It sometimes pervades 
the whole country. Scarcely a stable escapes. Its appearance is sudden, its progress 
rapid. Mr. Wilkinson had 3G nuw cases in one day. It is said that a celebrated 
practitioner in London had nearly double that number in less than twenty-four hours 

At other times it is endemic. It pervades one town ; one little tract of country. It 
is confined to spots exceedingly circumscribed. It is dependent on atmospheric 
agency, but this requires some injurious adjuvant and the principle of contagion must 
probably be called into play. It has been rife enough in the lower parts of the metro- 
polis, while in the upper and north-western districts scarcely a case has occurred. 
It has occasionally been confined to a locality not extending half-a-mile in any direc- 
tion. In one of the cavalry barracks the majority of the horses on one side of the 
yard were attacked by epidemic catarrh, while there was not a sick horse on the 
other side. These prevalences of disease, and these exceptions, are altogether ur-"'o- 
countable. The stables, and the system of stable management, have been most 
carefully inquired into in the infected and the healthy districts, and no satisfactory 
difljsrence could be ascertained. One fact, however, has been established, and a very 
important one it is to the horse proprietor as well as the practitioner. The probability 
of the disease seems to be in proportion to the number of horses inhabiting the stable. 
Two or three horses shut up in a comparatively close stable may escape. Out of 
thirty horses, distributed through ten or fifteen little stables, not one may be affected . 
bnt in a stable containing ten or twelve horses the disease will assuredly appear, 
althoucrh it may be proportionally larger and well ventilated. It is on this account 
that postaiasters and horse-dealers dread its appearance. In a sickly season thev 



200 EPIDEMIC CATARRH. 

stables are never free from it ; and if, perchance, it does enter one of their largest 
stables, almost every horse will be affected. Therefore also it is that grooms have so 
•iiuch dread of a distempered stable, and that the odds are so seriously affected if 
distemper has broken out in a racing establishment. 

Does this lead to the conclusion that epidemic catarrh is contagious? Not neces- 
i^arily, but it excites strong suspicion of its being so ; and there are so many facts of 
the disease following the introduction of a distempered horse into an establishment, 
that this malady must rank among those that are both contagious and epidemic. 
There are few well-informed grooms, or extensive owners of horses, and living much 
among them, or veterinary surgeons of considerable practice, who entertain the least 
doubt about the matter. Then every necessary precaution should be adopted. The 
horse that exhibits symptom.s of epidemic catarrh should be removed as soon as 
possible. The affected horses should be removed, and not the sound ones, for they, 
although apparently sound, may have the malady lurking about them, and may more 
widely propagate the disease. 

With regard to the treatment of epidemic catarrh, there may be, and is at times, 
considerable difficulty. It is a disease of the mucous membrane, and thus connected 
vvith much debility ; but it is also a disease of a febrile character, and the inflamma- 
tipn is occasionally intense. The veterinary surgeon, therefore, must judge for 
himself. Is the disease in its earliest stage marked by evident inflammatory action] 
Is there much redness of the membrane of the nose — much acceleration of the pulse 
—much heaving of the flanks 1 If so, blood must be abstracted. The orifice should 
be large that the blood may flow quickly, and the circulation be sooner aflfected ; and 
the medical attendant should be present at this first venesection, that he may close the 
orifice as soon as the pulse begins to falter. This attention to the first bleeding is 
indispensable. It is the carelessness with which it is performed — the ignorance of 
the object to be accomplished, and the effect actually produced, that destroys half the 
horses that are lost from this malady. The first falter of the pulse is the sio-nal to 
suspend the bleeding. Every drop lost afterwards may be wanted. ° 

If there is no appearance of febrile action, or only a very slight one, small doses of 
aloes may be given, combined with the fever medicines recommended for catarrh. 
As soon as the fa3ces are pultaceous, or even before that, the aloes should be omitted 
and the fever medicine continued. It will rarely be prudent to continue the aloes 
beyond the third drachm. 

A stricter attention must be paid to diet than the veterinarian usually enforces, or 
the groom dreams of. No corn must be allowed, but mashes and thin gruel. The 
water should be entirely taken away, and a bucket of gmel suspended ^in the box. 
Ihis IS an excellent plan with regard to every sick horse that we do not wish to 
reduce too much ; and when he finds that the morning and evening pass over, and his 
water is not offered to him, he will readily take to the gruel, and drink as much of it 
as IS good for him. Green tneat should be early oflJ'ered ; such as grass, tares (the 
atter^especially), lucerne, and, al)ove all, carrots. If these cannot be procured, a 
little hay may be wetted, and offered morsel after morsel by the hand. Should this 
be refused, the hay may be damped with water slightly salted, and then the patient 
will generally seize it with avidity. 

_ Should the horse refuse to eat during the two or three first days, there is no occa- 
sion to be in a hurry to drench with gruel ; it will make the mouth sore, and the throat 
sore, and tease and disgust: but if he should long continue obstinately to refuse his 
food, nutriment must be forced upon him. Good thick gruel must be horned down, 
or, what is better, given by means of Read's pump. 

The practitioner will often and anxiously have recourse to auscultation. He will 
listen for the mucous rattle, creeping down the windpipe, and entering the bronchial 
passages. If he cannot detect it below the larynx, he will apply a^strono- blister, 
reaching from ear to ear, and extending to the second or third riii"- of the" trachea! 
If he can trace the rattle in the windpipe, he must follow it,— he must blister as fai 
as the disease has spread. This will often have an excellent effect, not only as a 
counter-irritant, but as rousing the languid powers of the constitution. A rowel of 
tolerable size between the fore-legs cannot do harm. It may act as a derivstive, or 
It may take away a disposition to inflammation in the contiguous portion of the chest. 
The inflammation which characterizes the early stage of this disease is at first con- 
^ncd to the membrane of the mouth and the fauces. Can fomentations be applied] 



EPIDEMIC CATARRH. 201 

Y^es, and to the very part, by means of a hot mash, not thrown into the manger over 
which the head of the horse cannot be confined, but placed in that too-much-under- 
valued and discarded article of stable-furniture, the nose-bag. The vapour ot the 
Abater will, at every inspiration, pass over the inflamed surface, ^n the majority of 
cases relief will speedily be obtained, and that suppuration from the part so necessary 
to the permanent removal of the inflammation — a copious discharge of mucus or puru- 
lent matter from the nostrils — will be hastened. If the discharge does not appear so 
speedily as could be wished, a stimulant should be applied to the part. The vapour 
impregnated with turpentine arising from fresh yellow deal saw-dust, used instead of 
bran, will have very considerable effect in quickening and increasing the suppuration. 
It may even be resorted to almost from the beginning, if there is not evidently much 
irritability of membrane. 

A hood is a useful article of clothing in these cases. It increases the perspiration 
from the surface covering the inflamed part — a circumstance always of considerable 
moment. 

An equable warmth should be preserved, if possible, over the whole body. The 
hand-brush should be gently used every day, and harder and more effectual rubbing 
applied to the legs. The patient should, if possible, be placed in a loose box, in which 
he may toddle about, and take a little exercise, and out of which he should rarely, if 
at all, be taken. The exercise of which the groom is so fond in these cases, and 
which must in the most peremptory terms be forbidden, has destroyed thousands of 
horses. The air should be fresh and uncontaminated, but never chilly ; for the object 
is to increase and not to repress cutaneous perspiration ; to produce, if possible, a 
determination of blood to the skin, and not to drive it to the part already too much 
overloaded. In order to accomplish this, the clothing should be rather warmer than 
usual. 

The case may proceed somewhat slowly, and not quite satisfactorily to the practi 
tioner or his employer. There is not much fever — there is little or no local inflam- 
mation; but there is great emaciation and debility, and total loss of appetite. The 
quantity of the sedative may then be lessened but not omitted altogether ; for the fire 
may not be extinguished, although for a little while concealed. There are no diseases 
so insidious and treacherous as these. Mild and vegetable tonics, such as gentian 
and ginger, may be given. Two days after this the sedative may be altogether omit- 
ted, and the tonic gradually increased. 

The feeding should now be sedulously attended to. Almost every kind of green 
meat that can be obtained should be given, particularly carrots nicely scraped and 
sliced. The food should be changed as often as the capricious appetite prompts; and 
occasionally, if necessary, the patient should be forced with gruel as thick as it will 
run from the horn, but the gradual return of health should be well assured, before ona 
morsel of corn is given.* 

A very few weeTcs ago, the author received from his friend, Mr. Percivall, the fol 
lowing account of a new and destructive epidemic among horses : — 

" From the close of the past year and the beginning of the present, up to the time 
I am writing, the influenza among horses has continued to prevail in the metropolis 
and different parts of the country with more or less fatality. In London it has 
assumed the form of larynu;ilis, associated in some instances with hronchitis ; in others 
— in all I believe where it has proved fatal — with pleurisy. The parenchymatous 
structure of the lungs has not partaken of the disease, or but consecutively and slightly. 
The earliest and most characteristic symptom has been sore thmal ; causing trouble- 
some dry short cough, but rarely occasioning any difficulty of deglutition, and, in no 
instance that I have seen, severe or extensive enough to produce anything like dis- 
o-orgement or return of the masticated matters through the nose, and yet the slightest 
pressure on the larynx has excited an act of coughing. But seldom has any glandular 
enlargement appeared. The symptom secondarily remarkable after the sore throat 
and cough has been a dispirited ness or dulness, for which most epidemics of the kind 
are remarkable. The animal, at the time of sickening, has hung his head under the 
manger, with his eyes half shut, and his lower lip pendent, without evincing any 



* An interesting account of epidemic among horses will be found in the Association Part of 
" The Veterinarian," vols. xii. and xv. A work, by the author of this volume, is in prepara 
lion, on the epiiemics that have prevailed among all our domesticated animals. 

2a 



202 EPIDEMIC CATARRH. 

alarm or even mucli notice, though a person entered his abode or approached l.im; 
and if in a box, his head is often found during his illness turned toward the door or 
window. Fever, without any disturbance of the respiration, has always been present: 
,ie pulse has been accelerated, thougli rather small and weak in its beat than indiczw 
live of str ngth ; the mouth has been hot, sometimes burning hot, afterwards moist, 
and perhaps sa])onaceous; the skin and extremities in general have been warm. Now 
and then the prostration and appearance of debility have been such, and so rapid in 
their manifestation, that, shortly after being attacked, a horse has staggeringly walked 
'wenty yards only — the distance from his stable into an infirmary-box. The appetite, 
though impaired much, has seldom been altogether lost. Generally, if a little fresh 
hay has been oft'ered, it has been taken and eaten; but to mashes there has been com- 
monly great aversion. During the long continuance of the wind in the east, the sore 
tiiroat and cough have been unattended by any flux from the nose; but since the wind 
has shifted within this last fortnight or three weeks, discharges from the nostrils have 
appeared, profuse even in quantity, and purulent in their nature; in fact, the disease 
has assumed a more catarrhal character — crs;», I might add, a more favourable one. 

''The disorder has exhibited every phase and degree of intensity, from the slightest 
perceivable dulness, which has passed ofl' with simply a change in the diet, to an 
insidious, unyielding, unsubduable pleurisy, ending in hydrothorax, in spite of every- 
thing that could be done, and most timely done. !So long as the disease has confined 
itself to the throat, and that there has been along with that only dejection, prostration, 
and fever, there has existed no cause for alarm ; but when such symptoms have, after 
some days' continuance, not abated, and have, on the contrary, rather increased, and 
others have arisen M'hich but too well have authorised suspicions that ' mischief was 
brewing in the chest,' then there became the strongest reasons for alarm for the safety 
of the patient. What is now to be done ? The practitioner durst not bleed a second 
time, at least not generally, for the patient's strength would net endure it, although he 
is certain a pleurisy is consuming his patient. He possesses no effectual means for 
topical blood-letting. Neither blisters nor rowels, nor plugs nor setons, will take 
any effect. Cathartic medicine he must not administer; nauseants are uncertain and 
doubtful in their efficacy ; sedatives, tonics, and stimulants and narcotics, appear 
counter-indicated, inflammation existing, and, when tried under such circumstances, 
have, 1 believe, never failed to do harm. 

"Dissatisfied with one and all of these remedies in the late influenza — though the 
losses I have experienced have, after all, not been so very comparatively great, being 
no more, since the beginning of the year, than three out of nearly forty cases — I 
re))eat, having, as I thought, reason to be dissatisfied for losing even these three cases, 
considering that they came under my care at the earliest period of indisposition, I 
determined, in any similar cases that might occur, to have recourse to that medicine 
which, in all membranous inflammations in particular, is the physician's sheet-anchor, 
and which I had exhil)itod, and still continue to do, myself, in other disorders, though 
I had never given it a fair trial in epidemics having that tendency which I have 
described the present one uniformly to have indicated, viz., the destruction of life by 
an inflammation attacking membranous parts, of a nature over which, being forbidden 
to bleed, we appeared to possess little or no power. Could we have drawn blood 
from the sides or breast, by cupping or by leeches, in any tolerable quantity, we 
might have had some control over the internal disease; but barred from this, and 
without any remedy save a counter-irritant, which we cculd not make act, or an 
internal medicine, whose action became extremely dubious, if not positively hurtful, 
what was to be done? I repeat, I made up my mind to experiment with the surgeon's 
remedy in the same disease, namely, mercury ; and that I have had reason to feel 
gratified at the result will, I think, appear from the following cases : — 

" Case I. — April 8. E!very symptom of the prevailing epidemic : and considerably 
aggravated on the 10th, when the horse laboured under much prostration of strength, 
and staggered considerably in his gait. The following ball was then ordered to be 
given him twice a day : R Hydrarg. chlorid. 5i, farin. avena; 3ss. terebinth, vulg. 
q. s. ut fiat bol. One to be given morning and night. He soon began to improve: 
and was returned to the stable on the 2Gth, convalescent. A second patient of the 
same character was cured in eighteen days, and a third in nineteen days." The 
author of this work had the pleasure of witnessing these cases. 

Mr. Percivali adds. " Lest it should be said, after the perusal of these three cases 



MALIGNANT EPIDEMIC. 203 

that they do not appear to have been of a dangerous character, or to have required 
anything out of the ordinary line of treatment, I beg to observe, that at the periods 
at which I submitted them to the action of mercury, they so much resembled three 
others that had preceded them, and tlie disease had proved fatal, that, under a con- 
tinuance of treatment of any ordinary kind, I certainly should have entertained fears 
for their safety. 

" It must be remembered that they were cases in which blood-letting, except at the 
commencement, was altogether forbidden ; and that, at the critical period when mer- 
cury was introduced, they had taken an unfavourable turn, and that nothing in the 
shape of remedy appeared available, save internal medicine and counter-irritation, and 
that the latter had not, and did not, show results betokening the welfare of the patients. 
Under these circumstances, the mercury was exhibited. That it entered the system, 
and must have had more or less influence on the disease, appears evident from its 
effect on the gums. That it proved the means of cure, I cannot, from so few cases, 
take upon myself to assert ; but I would recommend it in similar cases to the notice 
of practitioners." 

THE MALIGNANT EPIDEMIC. 

Continental veterinarians describe a malignant variety or termination of this disease ; 
and the imperfect history of veterinary medicine in I3ritain is not without its records 
of it. So lately as the year 1815, an epidemic of a malignant character reigned 
among horses. Three out of five who were attacked died. It reappeared in 1823, 
but was not so fatal. It was said that the horses that died, were ultimately farcied: 
the truth was, that swellings and ulcerations, with fcetid discharge, appeared in 
various parts, or almost all over them — the natural swellings of the complaint which 
has just been considered, but aggravated and malignant. Our recollection of the 
classic lore of our early years will furnish us with instances of the same pest in dis- 
tant times and countries. We have not forgotten the vivid description of Apollo 
darting his fiery arrows among the Greeks, and involving in one common destruction, 
the human being, the mule, the horse, the ox, and the dog. Lucretius, when describ- 
ing the plague at Athens, speaks of a malignant epidemic affecting almost every 
animal — 

Nor longer birds at noon, nor beasts at night 
Their native woods deserted ; with the pest 
Remote they languished, and full frequent died : 
But chief, the dog his generous strength resigned. 

In 1714, a malignant epidemic was imported from the Continent, and in the course 
of a few months destroyed 70,000 horses and cattle. It continued to visit other coun- 
tries, with but short intervals, for fifty years afterwards. Out of evil, however, came 
good'. The Continental agriculturists were alarmed by this destruction of their pro- 
perty. The different governments participated in the terror, and veterinary schools 
were established, in which the anatomy and diseases of these animals might be 
studied, and the cause and treatment of these periodical pests discovered. From the 
time that this branch of medical science began to receive the attention it deserved, 
these epidemics, if they have not quite ceased, have changed their character, and 
have become comparatively mild and manageable. As, however, they yet occur, and 
are far too fatal, we must endeavour to collect the symptoms, and point out the treat- 
ment of them. 

The malignant epidemic was almost uniformly ushered in by inflammation of the 
mucous membrane of the respiratory passages, but soon involving other portions, 
and then ensued a diarrhoea, which no art could arrest. The fever, acuti. at first, 
lapidly passed over, and was succeeded by great prostration of strength. The 'nflam- 
mation then spread to the cellular texture, and there Avas a peculiar disposition to the 
formation of phlegmonous tumours : sometimes there were pustular eruptions, but, 
oftener, deep-seated tumours rapidly proceeding to suppuration. Connected with 
this was a strong tendency to decomposition, and tinless the animal was relieved by 
some critical flux or evacuation, malignant typhus was established, and the horse 
speedily sunk. 

The most satisfactory account of one of these epidemics is given us by Professor 
Urugnone, of Turin. It commenced with loss of appetite, staring coat, a wild and 



*204 THE MALIGNANT EPIDEMIC. 

wandering look, and a staggering from the very commencement. The horse would 
continually lie down and get up again, as if tormented by colic ; and he gazed alter- 
nately at both flanks. In the moments of comparative ease, there were universal 
twitchnigs of the skin, and sjiasms of the limbs. The temperature of the ears and 
feet was variable. If there happened to be about the animal any old wound or scar 
from setoning or firing, it opened afresh and discharged a quantity of thick and black 
blood. Very shortly afterwards the flanks, which were quiet before, began to heave, 
the nostrils were dilated, the head extended for breath. The horse had bv this time 
become so weak that, if he lay or fell down, he could rise no more ; or if he was up, 
he would stand trembling, staggering, and threatening to fall every moment. The 
mouth was dry, the tongue white, and the breath fcetid ; a discharge of yellow or 
bloody fcetid matter proceeded from the nose, and foetid bloc J from the anus. The 
duration of the disease did not usually exceed twelve or iwenty-four hours ; cr if the 
animal lingered on, swellings of the head and throat, and sheath, and scrotum, fol- 
lowed, and he died exhausted or in convulsions. 

Black spots of extravasation were found in the cellular membrane, in the tissue of 
all the membranes, and on the stomach. The mesenteric and lymphatic glands were 
engorged, black, and gangrenous. The membrane of the nose and the pharynx was 
highly injected, the lungs were filled ^\ ith black and frothy blood, or with black and 
livid spots. The brain and its meninges were unaltered. 

It commenced in March 1783. The barracks then contained one hundred and six- 
teen horses ; all but thirteen were attacked, and seventy-eight of them died. The 
horses of both the oflicers and men were subject to the attack of it; and three horses 
from the town died, two of which had drawn the carts that conveyed the carcasses 
away, and the other stood under a window, from which the dung of an infected stable 
had been thrown out. The disease would probaljly have spread, but the most sum- 
mary measures for arresting its progress were adopted; every horse in the town was 
killed that had had the slightest communication with those in the barracks. One 
horse was inoculated with the pus discharged from the ulcer of an infected horse, and 
he died. A portion of his thymus gland was introduced under the skin of another 
horse, and he also died. 

Cause. — The disease w^as supposed to be connected with the food of the horses. All 
the oats had been consumed, and the lulium tcmulcntvm, or awned darnel, had been 
given instead. It is said that the darnel is occasionally used by brewers to give an 
intoxicating quality to their malt liquor. For fifteen days no alteration of health 
was perceived, and then, in less than eighteen hours, nearly forty perished. The sta- 
bles were not crowded, and there was no improper treatment. A man disinterred 
some of the horses to get at the fat ; swellings rapidly appeared in his throat, and he 
died in two days. A portion of their flesh was given to two pigs and some dogs, and 
they died. 

M. Brugnone found that bleeding only accelerated the death of the patient. He 
afterwards tried, and ineflectually, acids, cordials, purgatives, vesicatories, and the 
actual cauterj^; and he frankly attributes to the power of nature the recovery of the 
few who survived. 

Gilberfs Account of the Epidemic of 1795. — M. Gilbert describes a malignant epi- 
demic which appeared in Paris in 1795, characterized by dulness, loss of appetite, 
weakness, pulse at first rapid and full, and afterwards continuing rapid, but gradu- 
ally becoming small, weak, and intermittent. The bowels at first constipated, and 
then violent purging succeeding. The weakness rapidly increasing, accompanied 
by foetid breath, and fcetid evacuations. Tumours soon appeared about the limbs, 
under the chest, and in the head, the neck and loins. If they suppurated and burst, 
the animal usually did well ; but otherwise he inevitably perished. The formation 
of these tumours was critical. If they rapidly advanced, it was considered as a 
favourable symptom ; but if they continued obscure, a fatal termination was prog- 
nosticated. 

Bleeding, even in an early stage, seemed here also to be injurious, and increased 
the debility. Physic was given, and mild and nutritious food, gruel, and cordials. 
Deep incisions were made into the tumours, and the cautery applied. Stimulating 
frictions were also used, but all were of little avail. 

These cases have been narrated at considerable length, in order to give some idea 
'<f the nature of this disease, and because, with the exception of a short but very 



BRONCHITIS. 205 

excellent account of the malignant epidemic in the last edition of Mrs Bjaine's Vete- 
rinary Outlines, there will not be found any satisfactory history of it in the writings 
of our English veterinarians. It is evidently a disease of the mucous membranes, 
both the respiratory and digestive. It is accompanied by early and great debility, 
loss of ail vital power, vitiation of every secretion, elTusions and tumours everywhere, 
and it runs its course with fearful rapidity. If it was seen at its outset, the practi- 
tioner would probably bleed; but if a few hours only had elapsed, he would find 
with Messrs. Brognone and Gilbert, that venesection would only hasten the catas 
trophe. vStimulants should be administered mingled with opium, and the spirit of 
nitrous ether in doses of three or four ounces, with an ounce or more of laudanum. 
The quantity of opium should be regulated by the spasms and the diarrhoea. These 
medicines should be repeated in a few hours, combined, perhaps, with ginger and 
gentian. If these failed, there is little else to be done. Deep incisions into the tu- 
mours, or blisters over them, might be proper measures ; tut the principal attention 
should be directed to the arresting of the contagion. The infected should be imme- 
diately removed from the healthy. All oflensive matter should be carefully cleared 
away, and no small portion of cliloride of lime used in washing the animal, and par- 
ticularly his ulcers. It might with great propriety be administered internally, while 
the stable, and everything that belonged to the patient, should undergo a careful ablu- 
ion with the same powerful disinfectant. 

BRONCHITIS. 

This is not generally a primary disease. That inflammation of the superior respi- 
ratory passages, constituting catafrh, gradually creeps downwards and involves the 
larynx and the trachea, and at length, possibly, the farthest and the minutest ramifi- 
cations of the air-tubes. When it is found to be thus advancing, its progress should 
be carefully watched by the assistance of auscultation. The distant murmur of the 
healthy lung cannot be mistaken, nor the crepitating sound of pneumonia; and in 
bronchitis tlie blood may be heard filtering or breaking through the divisions of the 
lobuli, and accounting for that congestion or filling of the cells with mucus and blood, 
which is found after intense inflammation. Inflammation precedes this increased dis- 
charge of mucus. Even that may be detected. The inflamed membrane is thickened 
and tense. It assumes an almost cartilaginous structure, and the murmur is not only 
louder, but has a kind of snoring sound. Some have imagined that a sound like a 
metallic ring is mingled with it; but this is ne^er very distinct. 

The interrupted whizzing sound has often and clearly indicated a case of bronchitis, 
and there are many corroborative symptoms which should be regarded. The variable 
temperature of the extremities will be an important guide — not deathly cold as in 
pneumonia, nor of increased temperature, as often in catarrh, but with a tendency to 
coldness, yet this varying mucli. Tlie pulse will assist the diagnosis — more rapid 
than in catarrh, much more so than in the early stage of pneumonia : not so hard as 
in pleurisy, m Dre so than in catarrh, and mucli more so than in pneumonia. The res- 
piration shouhl next be examined, abundantly more rapid than in catarrh, pneumonia, 
or pleurisy ; generally as rapid and often more so than the pulse, and accompanied by 
a w"heezing sound, heard at some distance. Mr. Percivall relates a case in which the 
respiration was more than one hundred in a minute. Mr. C. Percivall describes an 
interesting case in which the respiration was quick in the extreme ; and he remarks, 
that he does " not remember to have seen a horse with his respiration so disturbed." 

In addition to these clearly characteristic symptoms, will be observed a haggard 
countenance, to which the anxious look of the horse labouring under inflammation of 
the lungs cannot for a moment be compared ; also an evident dread of suff"ocation, 
expressed, not by inability to move, as in pneumonia, but frequently an obstinate 
refusal to do so ; cough painful in the extreme; breath hot, yet no marked pain in thw 
part, and no looking at the side or flanks. 

As the disease proceeds, there will be considerable discharge from the nostrils, 
much more than in catarrh, because greater extent of membrane is effected. It will 
be muco-purulent at first, but will soon become amber-coloured or green, or greyish 
preen ; and that not from any portion of the food being returned, but from the pecu- 
liar hue of the secretion from ulcers in the bronchial passages. Small organised 
]l'\eces will mingle with the discharge, — portions of mucus condensed and hardened 
18 



20G PNEUMONIA — INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 

and forced from the inside of the tube. If the disease proceeds, the discharge becomes 
hlcody, and then, and sometimes earlier, it is ftetid. 

The natural termination of this disease, if unchecked, is in pneumonia. Although 
we cafinot trace the air-tubes to their termination, the inflammation will penetrate 
mto the lobuli, and affect the membranes of the air-cells or divisions which they con- 
lain. There is metastasis of inflammation oftener here than in pure pneumonia, and 
the disease is most frequently transferred to the feet. If, however, there is neither 
pneumonia nor metastasis of inflammation, and the disease pursues its course, the 
animal dies from suftocation. If the air-passages are clogged, there can be no sup- 
ply of arterialized blood. 

Like every other inflammation of the respiratory passages, bronchitis is clearly 
epidemic. There is a disposition to inflammation in the respiratory apparatus gene- 
rally, but it depends on some unknown atmospheric influence whether this shall take 
on the form of catarrh, bronchitis, or pneumonia. It has not, however, been yet 
proved to be contagious. 

Here again the first step will be to bleed ; and here too will be the paramount 
necessity of the personal attendance of some well-informed person while the animal is 
bled. This is a disease of a mucous, — and an extended mucous surface ; and while 
our measures must be prompt, there is a tendency to debility which we should never 
forget. Although the horse may be distressed quite to the extent which Mr. Charles 
Percivall describes, yet he would not bear the loss of four pounds of blood without 
fainting. No determinate quantity of blood will therefore be taken, but the vein will 
not be closed until the pulse falters, and the animal staggers, and in a minute or two 
would fall. This may probably eff"ect the desired object; if it does not, it is possible 
that the practitioner may not have a second opportunity. 

The medical attendant should be cautious in the administration of purgafives, for 
the reasons that nave again and again been stated ; but if the bowels are evidently 
constipated, small doses of aloes must be given with the febrifuge medicine, and their 
speedy action promoted by injections, so that a small quantity may suffice. 

A blister is always indicated in bronchitis. It can never do harm, and it not unfrc- 
quently aff"ords decided relief. It should extend over the brisket and sides, and up 
the trachea to the larynx. The food, if the horse is disposed to eat, should be mashes. 
No corn should be offered, nor should the horse be coaxed to eat. 

PNEUMONIA — INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 

The intimate structure of the lungs has never been satisfactorily demonstrated. 
They appear, however, to be composed of minute cells or pouches, into which the air 
is at length conducted, and over the delicate membrane constituting the divisions of 
which myriads of minute blood-vessels are ramifying. The blood is not merely per- 
meating them, but it is undergoing a vital change in them ; there is a constant decom- 
position of the air, or of the blood, or of both; and, during the excitement of exercise, 
that decomposition proceeds with fearful rapidity. Then it can readily be conceived 
„hat a membrane so delicate as this must be, in order that its interposition shall be 
no hindrance to the arterialisation of the blood ; so fragile also, and so loaded with 
blood-vessels, will be exceedingly subject to inflammation, and that of a most dan- 
gerous character. 

Inflammation of the substance of the lungs is the not unfrequent consccpience of 
all the diseases of the respiratory passages that have been treated on. Catarrh, 
influenza, bronchitis, if neglected or badly managed, or, sometimes in spite of the 
most skilful treatment, will spread along the mucous membrane, and at length involve 
the termination of the air-passages. At other times, there is pure pneumonia. This 
cellular texture is the primary seat of inflammation. It is often so in the over-worked 
horse. After a long and hard day's hunt, it is very common for horses to be attacked 
by pure pneumonia. A prodigiously increased quantity of blood is hurried through 
these small vessels, for the vast expenditure of arterial blood in rapid progression 
must be provided for. These minutest of the capillaries are distended and irritated, 
their contractile power is destroyed, inflammation is produced, mechanical injury is 
effected, the vessels are ruptured, blood is poured into the interstitial texture, and 
intense inflammation and congestion, with all their train of fatal consequences, ensue 

The following are the most frequent causes of pneumonia. A sudden transition 
from heat to cold ; a change from a warm stable to a colder one ; a neglect of the usua 



PNEUMONIA — INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 201 

clothing;; a neglect even of some little comforts ; riding far and fast against a cold 
wind, especially in snowy weather; loitering about when unusual perspiration has 
been excited; loitering tediously by the side of a covert on a chilly blowing morning. 

It has not unfrequently happened that when horses have been turned out too early 
to grass, or without gradual preparation, pneumonia has supervened. Few are, under 
any management, so subject to pneumonia as those who, in poor condition and with- 
out preparation, are turned into a salt-marsh. 

On the other hand, a sudden and considerable change from cold to heat may be 
followed by inflammation of the lungs. Many horses perish in the dealers' stables 
from this cause. The circulation is considerably quickened ; more blood, and that 
with more than natural rapidity, is driven through the lungs, previously disposed to 
take on inflammatory action. The sudden removal from a heated stable to the cold 
air, for the purpose of examination, has also much to do with the production of 
disease. 

Whether it is the consequence of previous disease of the respiratory passages, or 
that inllammalion first appears in the cellular texture of the lungs, pneumonia is 
usually ushered in by a shivering fit. The horse is cold all over; this, however, 
soon passes otf, and we have general warmth, or heat of the skin above the usual 
temperature, but accompanied by coldness of the extremities — intense deathy cold- 
ness. This is a perfectly diagnostic symptom. It will never deceive. It is an early 
symptom. It is found when there is little or no constitutional disturbance ; when 
the pulse is scarcely affected, and the flanks heave not at all, but the horse is merely 
supposed to be dull and off his feed. It is that by which the progress of the disease 
may be unhesitatingly marked, when many scarcely suspect its existence. 

The pul5>e is not always at first much increased in rapidity, and but rarely or never 
hard ; but it is obscure, oppressed. The heart is labouring to accomplish its object; 
the circulation through the lungs is impeded; the vessels are engorged — they are 
often ruptured ; blood is extravasated into the air-cells ; it accumulates in the right 
side of the heart and in the larger vessels ; and in the venous circulation generally 
there is a mechanical obstruction which the heart has not power to overcome. Hence 
the obscure, oppressed pulse ; the ineffectual attempt to urge on the blood ; and 
hence, too, the remarkable result of bleeding in inflammation of the lungs, for the 
pulse becomes rounder, fuller, quicker. When blood is abstracted, a portion of the 
opposing force is removed, and the heart being enabled to accomplish its object, the 
pulse is developed. 

It is onl}"^, however, in the early insidious stage that the flanks are occasionally 
quiet. If the compressibility of the lungs is diminished by the thickening of the 
membrane, or the engorgement of the vessels, or the filling of the cells, it will be 
harder work to force the air out ; there must be a stronger elTort, and that pressure 
which cannot be accomplished by one effort is attempted over and over again. The 
respiration is quickened — laborious ; the inspiration is lengthened ; the expiration is 
rapid ; and when, after all, the lungs cannot be compressed by the usual means, every 
muscle that can be brought to bear upon the part is called into action. Hence the 
horse will not lie down, for he can use the muscles of the spine and the shoulder 
with most advantage as he stands ; hence, too, the very peculiar stiffness of position 
— the disinclination to move. The horse with decided pneumonia can scarcely be 
induced to move at all ; he cannot spare for a moment the assistance which he derives 
from certain muscles, and he will continue obstinately to stand until he falls exhausted 
or dying. How eagerly does the veterinarian ask when he goes into the stable — 
"Was he down last night"?" And he concludes, that much progress has not been 
made towards amendment in the case when the answer is in the negative. When 
the patient, wearied out, lies down, it is only for a moment ; for if the inflammation 
is not subdued, he cannot dispense with the auxiliary muscles. He frequently, and 
with doleful expression, looks at his sides — at one side or at both, accordingly as one 
or both are involved. There is not, however, the decidedly haggard countenance of 
bronchitis; and in bronchitis the horse rarely or never gazes at his flanks. His is a 
dread of suffocation more than a feeling of pain. The head is protruded, and the 
nostrils distended, and the mouth and the breath intensely hot. The nose is injected 
from tne earliest period ; and soon afterwards there is not merely injection, but the 
membrane is uniformly and intensely red. The variation in this intensity is anxiously 



208 PNEUMONIA. — INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 

marked by the observant practitioner ; and he regards with fear and despair the livid 
or dirty brownish hue that gradually creeps on. 

The unfavourable symptoms are, increased coldness of the ears and feet, if that bo 
possible ; partial sweats, grinding of the teeth, evident weakness, staggering, the 
animal not lying down. The pulse becomes quicker, and weak and fluttering ; the 
membrane of the nose paler, but of a dirty hue; the animal growing stupid, comatose. 
At length he falls, but he gets up immediately. For awhile he is up and down almost 
every minute, until he is no longer able to rise ; he struggles severely ; he piteously 
oToans; the pulse becomes more rapid, fainter, and he dies of sutTocation. The 
disease sometimes runs its course with strange rapidity. A horse has been destroyed 
by pure pneumonia in twelve hours. The vessels ramifying over the cells have 
yielded to the fearful impulse of the blood, and the lungs hav^e presental n,p, mass 
of congestion. 

The favourable symptoms are, the return of a little warmth to the extremities — :the 
circulation beginning again to assume its natural character, and, next to this, the 
lying down quietly and without uneasiness ; shov.'ing us that he is beginning to do 
without the auxiliary muscles. These are good symptoms, and they will rarely 
deceive. 

Congestion is a frequent termination of pneumonia. Not only are the vessels 
gorged — the congestion which accompanies common inflammation — but their parietes 
are necessarily so thin, in order that the change in the blood may take place although 
they are interposed, that they are easily ruptured, and the cells are filled with blood. 
This efl'used blood soon coagulates, and the lung, when cut into, presents a black, 
softened, pulpy kind of appearance, termed, by the farrier and the groom, rottenness^ 
and being supposed by them to indicate an old disease. It proves only the violence 
of the disease, the rupture of many a vessel surcharged with blood ; and it also proves 
that the disease is of recent dale, for in no great length of time, the serous portion of 
the blood becomes absorbed, the more solid one becomes organized, the cells are 
obliterated, and the lung is hepatized, or bears considerable resemblance to liver. 

In ever}' case of pneumonia, early and anxious recourse should be had to ausculta- 
tion. Here, again, is the advantage of being perfectly acquainted with the deep 
distant murmur presented by the healthy lung. This sound is most distinct in tlie 
young horse, and especially if he is a little out of condition. On such a horse the 
tyro should commence his study of the exploration of the chest. There he will make 
himself best acquainted with the respiratory murmur in its full state of development. 
He should next take an older and somewhat fatter horse ; he will there recognize the 
same sound, but fainter, more distant. In still older animals, there will sometimes 
be a little diflSculty in detecting it at all. Repeated experiments of this kind will 
gradually teach the examiner what kind of healthy murmur he should expect from 
every horse that is presented to him, and thus he will be better enabled to appreciate 
the difl'erent sounds exhibited under disease. 

If pneumonia exists to any considerable degree, this murmur is soon changed for, 
or mingled with, a curious crepitating sound, which, having been once heard, cannot 
afterwards be mistaken. It is caused by the infiltration of blood into the air-cells. 
Its loudness and perfect character will characterize the intensity of the disease, and 
tlie portion of the chest at which it can be distinguished will indicate its extent. 

The whole lung, however, is not always affected, or there are only portions or 
patches of it in which the inflammation is so intense as to produce congestion and 
hepatization. Enough remains either unaffected, or yet pervious for the function of 
respiration to be performed, and the animal lingers on, or perhaps recovers. By care- 
ful examination with the ear, this also may be ascertained. Where tlie lung is im- 
pervious — where no air passes — no sound will be heard, not even the natural murmur. 
Around it the murmur will be heard, and loudly. It will be a kind of rushing sound ; 
for the same quantity of blood must be arterialized, and the air must pass more rapidly 
and forcibly through the remaining tubes. If there is considerable inflammation or 
tendency to congestion, the crepitating, crackling sound will be recognized, and in 
proportion to the intensity of the inflammation. The advantages to be derived from 
the study of auscultation are not overrated. It was strong language lately applied by 
nn able critic to the use of auscultation, that " it converts the organ of hearing into an 
organ of vision, enabling the listener to observe, with the clearness of ocular demon- 



PNEUMONIA. — INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 209 

stranon, the ravages which disease occasionally commits in the very centre of the 
rib-cased cavity ot" the body," 

A horse with any portion of the lungs hepatized cannot be sound. He cannot be 
capable of continued extra exertion. His imperfect and mutilated lung cannot supply 
the arterialized blood which long-continued and rapid progression requires, and that 
portion which is compelled to do the work of the whole lung must be exposed to injury 
and inHannnution from many a cause that would otherwise be harmless. 

Another consequence of inflammation of the substance of the lungs is the formation 
of tubercles. A greater or smaller number of distinct cysts are formed — cells into 
which some fluid is poured in the progress of inflammation : these vary in size from 
a pin's point to a large egg. By degrees the fluid becomes concrete ; and so it con- 
tinues for a while — the consequence and the source of inflammation. It occupies s 
space that should be employed in the function of respiration, and by its pressure it 
irritates the neighbouring parts, and exposes them to inflammation. 

By and by, however, another process, never sufficientlj' explained, commences. 
The tubercle begins to soften at its centre, — a process of suppuration is set up, and 
proceeds until the contents of the cyst become again fluid, but of a different character, 
for they now consist of pus. The pus increases; the cyst becomes more and more 
distended ; it encroaches on the substance of the lungs ; it comes into contact with 
other tubercles, and the walls opposed to each other are absorbed by their mutual 
pressure ; they run together, and form one cyst, or regular excavation, and this some- 
times proceeds until a considerable portion of the lung is, as it were, hollowed out. 
By and by, however, the vomica presses upon some bronchial passage ; the cyst gives 
way, and the purulent contents are poured into the bronchiae, and got rid of by the 
act of coughing. At other times the quantity is too great to be thus disposed of, and 
the animal is suffocated. Occasionally it will break through the pleuritic covering 
of the lung, and pour its contents into the thorax. 

Abscesses may exist in the lungs undiscovered. — It is scarcely conceivable to what 
extent they sometimes exist in animals of slow work, without being detected by the 
usual means of examination. Mr. Hales says that he gave a physic-ball to a cart- 
mare with a bad foot, and she soon afterwards died suddenly. When inquiring as to 
the cause of death, he was told, and not very good-humouredly, that his physic had 
killed her. He asked if it had purged her violently 1 " No !" it was replied, " it 
had not operated at all." She was opened, and the mystery was all unravelled. 
The thorax was deluged with pus, and there were then in the lungs several large 
abscesses, one of which contained at least a quart of pus. The mare had not shown 
a symptom of chest affection, and the gentleman to whom she belonged declared that 
he had believed her to be as sound as any horse he had in his possession. 

The resolution or gradual abatement of inflammation is the termination most to be 
desired in this state of disease, for then the engorgement of the vessels will gradually 
cease, and the thickening of the membrane and the interstitial deposit be taken up, 
and the effusion into the cells likewise absorbed, and the lungs will gradually resume 
their former cellular texture, yet not perfectly ; for there will be some induration, 
■ slight but general ; or some more perfect induration of certain parts ; or the rupture 
of some of the air-cells ; or an irritability of membrane predisposing to renewed inflam- 
mation. The horse will not always be as useful as before ; there will be chronic 
cough, thick wind, broken wind; but these merit distinct consideration; and, for the 
present, we proceed to the treatment of pneumonia. 

There is inflammation of that organ through which all the blood in the frame passes 
— that organ most of all subject to congestion. Then nothing can be so important as 
to lessen the quantity of blood which the heart is endeavouring to force through the 
minute vessels of the lungs, distended, irritated, breaking. Immediate recourse must 
be had to the lancet, and the stream of blood must be suffered to flow on until the 
pulse falters, and the animal bears heavy upon the pail. This blood must be extracted 
as quickly as possible, and the lancet should be broad-shouldered, and the orifico 
large. This is the secret of treating inflammation of a vital organ. The disease :'s 
weakened or destroyed, without permanently impairing the strength of the patient , 
whereas, by small bleedings, and with a small stream, the strength of the patient is 
sapped, while the disease remains untouched. 

Next comes purging, if we dared ; for by having recourse to it some cause of excit©- 
ment would be got rid of, the circulating fluid would be lessened, and a new detevmi 
18* 2b 



210 PNEUMONIA. INFLAMMATION OF THE LIJNGS. 

nation of the vital current produced ; but experience teaches, that in pneumonia there 
is so much sympathy with the abdominal viscera, — there is such a I'atal tendency in 
the inflammation to spread over every mucous membrane, that purging is almost to n 
certainty followed by inflammation, and that inflammation bids deflance to every 
attempt to arrest it. It may be said with perfect confidence that, in the majority of 
cases, a physic-ball would be a dose of poison to a horse labouring under pneumonia. 
May we not relax the bowels'? Yes, if we can stop there. We may, after the 
inflammation has evidently a little subsided, venture upon, yet very cautiously, small 
doses of aloes in our fever medicine, and we may quicken their operation by frequent 
injections of warm soap and water; omitting the purgative, however, the moment the 
fajces are becoming pultaceous. We must, however, be assured that the inflamma- 
tion is subsiding, and there, must he ccnsiderable constipation, or the purgative had 
better be let alone. 

If we must not give physic, we must endeavour to find some other auxiliary to the 
bleeding, and we have it in the compound of digiialis, nitre, and emetic tartar, which 
has been so often recommended. 

The greatest care should be taken of the patient labouring under this complaint. 
His legs should be well hand-rubbed, in order to restore, if possible, the circulation 
to the extremities. Comfortable flannel rollers should encase the legs from the foot 
to the knee. He should be covered up warm. There cannot be a doubt about this. 
As for air, in warm weather he cannot have too much. In cold weather, his box must 
be airy, but not chilly. We want to determine the blood to the extremities and the 
skin, but not all the clothing in the world will keep our patient w^arm, if he is placed 
in a cold and uncomfortable situation. 

As for food, we think not of it. In nine cases out of ten he will not touch any- 
thing ; or if he is inclined to eat, we give him nothing but a bran-mash, or a little 
green meat, or a few carrots. 

We now look about us for some counter-irritant. We wish to excite some power- 
ful action in another part of the frame, and which shall divert the current of blood 
from that which was first affected. We recognise it as a law of nature, and of which 
we here eagerly avail ourselves, that if we have a morbid action in some vital organ 
— an unusual determination of blood to it — we can abate, perhaps we can at once 
arrest, that morbid action by exciting a similar or a greater disturbance in some con- 
tiguous and not dangeroiis part. Therefore we blister the sides and the brisket, and 
produce all the irritation we can on the integument; and in proportion as we do so, 
we abate, or stand a chance of abating, the inflammation within. 

We have recourse to a blister in preference to a seton ; and decidedly so, for our 
stimulus can be spread over a larger surface, — there is more chance of its being applied 
to the immediate neighbourhood of the original inflammation — and, most assuredly, 
from the extent of surface on which we can act, we can employ a quantity of stimulus 
beyond comparison greater than a seton would permit us to do. Bowels aie frequently 
excellent adjuvants to the blister, but should not be depended upon alone. 

In the latter stage of disease the blister will not act, because the powers of nature 
are exhausted. We must repeat it, — we must rouse the sinking energies of the frame, 
if we can, altjiough the efl^ort will generally be fruitless. The not rising of a blister, 
in the latter stage of the disease, may, too often, be regarded as the precursor of death, 
especially if it is accompanied by a livid or brown colour of the membrane of the nose. 

Pneumonia, like bronchitis, requires anxious watching. The first object is to sub- 
due the inflammation, and our measures must be prompt and decisive. If the mouth 
continues hot, and the extremities cold, and the nose red, we must l)]eed again and 
again, and that in rapid succession. The good which we can do must be done at 
first, or not at all. 

When we have obtained a little returning warmth to the extremities, we must con- 
tinue to administer our sedative medicines without one grain of a carminative or a 
tonic; and the return of the dealhy-cold foot will be a signal for farther depletion. 

The commencement of the state of convalescence requires the same guarded prac- 
tice, as in bronchitis. As many horses are lost by impatience now, as by want of 
aecision at first. If we have subdued the disease, we should let well alone. We 
should guard against the return of the foe by the continued administration of our seda- 
tives in smaller quantities ; but give no tonics unless debility is rapidly succeedinjr. 
When we have apparently weathered the storm, we must still be cautious ; wo must 



CHRONIC COUGH. 21. 

consider tlie nuiui« and tlio seat of the disease, and the predisposition to returning 
inflammation. If the season will permit, two or three months' run at grass should 
succeed to our medical treatment; but if this is impracticable, we must put off the 
period of active work as long as it can be delayed ; and even after that permit the 
horse to return as gradually as may be to his usual employment and food. 

Most frequent in occurrence among the consequences of inflammation of the lungs, 
is 

CHRONIC COUGH. 

It would occupy more space than can be devoted to this part of our subject, to treat 
of all the causes of obstinate cough. The irritability of so great a portion of the air- 
passages, occasioned by previous and violent inflannnation of them, is the most fre- 
quent. It is sometimes connected with worms. There is much sympathy between 
the lungs and the intestines, and the one readily participates in the irritation produced 
in the other. That it is caused by glanders can be easily imagined, because that dis- 
ease is, in its early stage, seated in or near the principal air-passages, and little time 
passes before the lungs become affected. It is the necessary attendant of thick wind 
and broken wind, for these praceed from alterations of the structure of the lungs. 

Notwithstanding the clearness of the cause, the cure is not so evident. If a harsh 
hollow cough is accompanied by a staring coat, and the appearance of worms, — a few 
worm-balls may expel these parasites, and remove the irritation of the intestinal canal. 
If it proceeds from irritability of the air-passages, which will be discovered by the 
horse coughing after drinking, or when he first goes out of the stable in the morning, 
or by his occasionally snorting out thick mucus from the nose, medicines may be 
given, and sometimes w-ith advantage, to diminish irritation generally. Small doses 
of digitalis, emetic tartar, and nitre, administered every night, frequently have a bene- 
ficial effect, especially when mixed with tar, which seems to have a powerful influence 
in allaying the irritation. These balls should, if necessary, be regularly given for a 
considerable time. They are sufficiently powerful to quiet slight excitement of this 
kind, but not to nauseate the horse, or interfere with his food or his work. A blister, 
extending from the root of one ear to that of the other, taking in the whole of the 
channel, and reaching six or eight inches down the windpipe, has been tried and 
often with good effect, on the sujiposition that the irritation may exist in the fauces 
or the larynx. The blister has sometimes been extended through the whole course 
of the windpipe, until it enters the chest. 

Feeding has much influence on this complaint. Too much dry meat, and espe- 
cially chaff, increase it. It is aggravated when the horse is suffered to eat his litter; 
and it is often relieved when spring tares are given. Carrots afford decided relief. 

The seat of the disease, however, is so uncertain, and all our means and appliances 
so inefficacious, and the cough itself so little interfering, and sometimes interfering not 
at all with the health of the animal, that it is scarcely worth while to persevere in 
any mode of treatment that is not evidently attended with benefit. The principal 
consideration to induce us to meddle at all with chronic cough is the knowledge that 
horses afflicted with it are more liable than others to be affected by changes of tem- 
perature, and that inflammation of the lungs, or of the respiratory passages, often 
assumes in them a very alarming character; to which, perhaps, may be added, that a 
horse with chronic cough cannot be warranted sound. 

"When chronic cough chiefly occurs after eating, the seat of the disease is evidently 
in the substance of the lungs. The stomach distended with food presses upon the 
diaphragm, and the diaphragm upon the lungs; and the lungs, already labouring 
under some congestion, are less capable of transmitting the air. In the violent effort 
to discharge their function, irritation is produced ; and the act of coughing is the con- 
sequence of that irritation. 

The Veterinary Surgeon labours under great disadvantage in the treatment of his 
patients. He must not only subdue the malady, but he must remove all its conse- 
quences. He must leave his patient perfectly sound, or fie has done comparatively nothing. 
This is a task always difficult, and sometimes impossible to be accomplished. The 
two most frequent consequences of severe chest affections in the horse are recognised 
under the terms thick wind and brohen ivind. The breathing is hurried m both, and 
tlie horse is generally much distressed when put upon his speed ; but it is siniply 
quick breathing in the first, with a peculiar sound like half roaring— the inspiration* 



212 THICK-WIJND. 

and expirations being rapid, forcible, but equal. In tbe second, the breathing is also 
hurried, but the inspiration does not differ materially from the natural one, while the 
expiration is difficult, or doubly laborious. The changes of structure which accom- 
pany these states of morbid respiration are as opposite as can be imagined. Indura- 
tion of the substance of the lungs, diminution of the number or the calibre of the air- 
passages, are the causes oi ihick-wind. If the portion of lung employed is lessened, 
or the bronchial tubes will not admit so much air, the quick succession of efforts mus 
make up for the diminished effect produced by each. In broken-u-iiil there is rupture 
of the air-cells, and an unnatural inter-communication between ii.i m in the same 
lobule, or between those of the neighbouring lobuli. The structure cf the lung, and 
the discharge of function, and the treatment, too, being so different, these diseases 
require separate consideration. 

THICK-WIND. 

When treating of pneumonia, it was observed, that not only are the vessels which 
ramify over the delicate membrane of the air-cells gorged with blood, but they are 
sometimes ruptured, and the cells are filled with blood. The black, softened, pulpy 
appearance of the lungs thus produced, ,is the rottenness of the groom and farrier, 
proving equally the intensity of the inflammation, and that it is of recent date. If 
the horse is not speedily destroyed by this lesion of the substance of the lungs, the 
serous portion of the effused blood is absorbed, and the solid becomes organised. 
The cells are obliterated, and the lung is hepatized, — its structure bears considerable 
resemblance to that of the liver. This may occur in patches, or it may involve a 
considerable portion of the lung. 

If a portion of the lung is thus rendered impervious, the remainder will have addi- 
tional work to perform. The same quantity of blood must be supplied with air ; and 
if the working part of the machine is diminished, it must move with greater velocity 
as well as force — the respiration must be quicker and more laborious. This quick 
and laboured breathing can be detected even when the animal is at rest ; and it is 
indicated plainly enough by his sad distress when he is urged to unusual or continued 
speed. The inspirations and the expirations are shorter, as well as more violent; 
the air must be more rapidly admitted, and more thoroughly pressed out; and this is 
accompanied by a peculiar sound that can rarely be mistaken. 

We may guess at the commencement of the evil, by the laborious heaving of the 
flanks ; but by auscultation alone can we ascertain its progress. The increase of the 
crepitus will tell us that the mischief is beginning, and the cessation of the murmur 
will clearly mark out the extent of the congestion. 

The inflammatory stage of the disease having passed, and comparative health being 
restored, and some return to usefulness having been established — the horse being now 
thick-winded — auscultation will be far more valuable than is generally imagined. It 
will faithfully indicate the quantity of hepatization, and so give a clue to the degree 
of usefulness, or the extent to which we may tax the respiratory system ; and it will 
also serve to distinguish, and that very clearly, between this cause of thick-wind, and 
the morbid changes that may have resulted from bronchitis, or thickening of the 
parietes of the air-passages, and not the obliteration of the air-cells. 

Of the treatment, little can be said. We know not by what means we can excite 
the absorbents to take up the solid organised mass of hepatization, or restore tne 
membrane of the cells, and the minute vessels ramifying over them, now confounded 
and lost. We have a somewhat better chance, and yet not much, in removing the 
thickening of the membrane, for counter-irritants, extensively and perseveringly 
applied to the external parietes of the chest, may do something. If thick-wind imme- 
diately followed bronchitis, it would certainly be justifiable practice to blister the 
brisket and sides, and that repeatedly; and to administer purgatives, if we dared, or 
diuretic s, more effectual than the purgatives, and always safe. 

Our attention must be principally confined to diet and management. A thick 
winded horse should have his fall proportion, or rather more than his proportion of 
com, and a diminished quantity of less nutritious food, in order that the stomach may 
never be overloaded, and press upon the diaphragm, and so upon the lungs, and 
inciease the labour of these already over-worked organs. Particular care should be 
taken that the horse is not worked immediately after a fyJ' Tieal. The overcoming 



BROKEN-WIND. 213 

of the pressure and weight ot the stomach, will be a serious addition to the extra 
work which the lungs already have to perform from their altered structure. 

Something may be done in the palliation of thick-wind, and more than has been 
generally supposed, by means of exercise. If the thick-winded horse is put, as it 
were, into a regular system of training; if he is daily exercised to the fair extent of 
his power, and without seriously distressing him, his breathing will become freer and 
deeper, and his wind will materially improve. We shall call to our aid one of the 
most powerful excitants of the absorbent system — pressure, that of the air upon the 
tube — the working part of the lung upon the disorganised — and, adjusting this so as 
not to excite irritition or inflammation, we may sometimes do wonders. This is the 
very secret of training, and the power and the durability of the hunter and the racer 
depend entirely u])on this. 

Thick-wind, however, is not always the consequence of disease. There are certain 
cloddy, round-chested horses, that' are naturally thick-winded, at least to a certain 
extent. They are capable of that slow exertion for which nature designed them, but 
they are immediately distressed if put a little out of their usual pace. A circular 
chest, whether the horse is large or small, indicates thick-wind. The circular chest 
is a capacious one, and the lungs which fill it are large, and they supply sufficient 
arterialised blood to produce plenty of flesh and fat, and these horses are always fat. 
This is the point of proof to which we look, when all that we want from the animal 
is flesh and fat ; but the expanding form of the chest is that which we require in the 
animal of speed — the deep as well as the broad chest — always capacious for the pur- 
pose of muscular strength, and becoming considerably more so when arterialised blood 
is rapidly expended in quick progression. We cannot enlarge the capacity of a circle; 
and if more blood is to be furnished, that which cannot be done by increase of surface, 
must be accomplished by frequency of action. Therefore it is that all our heavy 
draught-horses are thick-winded. It is of little detriment to them, for their work is 
slow ; or rather it is an advantage to them, for the circular chest, always at its greatest 
capacity, enables them to acquire that weight which it is so advantageous for them to 
throw into the collar. 

BROKEN-WIND. 

This is immediately recognisable by the manner of breathing. The inspiration is 
performed in somewhat less than the natural time, and with an increased degree of 
labour: but the expiration has a peculiar difficulty accompanying it. It is accom- 
plished by a double effort, in the first of which, as Mr. Blaine has well explained it, 
" the usual muscles operate ; and in the other, the auxiliary muscles, particularly the 
abdominal, are put on the stretch to complete the expulsion more perfectly ; and that 
being done, the flank falls, or the abdominal muscles relax with a kind of jerk or 
spasm." 

The majority of veterinary surgeons attribute broken-wind to an emphysematous 
state of the lungs. In almost every broken-winded horse which he has examined 
after death, the author of this work has found dilatation of some of the air-cells, and 
particularly towards the edges of the lobes. There has been rupture through the 
parietes of some of the cells, and they have evidently communicated with one 
another, and the air could be easily forced from one portion of the cells to another. 
There was also a crepitating noise while this pressure was made, as if the attenuated 
membrane of some of the cells had given way. These were the true broken cells, 
and hence the derivation of the name of the disease. 

Broken-wind is preceded or accompanied by cough — a cough perfectly character- 
istic, and by which the horseman would, in the dark, detect the existence of the dis- 
ease. It is short — seemingly cut short — grunting, and followed by wheezing. When 
the animal is suddenly struck or threatened, there is a low grunt of the same nature 
as that of roaring, but not so loud. Broken-wind is usually preceded by cough; the 
cough becomes chronic, leads on to thick-wind, and then there is but a step to broken- 
wind. It is the consequence of the cough which accompanies catarrh and bronchitis 
oftener than thvit attending or following pneumonia; and of inflammation, and pro- 
bahiy, thickening of the membrane of the bronchiae, rather than of congestion of the 
air-cells. 

Laennec, whose illustrations of the diseases of the chest are invaluable to the hu 
fiaan surgeon, comes to our assistaiace, and, white describing emphysema of the Iung«» 



iil4 BROKEN-WIND. 

of ihe human being, gives us an explication of brol<en-vvind, more satisfactory than 
is to ne found in any of our veterinary writers. He attributes viiiat he calls dry ca- 
tarrh " to the partial obstruction of the smaller bronchial tubes, by the svvelling of 
their inner membrane. The muscles of inspiration are numerous and powerful, while 
expiration is chiefly left to the elasticity of the parts : then it may happen that the 
air which, during inspiration, had overcome the resistance opposed to its entrance by 
the tumid state of the membrane, is unable to force its way throuoh the same obsta- 
cle during expiration, and remains imprisoned in the cells, as it were, by a valve. 
The succeeding inspirations introduce a fresh supply of air, and gradually dilate the 
cells to a greater or less extent ; and if the obstruction is of some continuance, the 
dilated condition of the cells becomes permanent." 

Some circumstances attending this disease may now, probably, be accounted for. 
A troublesome cough, and sometimes of long continuance, is the foundation of tho 
•lisease, or indicates that irritable state of the bronchial membrane with which broken- 
wind is almost necessarily associated. Horses that are greedy feeders, or devoui 
large quantities of slightly nutritious food, or are worked with a stomach distended 
by this food, are very subject to broken-wind. More depends upon the management 
of the food and exercise than is generally supposed. The post-horse, the coach-horse, 
and the racer, are comparatively seldom broken-winded. They are fed, at stated pe- 
riods, on nutritious food that lies in little compass, and their hours of feeding and of 
exertion are so arranged that they seldom work on a full stomach. The agricultural 
horse is too often fed on the very refuse of the farm, and his hours of feeding, and 
his hours of work, are frequently irregular; and the carriage-horse, although fed on 
more nutritious food, is often summoned to work, by his capricious master, the mo* 
ment his meal is devoured. 

A rapid gallop on a full stomach has often produced broken-wind. When the exer« 
tion has been considerable and long-continued, we can easily conceive a rupture of 
the air-cells of the soundest lungs ; but we are inclined to believe, that, were the his- 
tory of these cases known, there would be found to have been a gradual preparation 
for this result. There would have been chronic cough, or more than usually disturbed 
respiration after exercise, and then it required little more to perfect the mischief. 
Galloping after drinking has been censured as a cause of broken-wind, yet we canno. 
think that it is half so dangerous as galloping with a stomach distended by solid food. 
It is said that broken-winded horses are foul feeders, because they devour almcss 
everything that comes in their way, and thus impede the play of the lungs; but there 
is so much sympathy between the respiratory and digestive systems, that one cannot 
be much deranged without the other evidently suflTering. Flatulence, and a depraved 
appetite, may be the consequence as well as the cause of broken-wind ; and there is 
no pathological fact of more frequent occurrence than the co-existence of indigestion 
and flatulence with broken-wind. Flatulence seems so invariable a concomitsnt of 
broken-wind, tliat the old farriers used to think the air found its way from the lungs 
to the abdomen in some inexplicable manner; and hence their "holes to let out bro- 
ken-wind." They used literally to make a hole near to or above the fundament in 
order to give vent to the imprisoned wind. The sphincter muscle was generally divi"- 
ded ; and although the trumping ceased, there was a constant, although silent, emis- 
sion of foetid gas, that made the remedy worse than the disease. 

The narrow-chested horse is more subject to broken-wind than the broader and 
deeper chested one, for there is not so much room for the lungs to expand when rapid 
progression requires the full discharge of their function. 

Is broken-wind hereditary ] We beiieve so. It may be referred to hereditary con- 
formation — to a narrower chest, and more fragile membrane — and predisposition to 
take on those inflammatory diseases which end in broken-wind ; and the circular chest, 
which cannot enlarge its capacity when exertion requires it, must render both thic& 
md broken-wind of more probable occurrence. 

Is there any cure for broken-wind ] None ! No medical skill can repair the bro- 
ken-down structure of the lungs. 

If, however, we cannot oire, we may in some degree palliate broken-wind ; and, first 
of all. we must attend carefully to the feeding. The food should lie in little com- 
pass — plenty of oats and little hay, but no chafT. Chafl'is particularly objectionable, 
rrom the rapidity with which it is devoured, and the stomach distended, Watej 
should be given in moderate quantities, but the horse should not be suffeieu u> dvvsk 



PHTHISIS PULMONALIS, OR CONSUMPTION. 215 

as much as he likes until the day's work is over. Green meat will always be ser- 
viceable. Carrots are particularly useful. They are readily dig-ested, and appear to 
have a peculiarly beneficial effect on the respiratory system. 

It is from the want of proper attention to the feeding that many horses become 
bioken-winded, even in tlie straw-yard. There is little nutriment in the provender 
which they lind tliere ; and in order to obtain enouorli for the support of life, they are 
compelled to keep the stomach constantly full, and pressing upon the lungs. It ha& 
been the same when they have been turned out in coarse and innutritive pasturage 
The stomach was perpetually gorged, and the habitual pressure on the lungs cramp 
ed and confined tlieir action, and inevitably ruptured the cells when the horse gam 
boiled with his companions, or was wantonly driven about. 

Next in importance stands exercise. The pursive or broken-winded horse should 
not stand idle in the stable a single day. It is almost incredible how much may be 
done by attention to food and exercise. The broken-winded horse may thus be ren- 
dered comfortable to himself, and no great nuisance to his owner ; — but inattention to 
feeding, or one hard journey — the animal unprepared, and the stomach full — may 
bring on inflammation, congestion, and death. Occasional physic, or alterative medi- 
cine, will often give considerable relief. 

Thick-wind and broken-wind exist in various degrees, and many shades of differ- 
ence. Dealers and horsemen generally have characterised them by names that can 
boast no elegance, but are considerably expressive of the state of the animal. Our 
readers should not be ignorant of them. Some horses make a shrill noise when in 
quick action — they are said to be Pipers. This is a species of Roaring, There is 
usually a ring of coagulated matter round tlie inside of the windpipe, by which the 
cavity is materially diminished, and the sound produced in quick breathing must evi- 
dently be shriller. Sometimes the piping is produced by a contraction of the small 
passages of the lungs. 

The WiiEEZER utters a sound not unlike that of an asthmatic person when a littlo 
hurried. This is a kind of thick wind, and is caused by the lodgment of some mucous 
fluid in the small passages of the lungs. It frequently accompanies bronchitis. 
Wheezing can be heard at all times, even when the horse is at rest in the stable; 
roaring is confined to the increased breathing of considerable exertion. 

The Whistler utters a shriller sound than the wheezer, but only when in exer- 
cise, and that of some continuance. A sudden motion will not always produce it. 
It seems to be referable to some contraction in the windpipe or the larynx. The 
sound is a great nuisance to the rider, and the whistler very speedily becomes dis- 
tressed. A sharp gallop up-hill will speedily detect the ailment. 

When the obstruction seems to be principally in the nose, the horse loudly puffs 
and blows, and the nostrils are dilated to the utmost, while the flanks are compara* 
tively quiet. This animal is said to be a High-blower. With all his apparent dis- 
tress, he often possesses great speed and endurance. The sound is unpleasant, but 
the lungs may be perfectly sound. 

Every horse violently exercised on a full stomach, or when overloaded with fat, 
will grunt almost like a hog. The pressure of the stomach on the lungs, or that of 
the fdt accumulated around the heart, will so much impede the breathing, that the act 
of forcible expiration will be accompanied with this kind of sound : but there are some 
horses who will at all times emit it, if suddenly touched with the whip or spur. 
They are called Grunters, and should be avoided. There is some altered structure 
of the lungs, which prevents them from suddenly accommodating themselves to an 
unexpected demand for exertion. It is the consequence of previous disease, and is 
frequently followed by thick or broken wind, or roaring. 

PHTHISIS PULMONALIS, OR CONSUMPTION. 

When describing the accompaniments and consequences of inflammation of the 
lungs in the horse, mention was made of this fatal complaint. It is usually connected 
vvitifi or the consequence of pneumonia or pleurisy, and especially in horses of a pecu- 
liar formation or temperament. 

If a narrow-chested, flat-sided horse is attacked by inflammation of the lungs, or 
severe catarrhal fever, experience tells us that we shall have more difliculty in sub- 
duing the disease in him, than in one deeper in the girth or rounder in the ches' 
The lungs, deficient in bulk according to the diminished contents of the chest, tiavo 



216 PHTHISIS PULMONALIS, OR CONSUMPTION. 

been overworked in supplying the quantity of arterial blood expended in the various 
purposes of life, and particularly that which has h'jen required under unusual and 
violent exertion. Inflammation of the lungs has consequently ensued, and that 
inflammatory action has acquired an intense charactei, under circumstances by which 
another horse would be scarcely aflTected. 

When this disease has been properly treated, and apparently subdued, this horse 
?annot be quickly and summarily dismissed to his work. He is sadly emaciated — 
tie long continues so — his coat stares — his skin clings to his ribs — his helly is 
tucked up, notwithstanding that he may have plenty of mashes, and carrots, and 
green meat, and medicine — his former gaiety and spirit do not return, or if he is 
willing to work he is easily tired, sweating on the least exertion, and the sweat most 
profuse about the chest and sides — his appetite is not restored, or, perhaps, never 
has been good, and the slightest exertion puts him completely off his feed. 

We observe him more attentively, and, even as he stands quiet in his stall, the 
flanks heave a little more laboriously than they should do, and that heaving is pain- 
'ullj' quickened when sudden exertion is required. He coughs sorely, and discharges 
'rem the nose a mucus tinged with blood, or a fluid decidedly purulent — the breath 
becomes ofl'ensive — the pulse is always above 40, and strangely increased by the 
slightest exertion. 

When many of these symptoms are developed, the animal will exhibit considerable 
pain on being gently struck on some part of the chest ; the cough then becomes more 
frequent and painful ; the discharge from the nose more abundant and foetid, and the 
emaciation and consequent debility more rapid, until death closes the scene. 

The lesions that are presented after death are very uncertain. Generally there are 
lubercles ; sometimes very minute, at other times large in size. They are in difl^erent 
states of softening, and some of them have burst into the bronchial passages, and 
exhibit abscesses of enormous bulk. Other portions of the lungs are shrunk, flaccid, 
Indurated or hepatized, and of a pale or red-brown colour; and there are occasional 
adhesions between the lungs and the sides of the chest. 

Is this an hereditary disease] There is some difliculty in deciding the point. It 
!.as been scarcely mooted among the horsemen. One thing only is known, that the 
eide has been flat, and the belly tucked up, and the animal has had much more ardour 
and willingness than physical strength. These conformations, and this disposition, 
we know to be hereditary, and thus far phthisis may be said to be so too. Low and 
damp situations, or a variable and ungenial climate, may render horses peculiarly 
susceptible of chest afl^ections. All the absurd, or cruel, or accidental causes of 
pneumonia lay the foundation for phthisis ; and, particularly, those causes which tend 
to debilitate the frame generally, render the horse more liable to chest affections, and 
*less able to ward off" their fatal consequences. The most numerous instances of 
phthisis occur in those poor persecuted animals that are worn out before their time, 
and they are frequent enough among cavalry horses after the deprivations and fatigues 
of a long campaign. 

What is the medical treatment of confirmed phthisis 1 The practitioner must be 
guided by circumstances. If the horse is not very bad, and it is the spring of the 
year, a run at a;rass may be tried. It will generally seem to renovate the animal, 
but the apparent amelioration is too often treacherous. It should always be tried, 
for it is the best foundation for other treatment. The summer, however, having set 
in, the medicinal effect of the grass ceases, and the flies tease and irritate the animal. 

The medical treatment, if any is tried, will depend on two simple and unerring 
guides, the pulse and the membrane of the nose. If the first is quick and hard, and 
the second streaked with red, venesection should be resorted to. Small bleedings of 
one or two quarts, omitted when the pulse is quieted and the nostril is ]iale, may be 
eflfected. Counter-irritants will rarely do harm. They should be applied in the form 
of blisters, extending over the sides, and thus brought as near as possible to th 
affected part. Sedative medicines should be perseveringly administered : and here, as 
in acute inflammation, the chief dependence will be placed on digitalis. It should 
be given in small doses until a slightly intermittent pulse is produced, and that state 
o" the constitution should be maintained by a continued exhibition of the medicine. 
Nitre may be added as a diuretic, and pulvis antimonia/is as a diaphoretic. 

Any tonicshere 1 Yes, the tonic effect of mild and nutritious food — green meat of 
Himosi every kind, carrots particularly, mashes, and now and then a malt masb 



PLEURISY. 217 

Nothing further than this ] We may try, but very cautiously, those tonics which 
stimulate the digestive system, yet comparatively little aff«^,ct the circulatory one 
Small doses of chamomile and gentian may be given, but carefully watched and omitted 
if the flanks should heave more, or the cough be aggravated. 

The treatment of phthisis is a most unsatisfactory subject of consideration as it 
regards the practice of the veterinarian. If, after the human being has been subjected 
to medical treatment for a long course of time and at very considerable expense, he so 
far recovers that life is rendered tolerably comfortable to him, he and his connexions 
are thankful and satisfied, and he will submit to many a privation in order to ward off 
the return of a disease, to which he is conscious there will ever be a strong predispo- 
sition : but the case is different with the horse; and this, the scope and bo'uiid of the 
human practitioner's hope, is worthless to the veterinarian. His patient must not 
only live, but must be suuiul again. Every energy, every capability must be restored. 
Can we cause the tubercles of the lungs to bo absorbed 1 Can we disperse or dispel 
the hepatization "? Can we remodel the disorganised structure of the lumrs] Our 
consideration, then, will be chiefly directed to the detection of the disease in its earliest 
state, and the allaying of the irritation which causes or accompanies the growth of thf» 

tubercles. This must be the scope and bound of the veterinarian's jjrac'lice always 

remembering that the owner should be forewarned of the general hopelessness of the 
case, and that the continuance of his eflbrts should be regulated by the wish of th© 
proprietor and the value of the patient. 

PLEURISY. 

The investing membrane of the lungs, and of tlie thoracic cavity, namely, the pleura, 
now demands consideration. We are indebted to Mr. John Field, one of the noblest 
ornaments of the veterinary profession — but cut oflf in the prime of his days — for the 
greater part of our knowledge of this disease, and for the power of distinguishincr 
between it and pneumonia, as readily and as surely as we do between pneumonia and 
bronchilis and epidemic catarrh. 

The prevailing causes of pleurisy are the same as those which produce pneumonia 
—exposure to wet and cold, sudden alterations of temperature, partial exposure to 
cold, riding against a keen wind, immersion as high as the chest in cold water, drink- 
ing cold water, and extra work of the respiratory machine. To these may be added, 
wounds penetrating ino the thorax and lacerating the pleura, fracture of the ribs, oi 
violent contusions on tiie side, the inflammation produced by which is propagated 
through the parietes of the chest. 

It is sometimes confined to one side, or to one of the pleura on either side, or even 
to patches on that pleura, whether pulmonary or costal. The inflammation of the 
lungs which occasionally accompanies rabies is characterised by a singular patchy 
appearance. That produced on the costal pleura, arising from violence or other causes, 
rarely reaches the pulmonary covering ; and that which is communicated to the tnnic 
of the lungs, by means of the intensity of the action within, does not often involve 
the costal pleura. In some cases, however, it affects both pleuraj and both sides, and 
spreads rapidly from one to the other. 

The first symptom is rigor, followed by increased heat and partial sweats : to these 
succeed loss of appetite aad spirits, and a low and painful cough. The inspiration is 
a short, sudden effort, and broken off before it is fully accomplished, indicating the 
pain felt from the distention of the irritable, because inflamed, membrane. This symp- 
tom is exceedingly characteristic. In the human being it is well expressed by the 
term stitch, and an exceedingly painful feeling it is. The expiration is retarded as 
much as possible, by the use of all the auxiliary muscles which the animal can press 
into the service; but it at length finishes abruptly in a kind of spasm. This pecu- 
liarity of breathing, once carefully observed, cannot be forgotten. The next character 
is found in the tenderness of the sides when the costal pleura is affected. This ten- 
derness often exists to a degree scarcely credible. If the side is pressed upon, the 
horse will recede with a low painful grunt; he will tremble, and try to get out of the 
way before the hand touches him again. Then comes another indication, both of pain 
and the region of that pain, — the intercostal muscles, affected by the contiguous 
pleura, and in the.r turn affecting the panniculus carnosus, or subcutaneous muscular 
expansion without — there are twitchings of the skin on the side — corrugations — 
waves creeping over the integument. This is never seen in pneumonia. There is 
19 ° 2c 



218 PLEURISY. 

however, as we may expect, the same disinclination to move, for every motion must 
give intense pain. 

The pulse should be anxiously studied. It presents a decided difference of character 
t'rom that of pneumonia. It is increased in rapidity, but instead of being oppressed 
and sometimes almost unappreciable, as in pneumonia, it is round, full, and strong. 
Even at the last, when the strength of the constitution begins to yield, the pulse is 
wiry, although small. 

'I'he extremities are never deathy cold ; they may be cool, they are oftener variable, , 
and they sometimes present increased heat. The body is far more liable to variations I 
of temperature ; and the cold and the hot fit more frequently succeed each other. 
The mouth is not so hot as in pneumonia, and the breath is rarely above its usual 
temperature. 

A diflerence of character in the two diseases is here particularly evident on the . 
menrbrane of the nose. Neither the crimson nor the purple injection of pneumonia is ■ 
seen on the lining of the nose, but a somewhat darker, dingier hue. 

Both the pneumonic and pleuritic horse will look at his flanks, thus pointing out 
the seat of disease and pain; Itut the horse with pneumonia will turn himself more 
slowly round, and long and steadfastly gaze at his side, while the action of the horse 
with pleurisy is more sudden, agitated, spasmodic. The countenance of the one is 
that of settled distress; the other brightens up occasionally. The pang is severe, but 
it is transient, and there are intervals of relief. While neither will lie down or wil- 
lingly move, and the pneumonic horse stands fixed as a statue, the pleuritic one 
shrinks, and crouches almost to falling. If he lies down, it is on the aiTected side, 
when the disease is confined to one side only. The head of the horse with inflamma- 
tion of the substance of the lungs hangs heavily ; that of the other is protruded. 

We here derive most important assistance from Jiuscultalion. In a case of pleurisy 
we have no crepitating, crackling sound, referable to the infiltration of the blood 
through the gossamer membrane of the air-cells ; we have not even a louder and 
distincter murmur. Perhaps there is no variation from the sound of health, or, if 
there is any diflference, the murmur is fainter; for the pleura] membrane is thick- 
ened, and its elasticity is impaired, and the sound is not so readily transmitted. There 
is sometimes a slight rubbing sound, and especially towards the superior region of tlie 
chest, as if there was friction between the thickened and indurated membranes. 

To this may be added the diflTerent character of the cough, sore and painful enough 
in both, but in pneumonia generally hard, and full, and frequent. In pleurisy it is 
not so frequent, but faint, suppressed, cut short, and rarely attended by discharge 
from the nose. 

These are sufidcient guides in the early stage of the disease, when it is most of all 
of importance to distinguish the one from the other. 

If after a few days the breathing becomes a little more natural, the inspiration 
leno-thened and regular, and the expiration, although still prolonged, is suffered to be 
eompleted — if the twitchings are less evident and less frequent — if the cough can be 
fully expressed — if the pulse softens, although it may not diminish in frequency, and 
if the animal begins to lie down, or walks about of his own acconl, there is hope of 
recovery. But if the pulse quickens, and, although smaller, yet possesses the wiry 
character of inflammation — if the gaze at the flanks, previously by starts, becomes 
fixed as well as anxious, and the difficulty of breathing continues (the difficulty of 
accortiplishing it, although the efforts are oftener repeated) — if patches of sweat break 
out, and the animal gets restless — paws — shifts his posture every minute — is unable 
longer to stand, yet hesitates whether he shall lie down — determines on it again and 
again, but fears, and at length drops, rather than lies gently down, a fatal termination 
is at hand. For some time before his death, the effusion and its extent will be evi- 
dent enough. He not only walks unwillingly, but on the slightest exercise his pulse 
is strangely accelerated ; the feeling of suffocation comes over him, and he stops all 
of a sudden, and looks wildly about and trembles ; but he quickly recovers himself 
and proceeds. There is also, when the efl'usion is confirmed, cedema of some external 
part, and that occasionally to a very great extent. This is oftenest observed in the 
abdomen, the chest, and the point of the breast. 

The immediate cause of death is effusion in the chest, compressing the lungs on 
every side, rendering expiration difficult and at length impossible, and dest'-ving the 
animal by suffocation The very commencement of effusion may be detected by aus- 



PLEURISY. 219 

cultation. There will be the cessation of the respiratory murmui at the sternum, and 
the increased grating — not the crepitating, crackling noise as when congestion is going 
on — not the feebler murmur as congestion advances ; but the absence of it, beginnint 
from the bottom of the chest. 

It is painfully interesting to watch the progress of the effusion — how Ihe stillness 
creeps up, and the murmur gets louder above, and the grating sound louder too, until 
at length there is no longer room for the lungs to play, and suffocation ensues. 

The fluid contained in the chest varies in quantity as well as appearance and con- 
sistence. Many gallons have been found in the two sacs, pale, or yellow, or bloody, 
or often differing in the two sides of the thorax ; occasionally a thick adventitious coat 
covering the costal or the pulmonary pleura — rarely much adhesion, but the lungs 
purple-coloured, flaccid, compressed, not one-fourth of their usual size, immersed in 
the fluid, and rendered incapable of expanding by its pressure. 

Here, as in pneumonia, the bleeding should be prompt and copious. Next, and of 
great importance, aperient medicine should be administered — that, the effect of which 
is so desirable, but which we do not dare to give when the mucous membrane of the 
respiratory passages is the seat of disease. Here we have to do with a serous mem- 
brane, and there is less sympathy with the mucous membranes of either cavity. 
Small doses of aloes should be given with the usual fever medicine, and repeated 
morning and night until the dung becomes pultaceous, when it will always be pru- 
dent to stop. The sedative medicine is that which has been recommended in pneu- 
monia, and in the same doses. Next should follow a hUsttr on tlie chests and sides. 
It is far preferable to setons, for it can be brought almost int i ivmtact with the inflamed 
surface, and extended over the whole of that surface. An airy, but a comfortable box, 
is likewise even more necessary than in pneumonia, and the practice of exposure, 
uncovered, to the cold, even more absurd and destructive. The blood, repelled from 
the skin by the contractile, depressing influence of the cold, would rush with fatal 
impetus to the neighbouring membrane, to which it was before dangerously detei^ 
mined. Warm and comfortable clothing cannot be dispensed with in pleurisy. 

The sedative medicines, however, should be omitted much sooner than in pneumo- 
nia, and succeeded by diuretics. The common turpentine is as good as any, made 
into a ball with linseed meal, and given in doses of two or three drachms twice in 
the day. If the constitution is much impaired, tonics may be cautiously given, as 
soon as the violence of the disease is abated. The spirit of nitrous ether is a mild 
stimulant and a diuretic. Small quantities of gentian and ginger may be added, but 
the turpentine must not be omitted. 

By auscultation and other modes of examination, the existence of effusion in the 
chest is perhaps ascertained, and, possibly, it is increasing. Is there any mechanical 
way of getting rid of it 1 There is one to which recourse should be had as soon as it 
is evident that there is considerable fluid in the chest. The operation of Paracentesis, 
or tapping, should be performed ; it is a very simple one. The side-line may be had 
recourse to, or the twitch alone may be used. One of the horse's legs being held up, 
and, counting back from the sternum to between the seventh and eighth ribs, the sur- 
geon should pass a moderate-sized trochar into the chest immediately above the car- 
tilages. He will not have selected the most dependent situation, but as near it as he 
could with safety select; for there would not have been room between the cartilages 
if the puncture had been lower; and these would have been injured in the forcing of 
the instrument between them, or, what is worse, there would have been great hazard 
of wounding the pericardium, for the apex of the heart rests on the sternum. Through 
this aperture, close to the cartilages, the far greater part of the fluid may be evacuated. 
The operator will now withdraw the stilette, and let the fluid run through the canula. 
He will not trouble himself afterwards about the wound ; it will heal readily enough; 
perhaps too quick, for, could it be kept open a few days, it might act as a very useful 
drain // should he atlempted early. Recourse should be had to the operation as soon 
as it is ascertained that there is considerable fluid in the chest, for the animal will at 
least be relieved for a while, and some time will have been given for repose to the 
overlaboured lungs, and for the system generally to be recruited. The fluid will be 
evacuated before the lungs are too much debilitated by laborious action against the 
pressure of the water, and a state of collapse brought on, from which they will be 
incapable of recovering. They only who have seen the collapsed and condensed state 



220 PLEURISY. 

of the lung that had been long compressed by the fluid,»can conceive of the extent to 
which this is carried. It should be added — a fact important and alarming — that the 
records of veterinary surgery contain very few cases of permanently successful per- 
formance of the operation. This should not discourage the practitioner from attempts 
ing it, but should induce him to consider whether he may not perform it under happier 
auspices, before the lungs and the serous membrane which lines the cavity have been 
too much disorganised, and the constitution itself sadly debilitated. There could not 
be any well-founded objection to an earlier resort to paracentesis, and he must be a 
bungler indeed wlio wounded any important part. 

It should be ascertained b}'^ auscultation whether there is fluid in both cavities. If 
there should be, and in considerable quantity, it will not be prudent to operate on 
both sides at once. If much fluid is discharged, there will be acceleration and difli- 
culty of respiration to a very great degree. The practitioner must not be alarmed at 
this ; it will pass over, and on the next day he may attack the other side; or open 
both at once, if there is but little fluid in either. 

Having resorted to this operation, a course of diuretics with tonics should be 
immediately commenced, and the absorbents roused to action before the cavity fills 
again. 

There is in pleurisy a far greater tendency to relapse than in pneumonia. The 
lungs do not perfectly recover from their state of collapse, nor the serous membrane 
from its long maceration in the effused fluid : oedema, cough, disinclination to work, 
incapability of rapid progression, colicky pains — as the unobservant practitioner 
would call them — but in truth pleuritic stitches ; these are the frequent sequelae of 
pleurisy. This will aflford another reason why the important operation of paracentesis 
should not be deferred too long. 

There is much greater disposition to metastasis than in pneumonia : indeed it is 
easy to imagine that the inflammation of a mere membrane may more readily and 
oftener shift than that of the substance of so large a viscus as the lungs. The inflam- 
mation shifting its first ground, attacks almost every part indiscriminately, and 
appears under a strangly puzzling variety of forms. Dropsy is the most frequent 
change. Effusion in the abdomen is substituted for that of the chest, or rather the 
exhalent or absorbent vessels of the abdomen, or both of them, soon sympathise in 
the debility of those of the thorax. 



THE STOMACH. 



221 



CHAPTER IX. 
THE ABDOMEN AND ITS CONTENTS. 

THE STOMACH. 




a The oesophagus or gullet, extending to the stomach. 

A The entrance of the gullet into the stomach. The circular layers of the muscles are very 

thick and strong, and which, by their contractions, help to render it difficult for the 

food to be returned or vomited. 
c The portion of the stomach which is covered by cuticle, or insensible skin. 
d d The margin, which separates the cuticular from the villous portion. 
e e The mucous, or villous (velvet) portion of the stomach, in which the food is principally 

digested. 
/ The communication between the stomach and the first intestine. 
g The common orifice through wluch the bile and the secretion from the pancreas pass into 

the first intestine. The two pins mark the two tubes here united. 
h A smaller orifice, through which a portion of the secretion of the pancreas enters the 

intestines. 

The oesophagus, as has already been stated, consists of a muscular membranous 
tube, extending from the posterior part of the mouth down the left side of the neck, 
pursuing its course throiiah the chest, penetrating through the crura of the diaphragm, 
and reaching to and terminating in the stomach. It does not, however, enter straight 
into the stomach, and with a large open orifice ; but there is an admirable provision made 
to prevent the regurgitation of the food when the stomach is filled and the horse sud- 
denly called upon to perform unusually hard work. The oesophagus enters the 
stomach in a somewhat curved direction — it runs obliquely through the muscular and 
cuticular coats for some distance, and then its fibres arrange themselves around the 
opening into the stomach. Close observation has shown, that they form themselves 
into segments of circles, interlacing each other, and by their contraction plainly and 
forcibly closing the opening, so that the regurgitation of the food is almost im.- 
possible. 

The following is a simple but accurate delineation of the structure of the termina* 
tion of the oesophagus, and the manner in which it encircles the orifice of the stomacii. 
We are indebted to Mr. Ferguson, of Dublin, for this interesting discovery. 
19* 



222 



THE ABDOMEN AND ITS CONTENTS. 




\ microscope of very feeble power will beautifully show this singular construction 

It is not precisely either a sphincter muscle 
or -a valve, but it is a strong and almost 
insuperable obstacle to the regurgitation of 3 
the food. The left side of the stomach is '■ 
in contact with the diaphragm. It is pressed 
upon by every motion of the diaphragm, 
and hence the reason why the stomach is 
so small compared with the size of the 
animal. It is indeed strangely small, in | 
order that it might not press too hardly f 
up6n the diaphragm, or painfully interfere 
\\ ith the process of respiration, when the 
utmost energies of the horse are occasion- I 
ally taxed immediately after he has been f 
fed. * 

At the lower or pyloric orifice, the mus- 
cles are also increased in number and in size. These are arranged in the same i 
manner, with sufhcient power to resist the pressure of the diaphragm, and retain the I 
contents of the stomach until they have undergone the digestive process. ■' 

The situation of the stomach will at once explain the reason why a horse is so 
much distressed, and sometimes irreparably injured, if worked hard immediately after 
a full meal. The stomach must be displaced and driven back by every contraction 
of the diaphragm or act of inspiration ; and in proportion to the fulness of the stomach 
will be the weight to be overcome, and the labour of the diaphragm, and the exhaus- 
tion of the animal. If the stomach is much distended, it may be too weighty to be 
forced sufficiently far back to make room for the quantity of air which the animal in a 
state of exertion requires. Hence the frequency and labour of the breathing, and the 
quickness with which such a horse is blown, or possibly destroyed. Hence also the 
folly of giving too full a meal, or too much water, before the horse starts on a journey 
or for the chase ; and, in like manner, the absurdity and danger of that unpardonable 
custom of some grooms to gallop the horse after his drink, in order to warm it in his 
belly, and prevent gripes. 

The horse was destined to be the servant of man, and to be always at his call 
whether fasting or full : it would seem, therefore, that, to lessen much inconvenience 
or danger, a smaller stomach, in proportion to his size, is given to the horse than to 
almost any other animal. The bulk of the horse, and the services required of him, 
demand much nutriment, and that of such a nature as to occupy a very considerable 
space ; yet his stomach, compared with his bulk, is not half so large as that of the 
human being: therefore, although he, like every ether animal, feels inconvenience 
from great exertion immediately after a full meal, he suffers not so much as other 
quadrupeds, for his stomach is small, and his food passes rapidly through it, and 
descends to a part of the intestines distant from the diaphragm, and where the exist- 
ence and pressure of the food cannot cause him any annoyance. 

The stomach has four coats. The outermost is the lining of the cavity of the belly, 
and the common covering of all the intestines — that by which they are confined in 
their respective situations, and from which a fluid is secreted that prevents all friction 
between them. This is called the periluneum — that which stretches round the inside 
of the stomach. 

The second is the muscular coat, consisting of two layers of fibres, one running 
l&rigthways, and the other circularly, and by means of which a constant gentle motion 
is communicated to the stomach, mingling the food more intimately together, ind pre- 

f)aring it for digestion, and by the pressure of which the food when properly prepared 
s urged on into the intestines. 

The third, or cuticular {shin-Uhe') coat, c, covers but a portion of the inside of tht 
Btomach. It is a continuation of the lining of the g'lllet. There are numerous glands 
on it, which secrete a mucous fluid ; and it is probably intended to be a reservoir in 
which a portion of the food is retained for a while, and softened and better prepared 
for the action of the other or true digestive portion of the stomach. The cuticulai 
coat occupies nearly one-half of the inside of the stomach. 

The fourth coat is the mucous or villous (velvet) coat, c, where the work of digestion 



THE STOMACH. 223 

properly commences. The mouths of numerous little vessels open upon it, pourimr 
out a peculiar fluid, the gantric (stomach) juice, which mixes with the food already 
softened, and converts it into a fluid called chyme. As this is formed, it passes out 
of the other orifice of the stomach, the pylorus (doorkeepers),/, and enters the first 
small intestine ; the harder and undissolved parts being turned back to undero-o farther 



nction. 



Every portion of the muscular coat has the power of successively contractin>r and 
relaxing, and thus, in the language of Dr. Bostock, "the successive contraction of 
each part of the stomach, by producing a series of folds and wrinkles, serves to agitate 
the alimentary mass, and. by bringing every part of it in its turn to the surface, to 
expose It to the influence of the gastric juice, while at the same time the whole of the 
contents are gradually propelled forwards, from the orifice which is connected with 
the oesophagus to that by which they are discharged." 

The cereijro-visceral nerve is the agent in producing these alternate contractions 
and relaxations. It is the motor nerve belonging to these parts. It has to keep the 
parietes of the stomach in contact with the food, and the food in contact with the 
gastric juice. It has to bring the different ])arts of the food in successive contact with 
the stomach, and to propel them through this portion of the alimentary canal in orde) 
that they may be discharged into the duodenum. 

A viscus thus situated and thus employed must occasionally be subject to inflam- 
mation, and various other lesions. The symptoms, however, are obscure and fre- 
quently mistaken. They resemble those of colic more than anything else, and should 
be met by bleedinnr, oleaginous purges, mashes, tepid gruel, and the application of 
the stomach-pump : but when, in addition to the colicky pains, there appear indistinct- 
ness of the pulse — and a very characteristic symptom that is — pallidness of the mem- 
branes, coldness of the mouth, frequent lying down, and in such position that the 
weight of the horse may rest on the chest, frequently pointing with his muzzle at tlie 
seat of pain, and, especially, if these symptoms are accompanied or followed by vomit- 
ing, rupture of the stomach is plainly indicated. Considering the situation of the 
stomachf and the concussions and violence to which it is exposed from the diaphrafrm 
and from the viscera around it, this accident will not appear extraordinary. The horse 
does not necessarily die as soon as this accident occurs. In a case related by Mr. 
Rogers, the animal died in about four hours after the accident;* but in one that 
occurred in the practice of the author, three days elapsed between the probable rupture 
of the stomach, from a sudden and violent fall, and the death of the animal, and in 
which interval he several times ate a little food. The rupture was at the right extre- 
mity of the stomach, and there were several distinct layers of impacted food between 
it and the liver. The liver seemed to have acted as a kind of valve. The stomach was 
found still distended, the edges of the rupture httving the dull and sodden appearance 
of an old wound. There v/as comparatively little fluid in the abdominal cavity, and 
no disposition to vomit occurred during any period. f 

A case showing the insensibility of the stomach, wisely and kindly given, con- 
sidering the shocks and dangers to which this viscus is exposed, is recorded by Mr. 
Hayes. :|: A drench was ordered for a horse. For want of a horn, the stable-keeper 
made use of a wine-hottle, without examining whether it was clean or foul. Shortly 
afterwards it was discovered that the bottle had contained three or four ounces of 
liquid blister. This was kept a profound secret until the death of the animal, and 
that did not happen until twelve days afterwards. The horse had eaten his provender 
in the same manner as usual, and had performed his usual work until about two hours 
before his death, when he lay down, rolled about, bruised himself sadly, and died. 
The food, consisting of hay, oats, and beans, was lodged and impacted between the 
folds of the intestines, and the whole abdominal viscera appeared as if they had been 
thus surrounded a considerable time before death. The stomach was ruptured in 
many directions, and almost decomp.-sed. Its coats were nearly destroyed, and hung 
like rags about the orifice through wnioh the food was received, and that through 
which it naturally was expelled. This account proves how little we are to depend 
upon any apparent symptoms as indicating the real state of the stomach in the horse. 

Mr. Brown relates a case of polypus found in the stomach, and which had remained 

* The Farrier and Naturalist, vol. ii., p. 9. 

t The Veterinary-Medical Association, 1836-7, p. 109. X The Veterinarian, vol. x. p. 615 



224 



THE ABDOMEN AND ITS CONTENTS. 



there unsuspected until it weighed nearly half-a-pound, it then became entangled m 
the pyloric orifice, and prevented the passage of the food, and destroyed the horse.* 

BOTS. 

In the spring and early part of the summer, horses are much troubled by a grub or 
caterpillar, which crawls out of the anus, fastens itself under the tail, and seems to 
cause a great deal of itching or uneasiness. Grooms are sometimes alarmed at the 
appearance of these insects. Their history is curious, and will dispel every fear 
with regard to them. We are indebted to Mr. Bracy Clark for almost all we knov» 
of the hot. 

CUT OF THE BOT. 




9 



a and b The eggs of the gad-fly, adhering to the hair of the horse 

c The appearance of the bots on the stomach, firmly adhering by their hooked mouths. 

The marks or depressions are seen which are left on the coat of the stomach 

when the bots are detached from their hold. 
d The bot detached. 

e The female of the gad-fly, of the horse, prepared to deposit her eggs. 
/ The gad-fly by which the red bots are produced. 
g The smaller, or red boU 

A species of gad-fly, e, the cstrus equi, is in the latter part of the summer exceed- 
ingly busy about the horse. It is observed to be darting with great rapidity towards 
the knees and sides of the animal. The females are depositing their eggs on the 
hair, and which adhere to it by means of a glutinous fluid with which they are sur- 
rounded (a and b). In a few days the eggs are ready to be hatched, and the slight- 
est application of warmth and moisture will liberate the little animals which they 
contain. The horse in licking himself touches the egg; it bursts, and a small worm 
escapes, which adheres to the tongue, and is conveyed with the food into the stomach. 
There it clings to the cuticular portion of the stomach, c, by means of a hook on 
either side of its mouth ; and its hold is so firm and so obstinate, that it must be 
broken before it can be detached. It remains there feeding on the mucus of the sto- 
mach during the whole of the winter, and until the end of the ensuing spring; when, 
having attained a considerable size, d, and bemg destined to undergo a certain trans- 
formation, it disengages itself from the cuticular coat, is carried into the villous por- 
tion of the stomach with the food, passes out of it with the chyme, and is evacuated 
with tlie dung. 

The larva or maggot seeks shelter in the ground, and buries itself there ; it con- 
tracts in size, and becomes a chrysalis or grub, in which state it lies inactive for t 
few weeks, and then, bursting from its confinement, assumes the form of a fly. The 
lemale, oecoming impregnated, quickly deposits her eggs on those parts of the horse 
which he is most accustomed to lick, and thus the species is perpetuated. 

There are several plain ccnclusions to he drawn from this history. The bots can 

* The Veterinarian, vol, vii., p. 76. 



POISONS. 225 

not, while they inhabit the stomach of the horse, give the animal any pain, for they 
have fastened on the cuticular and insensible coat. They cannot stimulate the sto- 
mach, and increase its digestive power, for they are not on the digestive portion of the 
Btomach. They cannot, by their roughness, assist the trituration or rubbing down 
of the food, for no such office is performed in tliat part of the stomach — the food is 
softened, not rubbed down. They cannot be injurious to the horse, for he enjoys the 
most perfect health when the cuticular part of his stomach is filled with them, and 
their presence is not even suspected until they appear at the anus. They cannot be 
removed by medicine, because they are not in that part of the stomach to which medi- 
cine is usually conveyed ; and if they were, their mouths are too deeply buried in the 
mucus for any medicine, that can be safely administered, to affect them ; and, last of 
all, in due course of time they detach themselves, and come away. Therefore, the 
wise man will leave them to themselves, or content himself with picking them off 
when they collect under the tail and annoy the animal. 

The smaller hot,/ and g, is not so frequently found. 

Of inflammation of the stomach of the horse, except from poisonous herbs, or 
drugs, we know little. It rarely occurs. It can with difficulty be distinguished from 
inflammation of the bowels ; and, in either case, the assistance of the veterinary sur- 
geon is required. 

Few horses are destroyed by poisonous plants in our meadows. Natural instinct 
teaches the animal to avoid the greater part of those that would be injurious. 

We cannot do better than abbreviate the list of poisonous agents, and the means 
of averting their fatal influence, given by Mr. Morton, the Professor of Chemistry 
and Materia Medica at the Royal Veterinary College.* It will occasionally be 
exceedingly useful to the proprietor of horses. 

He begins with the Animal Poisons. The bite of the viper has been occasionally 
fatal to dogs and sheep. A horse was brought to the Veterinary College that had 
been bitten in the hind leg while hunting. There was considerable swelling, and 
the place of the bite was evident enough. Mr. Armstrong mentions a case in which 
a horse, bitten by a viper, sunk into a kind of coma, from which he could not be 
roused. The antidote, which seldom or never fails, is an alkaline solution of almost 
any kind, taken internally and applied exterirally. There is no chemical eff'ect on 
the circulation, but the alkali acts as a powerful counter-irritant. In very bad cases, 
opium may be added to the alkaline solution. 

Hornets, Wasps, &c. — ^These are spoken of, because there are records of horses 
being attacked by a swarm of them, and destroyed. The spirit of turpentine is the 
best external application, and, if given in not undue quantities and guarded by an 
admixture with oil, may be useful. 

Cantharides constitute a useful drug in some few cases. It is one of the applica- 
tions used in order to excite the process of blistering. It was occasionally employed 
as a medicine in small quantities, and, combined with vegetable tonics, it has been 
given in small doses, for the cure of glanders, farcy, and nasal gleet. It is valuable 
m cases of general and extreme debility. It is a useful general stimulant when judi- 
ciously applied: but it must be given in small doses, and never except under the 
direction of a skilful practitioner. A drachm of the powdered fly would destroy almost 
any horse. In the breeding season it is too often shamefully given as an excitement 
to the horse and the mare, and many a valuable animal has been destroyed by this 
abominable practice. It is usually given in the form of ball, in which case it may 
be detected by the appearance of small glittering portions of the fly, which are sepa- 
rated on the inner side of the dung-ball in hot water. If the accidental or too pow 
erful administration of it is suspected, recourse should be had to bleeding, purging, 
and plentiful drenching with oily and demulcent fluids. 

The leaves of the Yew are said to be dangerous to the horse, as well as to many 
other animals. "Two horses that had been employed in carrying fodder, were 
thoughtlessly placed under a large yew-tree, which they cropped with eagerness. In 
three'hours they began to stagger — both of them dropped, and before the harness 
could be taken off", "they were dead. A great quantity of yew-leaves were founa m 
the stomachs, which were contracted and inflamed."t Mr. W. C. Spooner mentiona 

* Veterinary Medical Association, 1836-7, p. 41. 
t Loudon's Magazine of Natural History, vol. viii. p. 81. 
2d 



1 



226 THE ABDOMEN AND ITS CONTENTS. 

a case of violent suspicion of the poisoning of an ass and a mare in the same way.* 
On the other hand, Professor Sewell says, that on the farm on which he resided in 
his early years, the horses and cattle had every opportunity of eating yew. They 
pasiured and slept under the shelter of yew-trees, and were often observed to browse 
on the branches.! He thinks that these supposed cases of poisoning have taken place 
only when enormous quantities of the yew had been eaten, and that it was more acute 
indigestion than poisoning. There are, however, too many cases of horses dying aftei 
feeding on the yew, to render it safe to cultivate it in the neighbourhood of a farm, 
either in the form of tree or hedge. 

The Hydrocyanic, or Prussic Jlcid, belongs to the class of vegetable poisons, but it 
is scarcely possible for the horse to be accidentally injured or destroyed by it. Ten 
grains of the farina of the croton nut should be given as soon as the poison is sus- 
pected, and the patient should be drenched largely with equal parts of vinegar and 
thin gruel, and the croton repeated after the lapse of six hours, if it has not previously 
operated. 

The Water Dropwort {(Enanthe fistulosa), common in ditches and marshy places, is 
generally refused by horses ; but brood mares, with appetite somewhat vitiated by 
their being in foal, have been destroyed by it. The antidote would be vinegar and 
gruel, and bleeding, if there is inflammation. 

The Water Parsley, (JEthusa Cynapium) deserves not all the bad reputation it has 
acquired ; although, when eaten in too great quantities, it has produced palsy in the 
horse, which has been strangely attributed to a harmless beetle that inhabits the stem. 

Of the Common Hemlock (^Coniiim maculatum), and the Water Hemlock [(Enanthe 
crocata), the author knows no harm, so far as the horse is concerned. He has 
repeatedly seen him eat the latter without any bad effect ; but cows have been poi- 
soned by it. 

The Enphorhium, or Spurge, so common and infamous an ingredient in the Farrier's 
Blister, has destroyed many a horse from the irritation which it has set up, and the 
torture it has occasioned, and should never find a place in the Veterinary Phanna- 
copceia. 

Colocynth and Elaterium fairly rank among the substances that are poisonous to the 
horse; and so does the Bryony Root {Bryonia dioica), notwithstanding that it is fre- 
quently given to horses, in many parts of the country, as a great promoter of condi- 
tion. Many a young horse has been brought into a state of artificial condition and 
excitement by the use of the Bryony. It is one of the abominable secrets of the horse- 
breaker. This state of excitation, however, soon passes away, and is succeeded by 
temporary or permanent diminution of vital power. We have occasionally traced 
much mischief to this infamous practice. 

Not less injurious is the Savin {Juniperus Sabina). It is well known as a vermifuge T 
in the human subject, and it is occasionally given to the horse for the same purpose; 
but it is a favourite with the carter and the groom as a promoter of condition. A 
very great proportion of farmers' servants regard it as a drug effecting some good 
purpose, although they can scarcely define what that purpose is ; and there is scarcely 
a country stable in which it is not occasionally found, and in which the horse is not 
endangered, or perhaps destroyed, by its use. It is high time that the horse-master 
looked more carefully to this, and suffered no drug to be administered to his horses 
and cattle, except by his direction or that of the medical attendant. The farmer and 
the gentleman can scarcely conceive to what an abominable extent this vile practice ' 
prevails. The presence of savine will be best detected in the stomach of a horse 
that has died under suspicious circumstances, by the black-currant-leaf smell of the 
contents, when boiled in a little water, or beaten in a mortar. 

The Common Brake (Pteris aquilino), and the Stone Fern {Pteris crispa), are violent 
and dangerous diuretics, and, on account of their possessing this property, are pro- 
bably favourites with the horse-keeper and the groom. The diuretic influence ia 
usually evident enough, but not the injurious effect which it has on the lining mem- 
brane of the bladder, and the predisposition to inflammation which it excites in the 
urinary organs. This has been too much underrated, even by those who have 
inquired into tne subject. If the cuticular coat of the stomach is found not merely in 

■ — i -— * 

* Veterinarian, vol. x. p. 685. 

t Abstract of the Vet. Med. Association, vol. i. p. 62. 



THE INTESTINES. 227 

a state of great inflammation, but will readily peel or wash off, it must necessarily be 
a dangerous medicament, and should be banished entirely from the stable.* 

Of the mineral poisons, it will be necessary to mention only two. Arsenic wa» 
once in great repute as a tonic and vermifuge. Doses sufficient to kill three or four 
men were daily administered, and generally with impunity. In some cases, however, 
the dose was too powerful, and the animal was destroyed. Two of the pupils of the 
author were attending the patients of a veterinary surgeon, who was confined in con- 
sequence of a serious accident. Among them was a valuable horse, labouring under 
inflammation of the lungs. The disease was subdued, and the patient was convales- 
cent. At this period, our friend began to regain sufficient strength lo travel a short 
distance. The first patient that he visited was this horse, whose ailments had all 
passed away. He could not, however, let well alone, but sent some arsenic balls. 
In less than a week this noble animal was taken to the knacker's, 'inhere are far 
better vermifuges and tonics than this dangerous drug, which will probably soon be 
discarded from veterinary practice. 

Corrosive Sublimate is given internally, and occasionally with advantage, in farcy, 
and, as an external application, it is used to destroy vermin, to cure mange, and to 
dispose deep and fistulous ulcers to heal. 

It may, however, be given in too large a dose, the symptoms of which are, loss of 
appetite, discharge of saliva from the mouth, pawing, looking eagerly at the flanks, 
rolling, profuse perspiration, thready pulse, rapid weakness, violent purging and 
straining, convulsions, and death. 

The stomach will be found intensely inflamed, with patches of yet greater inflam- 
mation. The whole course of the intestines will be inflamed, with particular parts 
black and gangrenous. 

The antidote, if it is not too late to administer it, would be — for arsenic, lime-water, 
or chalk and water, or soap and water, given in great quantities by means of the 
stomach-pump ; and for corrosive sublimate, the white of eggs mixed with water, or 
thick starch, or arrow-root. 

Is there really occasion for the owner of horses to be acquainted with these things? 
Long experience has taught the author that poisoning with these drugs is not so raro 
a circumstance as some imagine. In the farmer's stable, he has occasionally been 
compelled unwillingly to decide that the death of one or more horse*has been attri- 
butable to arsenic or corrosive sublimate, and not to any peculiar disease, or to any- 
thing wrong in the manner of feeding. A scoundrel was executed in 1812, for 
administering arsenic and corrosive sublimate to several horses. Ho had been 
engaged in these enormities during four long years. The discarded or offended carter 
has wreaked his revenge in a similar way ; but oftener, in his eagerness to get a more 
glossy coat on his horses than a rival servant could exhibit, he has tampered with 
these dangerous drugs. 

The owner may easily detect this, " Arsenic, if mixed with charcoal and heated, 
emits a very perceptible smell of garlic. Sulphuretted hydrogen, added to a watery 
solution of arsenic, throws down a yellow precipitate — lime-water a white one — and 
the ammoniaco-sulphate of copper a Gjeen one."! 

The following are the tests of corrosive sublimate: — "It is sublimed by heat, leav- 
ing no residuum, arvd is soluble in water, alcohol, and sulphuric ether. Lime-water 
gives either a lemon-yellow precipitate, or a brick-dust red one. The iottide of potash 
occasions a scarlet precipitate. The most curious test is, however, by means of gal- 
vanism, A drop of the suspected solution is placed on a sovereign, and a small key 
being brought into contact simultaneously with both the gold and the solution, an 
electric current is produced which decomposes the bichloride of mercury, for such it 
ih. The chlorine unites with the iron, and the mercury with the gold."^: 

THE INTESTINES. 

The food having been partially digested in the stomach, and converted into chyme, 
passes through the pyloric orifice into the intestines. 

* See an account of some experiments on these substances, by Mr. Cupiss in the early 
numbers of " The Sportsman." 

t Manual of Fnarmacy, by Professor Morton, Lecturer on Veterinary Medicine at the St. 
Pancras Veterinary College, p. 42. 

t Ditto page 184. 



228 ■ 




i 
1 



a The commencement of the small intestines. The ducts which convey the bile and the 
secretion from the pancreas are seen entering a little below. 
ft 6 The convolutions or winding of the small intestines. 

c A portion of the mesentery. 

d The small intestines, terminating in the caecum. 

e The caecum, or blind gut, with the bands running along it, puckering and dividing it into 
numerous cells. 

/ The beginning of the colon. 
P g The continuation and expansion of the colon, divided, like the caecum, into cells. 

A The termirfilion of the colon in the rectum. 

t The termination of the rectum at the anus. 

The intestines of a full-grown horse are not less than ninety feet in length. Th« 
length of the bowels in different animals depends on the nature of the food. Tht 
nutritive matter is with much more difficulty extracted from vegetable than animal 
substances ; therefore the alimentary canal is large, long, and complicated in those 
which, like the horse, are principally or entirely fed on corn or herbs. They are 
divided into the small and large intestines ; the former of which occupy about sixty- 
six feet, and the latter twenty-four. 

The intestines, like the stomach, are composed of three coats. 

The outer one consists of the peritoneum — that membrane which has been already 
described as investing the contents of the abdomen. By means of this coat, the 
intestines are confined in their proper situations ; and, this membrane being smooth 
and moist, all friction and concussion are prevented. Did the bowels float loosely in 
the abdomen, they would be subject to constant entanglement and injury amid the 
rapid and violent motions of the horse. 

The middle coat, like that of the stomach, is muscular, and composed of two 
layers of fibres, one running longitudinally and the other circularly ; and by means 
of*^ these muscles, which are continually contracting and relaxing in a direction from 
the upper part of the intestines to the lower, the food is propelled along the bowels. 

The inner coat is the mucous or villous one. It abounds with innumerable small 
glands, which secrete a mucous fluid to lubricate the passage and defend it from irri- 
tating or acrimonious substances ; and it is said to be villous from its soft velvet- 
like feeling. This coat is crowded with innumerable minute orifices that are the 
commencement of vessels by which the nutritive part of the food is taken up ; and 
these vessels, uniting and passing over the mesentery, carry this nutritive matter la 
a proper receptacle for it, whence it is conveyed into the circulation, and distributed 
to every part. 



THE INTESTINES. 



223 



The intestines are chiefly retained in their relative positions by the mesentery, c 
(middle of the intestines), which is a doubling of the peritoneum, including each 
intestine in its folds, and also inclosing in its duplicatures the arteries, the veins, the 
nerves, and the vessels which convey the nutriment from the intestines to the circulation. 
The first of the small intestines, and commencing from the rififht extremity of the 
stomach, is the duodenum, a, a very improper name for it in the horse, for in that ani- 
mal it is nearly two feet in length. It is the largest and shortest of all the small 
intestines. It receives the food partially converted into chyme by the digestive 
power of the stomach,* and in which it undergoes another and very important 
change ; a portion of it being converted into chyle. It is here mixed with the bile and 
the secretion from the pancreas, which enter this intestine about five inches from its 
commencement. The bile seems to be the principal agent in this change, for no 
sooner does it mingle with the chyme than that fluid begins to be separated into two 
distinct ingredients — a white, thick liquid termed chyle, and containing the nutritive 
part of the food, and a yellow, pulpy substance, the innutritive portion, which, when 
the chyle is all pressed from it, is evacuated through the rectum. 

The next portion of the small intestines is the Jejunum, so called because it is 
generally found to be empty. It is smaller in bulk and paler in colour than the 
duodenum. It is more loosely confined in the abdomen — floating comparatively 
unattached in the cavity of the abdomen, and the passage of the food being com- 
paratively rapid through it. 

There is no separation or distinction between it and the next intestine — the Ileum. 
There is no point at which the jejunum can be said to terminate and the ileum com- 
mence. Together they form that portion of the intestinal tube which floats in the 
umbilical region: the latter, hov/ever, is said to occupy three-fifths, and the former 
two-fifths, of this portion of the intestines, and the five would contain about eleven 
gallons of fluid. The ileum is evidently less vascular than the jejunum, and gradu- 
ally diminishes in size as it approaches the larger intestines. 

These two intestines are attached to the spine by a loose doubling of the peritoneum, 
and float freely in the' abdominal cavity, their movements and their relative positions 
being regulated only by the size or fulness of the stomach, and the stage of the 
digestive process. | 

The small intestines derive their blood from the anterior mesenteric artery, which 

divides into innumerable minute branches that ramify between their muscular and 

villous coats. Their veins, which arc destitute of valves, return the blood into the vena 

cava. The prime agent in producing all these effects is the cerebro-visceral ncrve.:J: 

The large intestines are three in number: — the csecum, the colon, and the rectum. 

The first of them is the aecum (blind gut), e, 
— it has but one opening into it, ind con- 
sequently everything that passes into ii, having 
reached the blind or closed end, must return, 
in order to escape. It is not a continuation of 
the ileum, but the ileum pierces the head of it, 
as it were, at right angles, ( rf, ) and projects 
some way into it, and has a valve — the valvula 
coli — at its extremity, so that what has tra- 
versed the ileum, and entered the head of the 
colon, cannot return into the ileum. Along 
the outside of the caecum run three strong 
bands, each of them shorter than that intestine, 
and thus puckering it up, and forming it into 
three sets of cells, as shown in the accom- 
panying side cut. 

That portion of the food which has not been 




* The conversion of food into chyme is very imperfectly performed m the stomach of the 
horse, on account of the smallness of that viscus, and the portion of it which is occui-.ed by 
cuticle : therefore, he needs in the upper part of the duodenum a kind of second stoniach, to 
mix up and dissolve the food. That apparatus is evident enough until we arrive at the pan- 
creatic and biliary orifices. 

+ Percivall's Anatomy of the Horse, p. 256. 

: Youatt's Lectures on the Nervous System, Veterinarian, vol. vii. p. 354 
20 



230 THE ABDOMEN AND ITS CONTENTS, 

taken up by the lacteals or absorbent vessels of the small intestines, passes through 
this valvular opening of the ileum, and a part of it enters the colon, while the 
remainder flows into ihe caecum. Then, from this being a blind pouch, and i'rom the 
cellular structure of this pouch, the food must be detained in it a very long time; and 
in order that, during this detention, all the nutriment may be extracted, tlie caecum 
and its cells are largely supplied with blood-vessels and absorbents. It is principally 
the fluid part of the food that seems to enter the caecum. A horse will driniv at one 
time a great deal more than his stomach will contain; or even if he drinks a Itess 
quantity, it remains not in the stomach or small intestines, but jiasses on to thr 
caecum, and there is retained, as in a reservoir, to supply the wants of the system 
In his state of servitude, tlie horse does not often drink more than twice or thrice in a 
day, and the food of the stabled horse being chiefly dry, this water stomach is mosi 
useful to him. The caecum will hold four gallons. 

The colon is an intestine of exceedingly large dimensions, and is capable of con- 
taining no less than twelve gallons of liquid or pulpy food. At its union with the 
caecum and the ileum, although larger than the latter intestine (/), it is of com- 
paratively small bulk ; but it soon swells out to an enormous extent. It has likewise, 
in the greater part of its course, three bands like the caecum, which also divide it, 
internally, into the same description of cells. The intention of this is evident, — to 
retard the progress of the food, and to give a more extensive surface on \\ hich the 
vessels of the lacteals may open; and therefore, in the colon, all the chyle is finally 
separated and taken up. When this is nearly accomplished, the construction of the 
colon is somewhat changed : we find but two bands towards the rectum, and these 
not puckering the intestine so much, or forming such numerous or deep cells. The 
food does not require to be much longer detained, and the mechanism for detaining it 
is gradually disappearing. The blood-vessels and absorbents are likewise rapidly 
diminishing. The colon, also, once more contracts in size, and the chyle having been 
all absorbed, the remaining mass, being of a harder consistence, is moulded into 
pellets or balls in its passage through these shallower cells. ,, 

At the termination of the colon, the rectum (straight gut) commences. It is smaller 
in circumference and capacity than the colon, although it will contain at least three 
gallons of water. It serves as a reservoir for the dung until it is evacuated. It has 
none of these bands, because, all the nutriment being extracted, the passage of the 
excrement that remains should be hastened and not retarded. The fjeces descend to 
the rectum, which somewhat enlarges to receive them ; and when they have accu- 
mulated to a certain extent, the animal, by the aid of the diaphragm and the muscles 
of the belly, presses upon them, and they are evacuated. A curious circular muscle, 
and always in action, called the sphincter (constrictor muscle), is placed at the anus, 
to prevent the constant and unpleasant dropping of the faeces, and to retain them until 
the horse is disposed voluntarily to expel them. This is effected by the efforts of the 
animal, assisted by the muscular coat of the rectum, which is stronger than that of 
any of the other intestines, and aided by the compression of the internal oblique and 
transverse muscles. 

The larger intestines derive their blood from the posterior mesenteric artery. Theix 
veins terminate in the vena portae. 

THE LIVER. 

Between the stomach and the diaphragm — its right lobe or division in contact with 
the diaphragm, the duodenum and the right kidney, and the middle and left divisions 
with the stomach — is the liver. It is an irregularly-shaped, reddish-brown substance, 
of considerable bulk, and performs a very singular and important office. 

It has been already stated (p. 1G3) that the blood, which has been conveyed to the 
different parts of the body by the arteries, is brought back to the heart by the veins ; 
but that which is returned from the stomach and intestines and spleen and pancreas, 
and mesentery, instead of flowing directly to the heart, passes first through the liver. 
It enters by two large vessels that spread by means of innumerable minute branches 
through every part of the liver. As the blood traverses this organ, a fluid is separated 
from it, called the bile. It is probably a kind of excrement, the continuance of which 
in the blood would be injurious ; but while it is thrown off", another important purpose 
■» answered — the process of digestion is promoted, by the bile changing the nutritive 



PANCREAS — SPLEEN- OMENTUM. 231 

portion of the food from chyme into chyle, and separating it from that which, con 
taining little or no nutriment, is voided as excrement. 

Almost every part of it is closely invested by the peritoneum, which seems to dis- 
charge the office of a capsule to this viscus. Its arteries are very small, considering 
the bulk of the liver; but their place is curiously supplied by a vein — the vena porta; 
— a vessel formed by the union of the splenic and mesenteric veins, and which seems, 
if it does not quite usurp the office and discharge the duty of the artery, to be far 
more concerned than it in the secretion of the bile. There is a free intercouse between 
the vessels of the two. 

There are, scattered through the substance of the liver, numerous little granules, 
called acini, from their resemblance to the small stones of certain berries. They are 
united together by a fine cellular web, whose intimate structure has never yet been 
satisfactorily explained. From the blood which enters the liver there is a constant 
secretion of a yellow bitter fluid, called bile. The separation of the bile from X\v>. 
blood probably takes place within the acini ,• the secreting vessels are the penicelli, 
or those which compose this fine cellular web, and the fluid — the bile — is taken u]) 
by the;3(/n biliarii, small vessels, from which a yellowish fluid is seen exuding into 
whatever part of the liver we cut, and is carried by them into the main vessel, the 
hepatic duct. 

The bile, thus formed, is in most animals received into a reservoir, the gall-bladder, 
whence it is conveyed into the duodenum (g, p. 221) at the times, and in the quan- 
tities, which the purposes of digestion require; but the horse has no gall-bladder, 
and, consequently, the bile flows into the intestine as rapidly as it is separated from 
the blood. The reason of this is plain. A small stomach was given to the horse, in 
order that the food might quickly pass out of it, and the diaphragm and the lungs 
might not be injuriously pressed upon, when we require his utmost speed, and also 
that we might use him with little danger compared with that which would attach to 
other animals, even when his stomach is distended with food. Then the stomach, so 
small, and so speedily emptied, must be oftener replenished ; the horse must bo 
oftener eating, and food oftener or almost continuously passing out of his stomach. 
How admirably does this comport with the uninterrupted supply of bile ! 

THE PANCREAS. 

In the domestic animals which are used for food, this organ is called the sweet-bread. 
It lies bt,i veen the stomach and left kidney. It much resembles in structure the sali- 
vary glands in the neighbourhood of the mouth, and the fluid which it secretes has 
been erroneously supposed to resemble the saliva in its properties. The pancreatic 
fluid is carried into the intestines by a duct which enters at the same aperture with 
that from the liver. It contains a large proportion of albumen, caseous matter, and a 
little free acid. Its use, whether to dilute the bile or the chyme, or to assist in the 
separation of the chyme from the feculent matter, has never been ascertained : it is, 
however, clearly employed in aiding the process of digestion. 

THE SPLEEN. 

This organ, often called the melt, is a long, bluish-brown substance, broad and 
thick at one end, and tapering at the other; lying along the left side of the stomach, 
and between it and the short ribs. It is of a spongy nature, divided into numerous 
little cells not unlike a honeycomb, and over which thousands of minute vessels 
thickly spread. The particular use of this organ has never been clearly ascertained, 
for in some cruel experiments it has been removed without apparent injury to diges- 
tion or any other function. It is, however, useful, at least occasionally, or it would 
not have been given to the animal. It is perhaps a reservoir or receptacle for any 
fluid that may be conveyed into the stomach beyond that which is sufficient for the 
])uri)oses of digestion. 

THE OMENTUM, 

Or cawl, is a doubling of the peritoneum, or rather consists of four layers of it. It 
has been supposed in have been placed between the intestines and the walls of the 
belly, in order to prevent concussion and injury during the rapid movement of the 
animal. That, however, cannot be its principal use in the horse, from whom the 
most rapid movements are required ; for in him it is unusually short, extending orAy 



232 DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES. 

to the pancreas and a small portion of the colon. Being, however, thus short, the 
horse is exempt from a very troublesome and, occasionally, fatal species of rupture, 
when a portion of the omentum penetrates through some accidental opening in the 
covering of the belly. 

The structure of the urinary organs and the diseases to which they are exposed 
will be hereafter considered. 



CHAPTER X. 

THE DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES. 

These form a very important and mysterious class of ailments. They will be 
considered in the order in which the various contents of the abdomen have been 
described. 

THE DUODENUM. 

This intestine is subject to many more diseases than are included in the present 
imperfect veterinary nosology. The passage of the food through it has been impeded 
by stricture. A singular case is related by Mr. Tombs : — " An aged horse was taken 
suddenly ill. He lay down, rolled upon his back, and perspired profusely, with a 
pulse quick and hard ; presently he became sick, and the contents of the stomach 
were voided through the mouth and nostrils'. Blood-letting, purgatives, fomentations, 
&c., were resorted to, but in sixteen hours after the first attack the horse died. The 
stomach was distended with food, and there was a complete stricture of the duode- 
num, three inches posterior to the entrance of the hepatic duct. The portion of the 
intestine anterior to the stricture was distended, and in a gangrenous state."* 

Mr. Dickens records a somewhat similar case. " A horse was attacked by appa- 
rent colic. Proper treatment was adopted, and he got seemingly well. Nine days 
afterwards the apparent colic returned. He threw himself down, rolled upon his 
back, beating his chest with his fore feet, or sitting upon his haunches like a dog. 
All possible remedial measures were adopted, but he died thirty-six hours after the 
second attack. At the distance of ten inches from the stomach was a stricture which 
would scarcely admit of the passage of a tobacco-pipe, and about which were marks 
of mechanical injury, as if from a nail or other hard substance. The anterior por- 
tion of the intestines was strangely distended. "f 

It has been perforated by bots. Mr. Brewer describes a case the symptoms of 
which were similar to those already related. " On examining the patient after death, 
the intestines were found to be altogether free from disease, except a portion of the 
duodenum which was perforated by bots, several of which had escaped into the 
abdomen. Around the aperture the duodenum was in a gangrenous state. ":j: 

The diseases of the jejunum and the ileum consist either of spasmodic affection or 
inflammation. 

SPASMODIC COLIC. 

The passage of the food through the intestinal' canal is effected by the alternate 
contraction and relaxation of the muscular coat of the intestines. When that action 
is simply increased through the whole of the canal, the food passes more rapidly, and 
purging is produced ; but the muscles of every part of the frame are liable to irregular 
and spasmodic action, and the muscular coat of some portion of the intestines may be 
thus affected. The spasm may be confined to a very small part of the canal. The 
gut has been found, after death, strangely contracted in various places, bat the con 
faction not exceeding five or six inches in any of them. In the horse, the ileum is 
the usual seat of this disease. It is of much importance to distinguish between spas- 
modic colic and inflammation of the bowels, for the symptoms have considerable 
resemblance, although the mode of treatment should be very different. 

• Veterinarian, vol. viii. p. 329. t Ibid. vol. x. p. 553. X Ibid. vol. v. p. 493. 



SPASMODICCOLIC. 233 

The attack of colic is usually very sudden. There is often not the slightest warn- 
ing. The horse begins to shift his posture, look round at his flanks, paw violently, 
strike his belly with his feet, and crouch in a peculiar manner, advancing his hind 
limbs under him ; he will then suddenly lie, or rather fall down, and balance himself 
upon his back, with his feet resting on his belly. The pain now seems to cease for 
a little while, and he gets up, and shakes himself, and begins to feed ; the respite, 
however, is but short — the spasm returns more violently — every indication of pain is 
increased — he heaves at the flanks, breaks out into a profuse perspiration, and throws 
himself more recklessly about. In the space of an hour or two, either the spasms 
begin to relax, and the remissions are of longer duration, or the. torture is augmented 
at every paroxysm ; the intervals of ease are fewer and less marked, and inflammation 
and death supervene. The pulse is but little alTected at the commencement, but it 
soon becomes frequent and contracted, and at length is scarcely tangible. 

It will presently be seen that many of the symptoms very closely resemble those 
of inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bowels : it may therefore be useful to 
point out the leading distinctions between them. 

COLIC. INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. 

Sudden in its attack. Gradual in its approach, with previous indi- 

cations of fever. 

Pulse rarely much quickened in the early Pulse very much quicken'^d, but small, and 
period of the disease, and during the intervals often scarcely to be felt. 
of ease ; but evidently fuller. 

Legs and ears of the natural temperature. Legs and ears cold. 

Rehef obtained from rubbing the belly. Belly exceedingly tender and painful to tha 

touch. 

Relief obtained from motion. Motion evidently increasing the pain. 

Intervals of rest. Constant%ain. 

Strength scarcely affected. Rapid and great weakness. 

Among the causes of colic are, the drinking of cold water when the horse is heated. 
There is not a surer origin of violent spasm than this. Hard water is very apt to pro- 
duce this effect. Colic will sometimes follow the exposure of a horse to the cold air 
or a cold wind after strong exercise. Green meat, although, generally speaking, 
most beneficial to the horse, yet, given in too large a quantity, or when he is hot, will 
frequently produce gripes. Doses of aloes, both large and small, are not unfrequent 
causes of colic. In some horses there seems to be a constitutional predisposition to 
colic. They cannot be hardly worked, or exposed to unusual cold, without a fit of it. 
In many cases, when these horses have died, calculi have been found in some part of 
the alimentary canal. Habitual costiveness and the presence of calculi are frequent 
causes of spasmodic colic. The seat of colic is occasionally the duodenum, but 
oftener the ileum or the jejunum ; sometimes, however, both the caecum and colon are 
affected. 

Fortunately, we are acquainted with several medicines that allay these spasms ; 
and the disease often ceases almost as suddenly as it appeared. Turpentine is one of 
the most powerful remedies, especially in union with opium, and in good warm ale. 
The account that has just been given of the caecum will not be forgotten bore. A 
solution of aloes will be advantageously added to the turpentine and opium. 

If relief is not obtained in half-an-hour, it will be prudent to bleed, for the continu- 
ance of violent spasm may produce inflammation. Some practitioners bleed at first, 
and it is far from bad practice ; for although the majority of cases will yield to tur- 
pentine, opium, and aloes, an early bleeding may occasionally prevent the recurrence 
of inflammation, or at least mitigate it. If it is clearly a case of colic, half of the first 
dose may be repeated, with aloes dissolved in warm water. The stimulus produced 
on the inner surface of the bowels by the purgative may counteract the irritation that 
caused the spasm. The belly should be well rubbed with a brush or warm cloth, but 
not bruised and injured by the broom-handle rubbed over it, with all their strength, 
by two great fellows. The horse should be walked about, or trotted moderately. 
The motion thus produced in the bowels, and the friction of one intestine over the 
other, may relax the spasm, but the hasty gallop might speedily cause inflammation 
to succeed to colic. Clysters of warm water, or containing a solution of aloes, should 
be injected. The patent syringe will here be exceedingly useful. A clyster of tobacco 
Bmoke may be thrown up as a last resort. 

20* 2 b 



234 DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES. 

When relief has been obtained, the clothing of the horse, saturated with perspira- 
tion, should be removed, and fresh and dry clothes substituted. He should be well 
littered down in a warm stable or box, and have bran mashes and lukewarm watei 
for the two or three next days. 

Some persons give gin, or gin and pepper, or even spirit of pimento, in cases of 
gripes. This course of proceeding is, however, exceedingly objectionable. It may 
be useful, or even sufficient, in ordinary cases of colic; but if there should be any 
inflammation or tendency to inflammation, it cannot fail to be highly injurious. 

FLATULENT COLIC. 

This is altogether a different disease from the former. It is not spasm of the bowels, 
but inflation of them from the presence of gas emitted by undigested food. Whether 
collected in the stomach, or small or large intestines, all kinds of vegetable matter 
are liable to ferment. In consequence of this fermentation, gas is evolved to a greater 
or less extent — perhaps to twenty or thirty times the bulk of the food. This may 
take place in the stomach ; and if so, the life of the horse is in immediate danger, for, 
as will plainly appear from the account that has been given of the cesophagus and 
upper orifice of the stomach, the animal has no power to expel this dangerous flatus 
by eructation. 

This extrication of gas usually takes place in the colon and caecum, and the disten- 
tion may be so great as to rupture either the one or the other, or sometimes to produce 
death, without either rupture or strangulation, and that in the course of from four to 
twenty-four hours. 

In some ill-conducted establishments, and far oftener on the north than the south 
of the Tweed, it is a highlj'^ dangerous disease, and is especially fatal to horses of 
heavy draught. An overloaded stomach is one cause of it, and particularly so when 
water is given either immediately before or after a plentiful meal, or food to which 
the horse has not been accustomed is given. 

The symptoms, according to Professor Stewart, are, " the horse suddenly slacken- 
ing his pace — preparing to lie down, or falling down as if he were shot. In the 
stable he paws the ground with his fore feet, lies down, rolls, starts up all at once, 
and throws himself down again with great violence, looking wistfully at his flanks, 
and making many fruitless attempts to void his urine." 

Hitherto the symptoms are not much unlike spasmodic colic, but the real character 
of the disease soon begins to develope itself. It is in one of the large intestines, and 
the belly swells all round, but mostly on the right flank. As the disease proceeds, 
tlie pain becomes more intense, the horse more violent, and at length death closes the 
scene. 

The treatment is considerably different from that of spasmodic colic. The spirit of 
pimento would be here allowed, or the turpentine and opium drink; but if the pain, 
and especially the swelling, do not abate, the gas, which is the cause of it, must be 
he got rid of, or the animal is inevitably lost. 

This is usually or almost invariably a combination of hydrogen with some other 
gas. It has a strong affinity for chlorine. Then if some compound of chlorine — the 
chloride of lime — dissolved in water, is administered in the form of a drink, the chlo- 
rine separates from the lime as soon as it comes into contact with the hydrogen, and 
muriatic gas is formed. This gas having a strong affinity for water, is absorbed by 
any fluid that may be present, and, quitting its gaseous form, either disappears, or 
does not retain a thousandth part of its former bulk. All this may be very rapidly 
accomplished, for the fluid is quickly conveyed from the mouth to every part of the 
intestinal canal. 

Where these two medicines are not at hand, and the danger is imminent, the Irochar 
may be used, in order to open a way for the escape of the gas. The trochar should 
be small but longer than that which is used for the cow, and the puncture should be 
macie in the middle of the right flank, for there the large intestines are most easily 
reached. In such a disease it cannot be expected that the intestines shall always be 
tound precisely in their natural situations, but usually the origin of the ascending por- 
tion of the colon, or the base of the caecum, will be pierced. The author of this work, 
however, deems it his duty to add, that it is only when the practitioner despairs of 
otherwise saving the life of the animal that this operation should be attempted. Much 
of the danger would be avoided by using a very small trochar, and by withdrawintj 



INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS— ENTERITIS. 235 

it as soon as the gas has escaped. The wound in the intestines will then probably 
close, from the innate elasticity of the parts. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. 

There are two varieties of this malady. The first is inflammation of the external 
coats of the intestines, accompanied by considerable fever, and usually costiveness. 
The second is that of the internal or mucous coat, and almost invariably connected 
with purging. 

ENTERITIS. 

The muscular coat is that which is oftenest affected. Inflammation of the external 
coats of the stomach, whether the peritoneal or muscular, or both, is a very frequent 
and fatal disease. It speedily runs its course, and it is of great consequence that its 
early symptoms should be known. If the horse has been carefully observed, restless- 
ness and fever will have been seen to precede the attack. In many cases a direct 
shivering fit will occur : the mouth will be hot, and the nose red. The animal will 
soon express the most dreadful pain by pawing, striking at his belly, looking wildly 
at his flanks, groaning, and rolling. The pulse will be quickened and small; the 
ears and legs cold ; the belly tender, and sometimes hot ; the breathing quickened ; 
the bowels costive; and the animal becoming rapidly and fearfully weak. 

TJie reader will probably here recur to the sketch given in page 233 of the distinc- 
tion between spasmodic colic and inflammation of the bowels, or enteritis. 

The causes of this disease are, first of all and most frequently, sudden exposure to 
cold. If a horse that has been highly fed, carefully groomed, and kept in a warm 
stable, is heated with exercise, and has been during some hours without food, and in 
this state of exhaustion is suffered to drink freely of cold water, or is drenched with 
rain, or have his legs and belly washed with cold water, an attack of inflammation 
of the bowels will often follow. An overfed horse, subjected to severe and long- 
continued exertion, if his lungs were previously weak, will probably be attacked by 
inflammation of them ; but if the lungs were sound, the bowels will on the following 
day be the seat of disease. Stones in the intestines are an occasional caiise of inflam- 
m?''i^n, and colic neglected C; -yrongly treated will terminate in it. 

Tne horse paws and stamps as in colic, but without the intervals of ease that occur 
in that disease. The pulse also is far quicker than in colic. The breathing is more 
hurried, and the indication of suflering more evident. " The next stage," in the 
graphic language of Mr. Percivall, " borders on delirium. The eye acquires a wild, 
haggard, unnatural stare — the pupil dilates — his heedless and dreadful throes render 
approach to him quite perilous. He is an object not only of compassion but of appre- 
hension, and seems fast hurrying to his end ; when, all at once, in the midst of ago- 
nising torments, he stands quiet, as though every pain had left him, and he were 
going to recover. His breathing becomes tranquillised — his pulse sunk beyond all 
perception — his body bedewed with a cold clammy sweat — he is in a tremour from 
head to foot, and about the legs and ears has even a death-like feel. The mouth feels 
deadly chill ; the lips drop pendulous; and the eye seems unconscious of objects. In 
fine, death, not recovery, is at hand. Mortification has seized the inflamed bowel — 
pain can no longer be felt in that which a few minutes ago was the seat of exquisite 
suffering. He again becomes convulsed, and in a few more struggles less violent 
than the former he expires."* 

The treatment of inflammation of the bowels, like that of the lungs, should be prompt 
and energetic. The first and most powerful means of cure will be bleeding. From 
six to eight or ten quarts of blood, in fact as much as the horse can bear, should be 
abstracted as soon as possible; and the bleeding repeated to the extent of four or five 
quarts more, if the pain is not relieved and the pulse has not become rounder and 
fuller. The speedy weakness that accompanies this disease should not deter from 
bleeding largely. That weakness is the consequence of violent inflammation of these 
parts; and if that inflammation is subdued by the loss of blood, the weakness will 
disappear. The bleeding should be effected on the first appearance of the disease, fcr 
tliere is no malady that more quickly runs its course. 



Fercivall's Hippopathology, vol. ii. p. 246. 



236 DISEASE3 OF THE INTESTINES. 

A strong solution of aloes should immediately follow the bleeding, but, considering 
the irritable state of the intestines at this period, guarded by opium. This should be 
quickly followed by back-raking, and injections consisting of warm water, or very 
thin gruel, in which Epsom salts or aloes have been dissolved ; and too much fluid 
can scarcely be thrown up. If the common ox-bladder and pipe is used, it should be 
frequently replenished ; but with Read's patent pump, already referred to, sufficient 
may be injected to penetrate beyond the rectum, and reach to the colon and caecum, 
and dispose them to evacuate their contents. The horse should likewise be encouraged 
to drink plentifully of warm water or thin gruel ; and draughts, each containing a 
couple of drachms of dissolved aloes, with a little opium, should be given every six 
hours, until the bowels are freely opened. 

It will now be prudent to endeavour to excite considerable external inflammation 
as near as possible to the seat of internal disease, and therefore the whole of the 
belly should be blistered. In a well-marked case of this disease, no time should be 
lost in applying fomentations, but the blister at once resorted to. The tincture of 
Spanish flies, whether made with spirit of wine or turpentine, should be thoroughly 
rubbed in. The legs should be well bandaged in order to restore the circulation 
in them, and thus lessen the flow of blood to the inflamed part; and, for the same 
reason, the horse should be warmly clothed ; but the air of the stable or box should 
be cool. 

No corn or hay shoiild be allowed during the disease, but bran mashes, and green 
meat if it can be procured. The latter will be the best of all food, and may be given 
without the slightest apprehension of danger. When the horse begins to recover, a 
handful of corn may be given two or three times in the day; and, if the weather is 
warm, he may be turned into a paddock for a few hours in the middle of the day. 
Clysters of gruel should be continued for three or four days after the inflammation is 
beginning to subside, and good hand-rubbing applied to the legs. 

The second variety of inflammation of the bowels affects the internal or mucous 
coat, and is generally the consequence of physic in too great quantity, or of an im- 
proper kind. The purging is more violent and continues longer than was intended , 
the animal shows that he is suffering great pain; he frequently looks round at his 
flanks; his breathing is laborious, and the pulse is quick and small — not so small, 
however, as in inflammation of the peritoneal coat, and, contrary to some of the most 
frequent and characteristic symptoms of that disease, the mouth is hot and the legs 
and ears are warm. Unless the purging is excessive, and the pain and distress great, 
the surgeon should hesitate at giving any astringent medicine at first; but he should 
plentifully administer gruel or thin starch, or arrow-root, by the mouth and by clyster, 
removing all hay and corn, and particularly green meat. He should thus endeavour 
to soothe the irritated surface of the bowels, while he permits all remains of the pur- 
gative to be carried off. If, however, twelve hours have passed, and the purging 
and the pain remain undiminished, he should continue the gruel, adding to it chalk, 
catechu, and opium, repeated every six hours. As soon as the purging begins to 
subside, the astringent medicine should be lessened in quantity, and gradually dis- 
continued. Bleeding will rarely be necessary, unless the inflammation is very great, 
and attended by symptoms of general fever. The horse should be warmly clothed, 
and placed in a comfortable stable, and his legs should be hand-rubbed and bandaged. 

Violent purging, and attended with much inflammation and fever, will occur from 
other causes. Green meat will frequently purge. A horse worked hard upon green 
meat will sometimes scour. The remedy is change of diet, or less labour. Young 
horses will often be strongly purged, without any apparent cause. Astringents should 
be used with much caution here. It is probably an effort of nature to get rid of some- 
thing that offends. A few doses of gruel will assist in effecting this purpose, and 
the purging will cease without astringent medicine. 

Many horses that are not well-ribbed home — having too great space between the last 
rib and the hip-bone — are subject to purging if more than usual exertion is required 
from them. They are recognised by the term of washy horses. They are often free 
and fleet, but destitute of continuance. They should have rather more than the usual 
allowance of corn, with beans, when at work. A cordial ball, with catechu and 
.)pium, will often be serviceable either before or after a journey. 



PHYSICKING. 237 



PHYSICKING. 



This would seem to be the proper place to speak of physicking horses — a mode of 
treatment necessary under various diseases, often useful for the augmentation of health, 
and yet which has. often injured the constitution and absolutely destroyed thousands 
of animals. When a horse comes from grass to hard meat, or from the cool, open 
air to a heated stable, a dose or even two doses of physic may be useful to prevent 
the tendency to inflammation which is the necessary consequence of so sudden and 
great a change. To a horse that is becoming too fat, or has surfeit, or grease, or 
umnge, or that is out of condition from inactivity of the digestive organs, a dose of 
physic is often most serviceable ; but the reflecting man will enter his protest against 
the periodical physicking of all horses in the spring and the autumn, and more par- 
ticularly against that severe system which is thought to be necessary in order to train 
them for work, and also the absurd method of treating the animal when under the 
operation of physic. 

A horse should be carefully prepared for the action of physic. Two or three bran 
mashes given on that or the preceding day are far from sufficient when a horse is 
about to be physicked v/hether to promote his condition or in obedience to custom. 
Mashes should be given until the dung becomes softened. A less quantity of physic 
will then suffice, and it will more quickly pass through the intestines, and be more 
readily diff'used over them. Five drachms of aloes, given when the dung has thug 
been softened, will act much more eff"ectually and much more safely than seven 
drachms, when the lower intestines, are obstructed by hardened faeces. 

On the day on which the physic is given, the horse should have walking exercise, 
or may be gently trotted for a quarter of an hour twice in the day ; but after the physic 
begins to work, he should not be moved from his stall. Exercise would then pro- 
duce gripes, irritation, and, possibly, dangerous inflammation. The common and 
absurd practice is to give the horse most exercise after the physic has begun to ope- 
rate. 

A little hay may be put into the rack. As much mash should be given as the horse 
will eat, and as much water, with the coldness of it taken off", as he will drink. If, 
however, he obstinately refuses to drink warm water, it is better that he should have 
it cold, than to continue without taking any fluid ; but in such case he should not be 
8uff"ered to take more than a quart at a time, with an interval of at least an hour be- 
tween each draught. 

When the purging has ceased, or the physic is set, a mash should be given once or 
twice every day until the next dose is taken, between which and the setting of the first 
there should be an interval of a week. The horse should recover from the languor 
and debility occasioned by the first dose, before he is harassed by a second. 

Eight or ten tolerably copious motions will be perfectly sufficient to answer every 
good^purpose, although the groom or tlie carter may not be satisfied unless double the 
quantity are procured! The consequence of too strong purgation will be, tliat weak- 
ness will hang about the animal for several days or weeks, and inflammation will 
often ensue from the over-irritation of the intestinal canal. 

Long-continued custom has made aloes the almost invariable purgative of the horse, 
and very properly so ; for there is no other at once so sure and so safe. The Bar- 
badoes aloes, although sometimes very dear, should alone be used. The dose, with 
a horse properly prepared, will vary from four to seven drachms. The preposterous 
doses of nine, ten, or even twelve drachms, are now, happily for the horse, gener- 
ally abandoned. Custom has assigned the form of a ball to physic, but good sense 
will in due time introduce the solution of aloes, as acting more speedily, effectually, 

and safely. j • u "TK 

The only other purgative on which dependence can be placed is the croton. Ine 
farina or meal of the nut is generally used ; but from its acrimony it should be given 
in the form of ball, with linseed meal. The dose varies from a scruple to half a 
drachm. It acts more speedily than the aloes, and without the nausea which they 
produce ; but it causes more watery stools, and, consequently, more debility. 

LiNSEED-oiL rs an uncertain but safe purgative, in doses from a pound to a pound 
and a half. Olive-oil is more uncertain, but safe ; but castor-oil, that mild aperient 
in the human being, is both uncertain and unsafe. Epsom-salts are mefficacioug, 
except in the immense dose of a pound and a half, and then they ars not always safe. 



238 DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES. 

CALCULI, OR STONES, IN THE INTESTINES. 

These are a cause of inflammation in the bowels of the horse, and more frequently 
of colic. They are generally found in the coecum or colon, varying considerably in 
shape according to the nucleus round which the sabulous or other earthy matter 
collects, or the form of the cell in which they have been lodged. They differ in size 
and weitrht, from a few grains to several pounds. From the horizontal position of the 
carcase of the horse, the calculus, when it begins to form, does not gravitate so much 
as in the human being, and therefore calculous concretions remain and accumulate 
until their very size prevents their expulsion, and a fatal irritation is too frequently 
produced by their motion and weight. They are oftenest found in heavy draught, 
and in millers' horses. In some of these horses they have the appearance of grit-stone 
or crystallized gneiss. It is probable that they partly consist of these very minerals, 
combined with tno bran which is continually floating about. An analysis of the 
Calculi favours this supposition. They are a source of continual irritation wherever 
ihey are placed, and are a fruitful cause of colic. Spasms of the most fearful kind 
have been clearly traced to them.* 

Professor Morton, of the Royal Veterinary College, in his Essay on Calculous 
Concretions, — a work that is far loo valuable to be withdrawn from the public view, 
— gives an interesting account of these substances in the intestinal canal of the horse. 
Little advance has been or can be made to procure their expulsion, or even to deter- 
mine their existence ; and even when they have passed into the rectum, although 
some have been expelled, others have been so firmly impacted as to resist all medi- 
cinal means of withdrawal, and a few have broken their way through the parietes of 
the rectum, and lodged in the abdominal cavity. Mr. Perciv^ll, in his " Elementary 
Lectures on the Veterinary Art," has recorded several fearful cases of this.j 

Other concretions are described under the title of oaf-hair calculi. Their surface is 
luberculated and their forms irregular. They are usually without any distinct nuclei, 
and are principally composed of the hairy fibrous matter which enters into the com- 
position of the oat. The professor very properly adds, and it is a circumstance which 
deserves mueh consideration, that such oats as are husky, with a deficiency of 
farinaceous matter, are likely to give rise to these accumulations, whenever impaired 
digestion exists. It is also an undoubted fact, that a great proportion of horses 
affected with calculi are the property of millers, or brewers. A third species of con- 
cretion too frequently existing is the dung-hall, or mixed calculus. It is made up of 
coarse, indigestiljle, excrementitious matter, mixed with portions of the " oat-hair 
ca/cw/ns," and many foreign substances, such as pieces of coal, gravel, &c., and the 
whole agglutinated together. They are commonly met with in horses that are vora- 
cious feeders, and mingled with particles of coal and stone. 

INTROSUSCEPTION OF THE INTESTINES. 

The spasmodic action of the ileum being long continued, may be succeeded by an 
inverted one from the coscum towards the stomach, more powerful than in the natural 
direction ; and the contracted portion of the intestine will be thus forced into another 
above it that retains its natural calibre. The irritation caused by this increases the 
inverted action, and an obstruction is formed which no power can overcome. Even 
the natural motion of the bowels will be sufficient to produce introsusception, when 
the contraction of a portion of the ileum is very great. There are no symptoms to 
indicate the presence of this, except continued and increasing pain; or, if there were, 
all our means of relief would here fail. 

Introsusception is not confined to any particular situation. A portion of the jejunum 
has been found invaginatcd within the duodenum, — and also within the ileum, and 
the ileum within the ccecum — and one portion of the colon within another, and within 
the rectum. The ileum and jejunum are occasionally invaginated in various places. 
More than a dozen distinct cases of introsusception have occurred in one animal, and 
sometimes unconnected with any appearance of inflammation ; but in other cases, or 
in other parts of the intestinal canal of the same animal, there will be inflammation 
of the most intense character. In the majority of cases, perhaps it is an accidental 

-Veterinarian IX. 161. t Vol. IL p. 449. 



I 



ENTANGLEMENT OF THE BOWELS. — WORMS. 



239 



consequence of pre-existing disease, and occasioned by some irregular action of the 
muscular tunic, or some irritation of the mucous surface. 
A more formidable, but not so frequent disease is 

ENTANGLEMENT OF THE BOWELS. 

This is another and singular consequence of colic. Although the ileum is enveloped 
in the mesentery, and its motion to a considerable degree confined, yet under th(? 
spasm of colic, and during tlie violence with which the animal rolls and throws him- 
self about, portions of the intestine become so entangled as to be twisted into nooses 
and knots, drawn together with a degree of tightness scarcely credible. Nothing but 
the extreme and continued torture of the animal can lead us to suspect that this has 
taken place, and, could we ascertain its existence, there would be no cure. 

An interesting case occurred in the practice of Mr. Spooner of Southampton. A 
mare at grass was suddenly taken ill. She discovered symptoms of violent colic, for 
which anti-spasmodic and aperient medicines were promptly administered, and she 
was copiously bled. The most active treatment was had recourse to, but without 
avail, and she died in less than four-and-twenty hours without a momentary relief 
from pain. 

The small intestines were completely black from inflammation, and portions of 
them were knotted together in the singular way delineated in this cut. The parts are 
a little loosened in order better to show the entanglement of the intestines, but in the 
animal they were drawn into a tight knot, and completely intercepted all passage. 

The cause of this was probably some acrid principle in the grass, and many ahorso 
is thus destroyed by the abominable and poisonous drinks of the farrier.* 




WORMS. 
Wonns of diffeient kinds inhabit the intestines ; but, except when they exist in 
▼ery great numbers, they are not so hurtful as is generally sup posed, although the 

• Veterinarian, VI. 12. 



240 DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES. 

groom or carter may trace to them, hidebound, and cough, and loss of appetite, and 
gripes, and megrims, and a variety of other ailments. Of the origin, or mode of pro- 
pagation of these parasitical animals, we can say little; neither writers on medicine, 
nor even on natural history, have given us any satisfactory account of the matter. 

The long white worm {lumbricus teres) much resembles the common earth-worm, 
and, being from six to ten inches in length, inhabits the small intestines. It is a for- 
midable looking animal ; and if there are many of them, they may consume more than 
can be spared of the nutritive part of the food, or the mucus of the bowels. A tight 
skin, and rough coat, and tucked-up belly, are sometimes connected with their pre- 
sence. They are then, however, voided in large quantities. A dose of physic will 
sometimes bring away almost incredible quantities of them. Calomel is frequently 
given as a vermifuge. The seldomer this drug is administered to the horse the better. 
It is the principal ingredient, in some quack medicines, for the expulsion of worms in 
the human subject, and thence, perhaps, it came to be used for the horse ; but in him 
we believe it to be inert as a vermifuge, or only useful as quickening the operation of 
the aloes. "When the horse can be spared, a strong dose of physic is an excellent 
vermifuge, so far as the long round worm is concerned ; but a better medicine, and 
not interfering with either the feeding or work of the horse, is emetic tartar, with 
ginger, made into a ball with linseed meal and treacle, and given every morning, 
half an hour before the horse is fed. 

A smaller, darker-coloured worm, called the needle-worm, or ascaris, inhabits the 
large intestines. Hundreds of them sometimes descend into the rectum, and immense 
quantities have been found in the ccecum. These are a more serious nuisance than 
the former, for they cause a very troublesome irritation about the fundament, which 
sometimes sadly annoys the horse. Their existence can generally be discovered 
by a small portion of mucus, which, hardening, is found adhering to the anus. 
Physic will sometimes bring away great numbers of these worms ; but when there is 
much irritation about the tail, and much of this mucus, indicating that they have 
descended into the rectum, an injection of linseed oil, or of aloes dissolved in warm 
water, will be a more effectual remedy. 

The tape-worm is seldom found in the horse. 

HERNIA, OR RUPTURE. 

A portion of the intestine protrudes out of the cavity of the belly, either through 
some natural or artificial opening. In some cases it may be returned, but, from the 
impossibility of applying a truss or bandage, it soon escapes again. At other times, 
the opening is so narrow, that the gut, gradually distended by faeces, or thickened by 
inflammation, cannot be returned, and strangulated hernia is then said to exist. The 
seat of hernia is either in the scrotum of the perfect horse, or the groin of the gelding. 
The causes are violent struggling when under operations, over-exertion, kicks, or acci- 
dents. The assistance of a veterinary surgeon is here indispensable.* 

* The following case of operation for hernia will be acceptable to the owner of horses as 
well as to the veterinary surgeon. It occurred in the practice of Professor Simonds, of the 
Royal Veterinary Colllege. We borrow his account of it from " The Veterinarian." 

" The patient was an aged black cart-mare, that had been lent by the owner to a neighbour 
for a day or two. I cannot speak positively as to the cause of the injury which she received, 
but I believe that it resulted from her falling in the shafts of a cart laden with manure. She 
was brought to my infirmary on the next day, October 18, 1837. 

" The most extensive rupture I had ever seen presented itself on the left side. The sac 
formed by the skin, which was not broken, nor even the hair rubbed ofl^, extended as far for 
wards as the cartilages of the false ribs, and backwards to the udder. A perpendicular line 
drawn from the superior to the inferior part of the tumour measured more than twelve inches. 
It appeared, from its immense size and weight, as if by far the larger part of the colon had 
protruded. 

To my surprise, there was comparatively little constitutional disturbance. The pulse was 
45, arv' full, with no other indication of fever, and no expression of pain on pressing the 
tumour. 

" She was bled until the pulse was considerably lowered. A cathartic was given, and the 
sac ordered to be kept constantly wet with cold water, and to be supported by a wide band 
ege. She was placed on a restricted and mash diet. 

" On the next day, being honoured with a visit by Messrs. Morton, Spooner, and Youatt, 
I had the pleasure and advantage of submitting the case to their examination, and obtaining 
<heir opinion. They urged me to attempt to return the protruding viscera, and secure them bv 



DISEASESOFTHELIVER. . 241 

DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 

As veterinary practice has improved, much light has been thrown on the diseases 
of the liver — not perhaps on the more advanced and fatal stages ; but giving us the 
promise that, in process of time, they may be detected at an earlier period, and in a 
more manageable state. 

a surgical operation ; and Mr. Spooner kindly offered to be present, and to give me his valu- 
able assistance. 

■' On the 24th, our patient was considered to have had sufficient preparatory treatment, and 
she was operated upon. We availed ourselves of the opportunity of putting to the test that 
which some among us had doubted, and others iiadhpositively denied, but which had always 
be^n maintained by our talented chemical lecturer — the power of opium to lull the sensation 
of pain in the horse. We therefore gave her two ounces and a half of the tincture of opium, 
shortly betbre she was led from the box to the operating house, and the power of the drug was 
evident through the whole of the operation. 

" After a careful examination, externally, as well as per rectum, in order to ascertain the 
situation and probable size of the laceration of the muscles, an incision was carefully made 
through the integument into the sac, in a line with the inferior border of the cartilage of the 
false ribs, which incision was about seven inches in length. This, as we had ho])ed, proved 
to be directly upon the aperture in the muscular parietes of the abdomen. The intestines 
were exposed ; and, after having sufficiently dilated the opening to permit the introduction of 
the hand, they were quickly returned, portion after portion, into their proper cavity, together 
with a part of the omentum, which we found somewhat annoying, it being frequently forced 
back again through the laceration. 

"At times, it required the exertion of our united strength to prevent the escape of the 
intestines, and which was only effected by placing our hands side by side, covering and 
pressing upon the opening. By these means we succeeded in keeping in the viscera, until 
we were satisfied that we had placed them all within their proper cavity. At about the cen- 
tral part of the aperture, we decidedly found the greatest pressure of the intestines to effect 
an escape. 

" A strong metallic suture of flexible wire was then passed through the edges of the lacera- 
tion, taking in the peritoneum and portions of the transversahs, rectus, and internal abdomi- 
nal muscles ; and other sutures, embracing the same parts, were placed at convenient dis- 
tances, so as nearly to close the aperture. Two sutures of smaller metallic wire, and three 
of stout silk cord, were then passed through the external abdominal muscles, and their apo- 
neuroses, which effectually shut up the opening into the abdomen. The integument was 
then brought together by the interrupted suture, taking care to bring out the ends of the 
other sutures, and which had been purposely left long, so that in case of supervening inflam- 
mation, or swelling, they might be readily examined. The whole operation occupied rather 
less than an hour, our poor patient being occasionally refreshed with some warm gruel. 

" The hobbles were now quietly removed, and, after lying a few minutes, she got up, and 
was placed in a large loose box. A compress and a suspensory bandage, that could be tight- 
ened at pleasure, were applied to the wound. The pulse was now 84. She was ordered to 
be watched, and to have some tepid water placed within her reach, but on no account to be 
disturbed. 

" At 10, P. M., the pulse had sunk to 66. The respiration, which had been much accele- 
rated, was quieter. She was resting the leg on the side operated upon, but did not appear to 
be suffering any great pain. Some ftcces had passed, and she had taken a small quantity of 
bran mash. The parts were well fomented with tepid water, an oleaginous draught was 
administered, and likewise an enema. 

"25th. — The pulse is a little quickened ; the sac which had contamed the protruded nites- 
tine was filled with a serous effusion. I made a dependent orifice in it, and from three to 
four pints of fluid eccaped. This nmch relieved her, and she continued to go on favourably 
tJiroughout the day. j • u u 

" 2Gth.— Suppuration now began to be estabhshed, and the parts were dressed with the 
compound tincture of myrrh. ,- j r i 

" 30th.— She was enabled to take a little walking exercise ; and on this day some ol the 
integumental sutures came away. 

"Nov. 4th.— The sloughing process being now set up, three of the smaller metallic sutures, 
that had been used to bring the edges of the laceretion together in the external abdominal mus- 
cles came away. The parts were minutely examined, and we detected a sinus running 
towards the mammse, and filled with pus. Whh some little difficulty it was opened, and a 
Uipe passed through it, so as to allow the pus to escape as quickly as it was lormed. Ihe 
appetite was tolerably good, and the pulse ranged from 52 to 56. . 

^u gjj, _'phe patient was so far recovered that I ventured to turn her into one of t^he pad- 
docks for a few hours' exercise, taking care to avoid any exposure to cold, it the weather wa* 

°'°"'T 1th —An incident occurred which nearly brought our hitherto successful case to a fatal 
termination. I saw her safe about 1, P. M. ; but at two o'clock a messenger came in hi^ta 
10 apprise me that she was in a pond at the bottom of the paddock, and fixed in the m~^± 
21 2f 



242 DISEASES OF THEINTESTINES. 

If horses, destroyed on account of other complaints, are examined when they aie 
not more than five years old, the liver is usually found in the most healthy state ; but 
when they arrive at eight or nine, or ten years, this viscus is frequently increased in 
size — it is less elastic under pressure — it has assumed more of a granulated or broken- 
down appearance — the blood does not,so readily permeate its vessels, and, at length, 
in a greater or less quantity, it begins to exude, and is either confined under the peri- 
toneal covering, or oozes into the cavity of the belly. There is nothing, for awhile, 
to indicate the existence of this. The horse feeds well, is in apparent health, in good 
condition, and capable of constant work, notwithstanding so fatal a change is taking 
place in this important viscus; but, at length, the peritoneal covering of the liver sud- 
denly gives way, and the contents of tlie abdomen are deluged with blood, or a suffi- 
c'ent quantity of this fluid has gradually oozed out to interfere with the functions of 
the viscera. 

The symptoms of this sudden change are — pawing, shifting the posture, distension 
of the belly, curling of the upper lip, sighing frequently and deeply, the mouth and 
nostrils pale and blanched, the breathing quickened, restlessness, debility, fainting, 
and death. 

On opening the abdomen, the intestines are found to be deluged with dark venous 
blood. The liver is either of a fawn, or light yellow, or brown colour — easily torn 
by the finger, and, in some cases, completely broken down. 

If the haemorrhage has been slight at the commencement, and fortunately arrested, 
yet a singular consequence will frequently result. The sight will gradually fail ; the 
pupil of one or both eyes will gradually dilate, the animal will have guila serena, 
and become perfectly blind. This will almost assuredly take place on a return of the 
affection of the liver. Little can be done in a medical point of view. Astringent and 
styptic medicines may, however, be tried. Turpentine, alum, or sulphuric acid, will 
aftord the only chance. The veterinary world is indebted to the late Mr. John Field 
for almost all that is known of this sad disease. 

JAUNDICE, 

Commonly called The Yellows, is a more frequent, but more tractable disease. It 
is the introduction of bile into the general circulation. This is usually caused by 

There, indeed, I found her, at a considerable distance from the bank, and making the most 
violent efforts to release herself. With considerable difficulty, and after many unsuccessful 
attempts, we succeeded in dragging her ashore, so much exhausted as to be utterly incapable 
of rising. A gate was procured, and being well covered with straw, she ^^as drawn home- 
ward by two horses ; I following, regretting what had occurred, and not a lit lie blaming myself 
for having exposed her to this misfortune. 

"Having placed her in her box, our first object was her restoration and comfort. Men 
were set to work to rub her perfectly dry, and some warm gruel, with a little cordial medi- 
cine, was given. The state of the wound was next examined, and it was well cleaned with 
tepid water. It was very dark-coloured. The vitality of the young granulations was appa- 
rently destroyed, and it emitted, in some degree, perhaps from the mud which had been so 
long in contact with it, an ofl'ensive effluvium. It was well dressed with the spirit of nitrous 
ether, and properly bandaged — in order to prevent its receiving any further injury in her inef- 
fectual attempts to rise. 

" We soon, however, began to fear some ill consequence from the continuance of these 
efforts, and we determined to raise her with the slings, those useful appendages to every vete- 
rinary establishment. This was soon effected. We allowed very little bearing on the abdo- 
men, except when she was compelled, in order to ease her hind extremities, which were yet 
unable to support their share of the weight of the body. Frictions, stimulants, and bandages, 
were applied to the extremities. An enema was given, the wound again attended to, and 
some gruel placed within her reach. 

"At midnight she was standing at ease in what may not inappropriately be called her 
cradle. The legs were tolerably warm : the pulse 60, and full ; the enema had done its duty, 
and she was in a much more comfortable state than I had any right to expect. I ordered her 
a warm mash and some gruel, for hope began once more to cheer me. 

" On the following and succeeding days she continued gradually to regain her strength, but 
she required great care and attention, and it was not until the expiration of the fourth day that 
I dared to remove her from the slings, and then only for a few hours during the day, carefully 
replacing her in them at night. Some slight sloughing took place from the wound ; but the 
principal effect of her immersion was a severe catarrh. She required occasional attendance 
to the wound ; and it was not until the 12th of January — more than twelve weeks after the 
operation — that the last of the metallic sutures came away. She soon afterwards returned 
►o her usual work." 



THE KIDNEYS. 243 

«iome obstruction in the ducts or tubes that convey the bile from the liver to the intes- 
tines. The horse, however, has but one duct, through which the bile usually flows 
as quickly as it is formed, and there is no gall-bladder in which it can become thick- 
ened, or hardened into masses so firm as to be appropriately called ga/f-siones. Jaun- 
dice does, however, occasionally appear either from an increased flow or altered 
quality of the bile, or obstruction even in this simple tube. The yellowness of the 
eyes and mouth, and of the skin where it is not covered with hair, mark it sufficiently 
plainly. The dung is small and hard ; the urine highly coloured ; the horse languid, 
and the appetite impaired. If he is not soon relieved, he sometimes begins to express 
considerable uneasiness ; at other times he is dull, heavy, and stupid. A character- 
istic symptom is lameness of the right fore leg, resembling the pain in the rigbt 
shoulder of the human being in hepatic affections. The principal causes are ov'er- 
feeding or over-exertion in sultry weather, or too little work generally speaking, or 
inflammation or otlier disease of the liver itself. 

It is first necessary to inquire whether this affection of the liver is not the conse- 
quence of the sympathy of that organ with some other part, for, to a very considerable 
degree, it frequently accompanies inflammation of the bowels and the lungs. Tliese 
diseases being subdued, jaundice will disappear. If there is no other apparent disease 
to any great extent, an endeavour to restore the natural passage of the bile by purga- 
tives may be tried, not consisting of large doses, lest there should be some undetected 
inflammation of the lungs or bowels, in either of which a strong purgative would bo 
dangerous ; but, given in small quantities, repeated at short intervals, and until the 
bowels are freely opened. Bleeding should always be resorted to, regulated accord- 
ing to the apparent degree of inflammation, and the occasional stupor of the animal. 
Plenty of water slightly warmed, or thin gruel, should be given. The horse should 
be warmly clothed, and the stable well ventilated, but not cold. Carrots or green 
meat will be very beneficial. Should the purging, when once excited, prove violent, 
we need not be in any haste to stop it, unless inflammation is beginning to be con- 
nected with it, or the horse is very weak. The medicine recommended under i.iar- 
rhoea may then be exhibited. A few slight tonics should be given when the horse is 
recovering from an attack of jaundice. 

The Spleen is sometimes very extraordinarily enlarged, and has been ruptured. 
We are not aware of any means by which this may be discovered, except manual 
examination by means or the aid of the rectum. The state of the animal would 
clearly enough point out the treatment to be adopted. 

The Pancreas. We know not of any disease to which it is liable. 

The blood contains a great quantity of watery fluid unnecessary for the nutriment 
or repair of the frame. There likewise mingle with it matters that would be noxious 
if suffered to accumulate too much. 

THE KIDNEYS 

Are actively employed in separating this fluid, and likewise carrying off a substance 
which constitutes the peculiar ingredient in urine, called the urea, and consisting prin- 
cipally of that which would be poisonous to the animal. The kidneys are two large 
glandular bodies, placed under the loins, of the shape of a kidney-bean, of immense 
size. The right kidney is most forward, lying under the liver; the left is pushed 
more backward by the stomach and spleen. A large artery runs to each, carrying not 
less than a sixtli part of the whole of the blood that circulates through the frame. 
This artery is divided into innumerable little branches most curiously complicated and 
coiled upon each other; and the blood, traversing these convolutions, has its watery 
parts, and others the retaining of which would be injurious, separated fromit. 

The fluid thus separated varies materially both in quantity and composition, even 
during health. There is no animal in which it varies so much as in the horse, — there 
is no organ in that animal so much under our command as the kidney ; and no medi- 
cines are so useful, or may be so injurious, as diuretics — such as nitre, and digitalis — 
not only on account of their febrifuge or sedative effects, but because of the power 
which they exert. They stimulate the kidneys to separate more aqueous fluid than 
they otherwise would do, and thus lessen the quantity of blood which the heart is 
labouring to circulate through the frame, and also that which is determined ordnven 
to parts already overloaded. The main objects to be accomplished in these disease* 
is to reduce the force of the circulation, and to calm the violence of excitement. Diu- 



244 DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES. 

retics, by lessening the quantity of blood, are useful assistants in accomplishing thesti 
purposes. 

The horse is subject to eifusions of fluid in particular parts. Swelled legs are a 
disease almost peculiar to him. The ox, the sheep, the dog, the ass, and even the 
mule, seldom have it, but it is for the removal of this deposit of fluid in the cellulai 
substance of the legs of the horse that we have recourse to diuretics. The legs of 
many horses cannot be rendered fine, or kept so, without the use of diuretics ; noi 
can trrease — often connected with these swellings, producing them or caused by them 

be otherwise subdued. It is on this account that diuretics are ranked among the 

most useful of veterinary medicines. 

In injudicious hands, however, these medicines are sadly abused. Among the 
absurdities of stable-management there is nothing so injurious as the frequent use of 
diuretics. Not only are the kidneys often over-excited, weakened, and disposed to 
disease, but the whole frame becomes debilitated ; for tlie absorbents have carried 
away a great part of that wliich was necessary to the health and condition of the 
horse, in order to supply the deficiency of blood occasioned by the inordinate discharge 
of urine. There is likewise one important fact of which the groom or the horseman 
seldom thinks, viz. : — That, when he is removing these humours by the impruden: 
use of diuretics, he is only attacking a symptom or a consequence of disease, and no* 
the disease itself. The legs will fill again, and the grease will return. While the 
cause remains, the eifect will be produced. 

In the administration of diuretics, one thing should be attended to, and the good 
effect of which the testimony of every intelligent man will confirm : the horse should 
have plenty to drink. Not only will inflammation be prevented, but the operation of 
the medicine will be much promoted. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. 

This is no uncommon disease in the horse, and is more unskilfully and fatally 
treated than almost any other. The early symptoms are those of fever generally, but 
the seat of the disease soon becomes evident. The horse looks anxiously round at 
his flanks; stands with his hinder legs wide apart ; is unwilling to lie down ; strad- 
dles as he walks ; expresses pain in turning ; shrinks when the loins are pressed, 
and some degree of heat is felt there. The urine is voided in small quantities ; fre- 
quently it is high-coloured, and sometimes bloody. The attempt to urinate becomes 
more frequent, and the quantity voided smaller, until the animal strains painfully and 
violently, but the discharge is nearly or quite suppressed. The pulse is quick and 
hard ; full in the early stage of the disease, but rapidly becoming small, yet not losing 
its character of hardness. These symptoms clearly indicate an affection of the urinary 
organs ; but they do not distinguish inflammation of the kidney from that of the blad- 
der. In order to effect this, the hand must be introduced into the rectum. If the 
bladder is felt full and hard under the rectum, there is inflammation of the neck of it; 
if it Is empty, yet on the portion of the intestines immediately over it there is more 
than natural heat and tenderness, there is inflammation of the body of the bladder; 
and if the bladder is empty, and there is no increased heat or tenderness, there is 
inflammation of the kidney. 

Among the causes of diabetes are improper food, and particularly hay that has been 
mow-burnt, or oats that are musty. The farmer should look well to this. Oats that 
have been dried on a kiln acquire a diuretic property, and if horses are long fed on 
them, the continual excitement of this organ which they produce will degenerate into 
inflammation. Too powerful or too often repeated diuretics induce inflammation of 
the kidney, or a degree of irritation and weakness of that organ that disposes tc 
inflammation from ca>ises that woiild otherwise have no injurious effect. If a horse 
is sprained in tne loins by being urged on, far or fast, by a heavy rider, or compelled 
to take too wide a leap, or by being suddenly pulled up on his haunches, the inflam- 
mation of the muscles of the loins is often speedily transferred to the kidneys, with 
which they lie in contact. Exposure to cold is another frequent origin of this malady, 
.especially if the horse is drenched with rain, or the wet drips upon his loins ; and, 
more particularly, if he was previously disposed to inflammation, or these organs had 
been previously weakened. For this reason, hackney-coach horses and others, exposed 
to the vicissitudes of the weather, and often fed on unwholesome provender, have, or 
should have, their loins protected by leather or some other clothing. The grand cause 



DIABETES-BLOODY URINE— ALBUMINOUS URINE, &c. 245 

Itov/ever, of nephritis, is the unnecessar}' quantity or undue strength of the d.vifetic 
medicines that are forced on the horse by the ignorant groom. This is an evil carriea 
to an infamous extent, and against which every horseman should sternly oppose 
himself. 

The treatment will only vary from that of inflammation of other parts by a consi- 
deration of the peculiarity of the organ affected. Bleeding must be promptly resorted 
to, and carried to its full extent. An active purge should next be administered ; and 
a counter-inflammation excited as nearly as possible to thj seat of disease. For this 
purpose the loins should be fomented with hot water, or covered with a mustard- 
poultice — the horse should be warmly clothed; but no cr.ntharides or turpentine 
should be used, and, most of all, no diuretic be given internally. When the groom 
finds this difficulty or suppression of staling, he immediately has recourse to a duiretic 
ball to force on the urine ; and by thus needlessly irritating a part already too much 
excited, he adds fuel to fire, and frequently destroys the horse. The action of the 
purgative having begun a little to cease, white hellebore may be administered in small 
doses, with or witliout emetic tartar. The patient should be warmly clothed; his 
legs well bandaged ; and plenty of water offered to him. The food should be care- 
fully examined, and anything that could have excited or that may prolong the irrita- 
tion carefully removed. 

DIABETES, OR PROFUSE STALING 

Is a comparatively rare disease. It is generally the consequence of undue irritation 
of the kidney by bad food or strong diuretics, and sometimes follows inflammation of 
that organ. It can seldom be traced in the horse to any disease of the digestive 
organs. The treatment is obscure, and the result often uncertain. It is evidently 
increased action of the kidneys, and therefore the most rational plan of treatment is to 
endeavour to abate that action. In order to effect this, the same course should be 
pursued in the early stage of diabetes as in actual inflammation; but the lowering 
system nmst not be carried to so great an extent. To bleeding, purging, and counter- 
irritation, medicines of an astringent quality should succeed, as catechu, the powdered 
leaf of the whortleberry (uva ursi), and opium. Very careful attention should be paid 
to the food. The hay and oats should be of the best quality. Green meat, and espe- 
cially carrots, will be very serviceable. 

BLOODY URINE— HEMATURIA. 

The discharge of urine of this character is of occasional occurrence. Pure blood 
is sometimes discharged which immediately coagulates — at other times it is more or 
less mixed with the urine, and does not coagulate. The cause of its appearance and 
the source whence it ])roceeds cannot always be determined, but it is probably the 
result of some strain or blow. It may or may not be accompanied by inflammation. 

Should it be the result of strain or violence, or be evidently attended by inflamma- 
tion, soothing and depleting measures should be adopted. Perhaps counter-irritation 
on the loins might be useful. If there is no apparent inflammation, some gentle 
stimulus may be administered internally. 

ALBUMINOUS URINE. 

A peculiar mucous state of the urine of some horses has lately attracted attention. 
It has been associated with stretching out of the legs, stiffness, disinclination to move, 
a degree of fever, and costiveness. Slight bleeding, mild piiysic, tlie application of 
gentle stimulants to the loins, quietness, and gentle opiates, have been of service. 
We are indebted to Mr. Percivall for what we do know of the disease. It is a subject 
worthy of the attention of the veterinary surgeon. 

THE BLADDER. 

The urine separated from the blood is discharged by the minute vessels, of whict. 
we have spoken, into some larger canals, which terminate in a cavity or reservoir in 
the body of each kidney, designated its pelvis. Thence it is conveyed by a duct called 
the urefer, to a larger reservoir, the bladder. It is constantly flowing from the kidney 
through the ureter ; and were there not this provision for its detention, it would b*^ 
incessantly and annoyingly dribbling from the animal. The bladder lies in, and 
when distended by urine nearly fiils, the cavity of the great bones of the haunch. 
SI* 



246 DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES. 

termed the pe] vis. It has three coats, the outer one covering the greater part of it, 
and being a portion of the peritoneum : the muscular, consisting of two layers of fibres, 
as in the stomach ; the external, running longitudinally, and the inner circularly, so 
that it may yield to the pressure of the urine as it enters, and contract again into an 
exceedingly small space as it runs out, and by that contraction assist in the expulsion 
of the urine. The inner coat contains numerous little glands, which secrete a mucous 
fluid to defend the bladder from the acrimony of the urine. The bladder terminates 
in a small neck, round which is a strong muscle, keeping the passage closed, and I 
retaining the urine until, at the will of the animal, or when the bladder contains a 
certain quantity of fluid, the muscular coat begins to contract, the diaphragm is ren- 
dered convex towards the intestines, and presses them on the bladder, and by these 
united powers the fluid is forced through the sphincter muscle at the neck of the blad- 
der, and escapes. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER. 

There are two varieties of this disease, inflammation of the body of the bladder, 
and of its neck. The symptoms are nearly the same with those of inflammation of 
the kidney, except that there is rarely a total suppression of urine, and there is heat 
felt in the rectum over the situation of the bladder. The causes are the presence of 
some acrid or irritant matter in the urine, or of calculus or stone in the bladder. With 
reference to inflammation of the body of the bladder, mischief has occasionally been 
done by the introduction of cantharides or some other irritating matter, in order to 
hasten the period of horsing in the mare. The treatment in this case will be the same 
as in inflammation of the kidneys, except that it is of more consequence that the ani- 
mal should drink freely of water or thin gruel. 

In inflammation of the neck of the bladder there is the same frequent voiding of 
urine in small quantities, generally appearing in an advanced stage of the disease, 
and often ending in almost total suppression. There is also this circumstance, 
which can never be mistaken by him who will pay sufficient attention to the case, 
that the bladder is distended with urine, and can be distinctly felt under the rec- 
tum. It is spasm of the part, closing the neck of the bladder so powerfully that the 
contraction of the bladder and the pressure of the muscles are unable to force out the 
urine. 

Here the object to be attempted is sufficiently plain. This spasm must be relaxed. 
and the most likely means to effect it is to bleed largely, and even to fainting. This 
■will sometimes succeed, and there will be at once an end to the disease. To the 
exhaustion and loss of muscular power occasioned by copious bleeding, should be 
added the nausea consequent on physic. Should not this speedily have effect, an- 
other mode of abating spasm must be tried — powdered opium, made into a ball OJ 
drink, should be given every two or three hours; while an active blister is applied 
externally. The evacuation of the bladder, both in the mare and the horse, should 
be effected through the medium of a veterinary surgeon. 

STONE IN THE BLADDER. 

The urine is a very compound fluid. In a state of health it contains several acids 
and alkalies variously combined, which, under disease, are increased both in number 
and quantity. It is very easy to conceive that some of these may be occasionally 
separated from the rest, and assume a solid form both in the pelvis of the kidney and 
in the bladder. This is known to be the case both in the human being and the brute. 
These calculi or stones are in the horse oftener found in the kidney than in the blad- 
der, contrary to the experience of the human surfjeon. The explanation of this 
however is not difflcult. In the human being the kidney is situated above the blad- 
der, and these concretions descend from it to the bladder by their vvf ight. The belly 
of the horse is horizontal, and the force of gravity can in no way affect the passage 
of the calculus ; therefore it occasionally remains in the pelvis of the kidney, until 
it has increased so much in size as to fill it. We know not of any sym])toms that 
would satisfactorily indicate the presence of a stone in the kidney; and if the dis- 
ease could be ascertained, we are unable to say what remedial measures could b« 
adopted 



STONE IN THE BLADDER. 



247 



The symptoms of stone in the bladder much resemble those of spasmodic colic, 
except that, on careful inquiry, it will he found that there has been milch irregularity 
in the discharge of urine and occasional suppression of it. When fits of apparent 
colic frequently return, and are accompanied by any peculiarity in the appearance or 
ilxt, discharge of the urine, the horse should be carefully examined. For this pur- 
pose he must be thrown. If there is stone in the bladder, it will, while the horse 
lies on its back, press on the rectum, and may be distinctly felt if the hand is intro- 
duced into the rectum. Several cases have lately occurred of successful extraction 
of the calculus ; but to effect this it will always be necessary to have recourse to the 
aid of a veterinary practitioner. 

Both the practitioner and the amateur will be gratified by the description of a cathe- 
ter, invented by Mr. Taylor, a veterinary surgeon of Nottingham, which may be in- 
troduced into the bladder without difiiculty or pain, and the existence and situation of 
tlie calculus readily ascertained. 

It is made of polished round iron, three feet long, one and a half inch in circum- 
ference, and with eight joints at its farther extremity. The solid part between each 
joint is one and a quarter inch in length, and one and a half in circumference, the 
moveable part being ten inches, and the solid part two feet two inclies. The latter 
has a slight curve commencing one foot from the handle, and continuing to the first 
joint of the moveable part, in order to give it facility in passing the urethra, where 
it is attached to the parietes of the abdomen. The joints are on the principle of a 
half joint, so that the moveable part would only act in a straight line, or curve in one 
direction. The joints are perfectly rounded and smooth when acting either in a 
straight line or a curve. It is represented both in its straight and curved state in the 
following cuts. 




Many horses occasionally void a considerable quantity of gravel, sometimes with- 
out inconvenience, and at others with evident spasm or pain. A diuretic might be 
useful in such case, as increasing the flow of urine, and possibly washing out the 
concretions before they become too numerous or bulky. 

The urine having passed the neck of the bladder, flows along the urethra, and is 
discharged. The sheath of the penis is sometimes considerably enlarged. When 
at the close of acute disease, there are swellings and effusions of fluid, under the 
chest and belly, this part seldom escapes. Diuretics, with a small portion of cordial 
medicine, will be beneficial, but in extreme cases slight scarifications may be neces- 
sary. The inside of the sheath is often the seat of disease. The mucous matter, 
naturally secreted there to defend the part from the acrimony of the urine, accumu- 
lates and becomes exceedingly offensive, and produces swelling, tenderness, and even 
excoriation, with considerable discharge. Fomentation with warm water, and the 
cleansing of the part with soap and water, aided perhaps by the administration of a 
diuretic ball, will speedily remove every inconvenience. Carters are too apt to neg- 
lect cleanliness in this respect. 



248 BREEDING, CASTRATION, &c, 

CHAPTER XL 
BREEDING, CASTRATION, &c. 



1 



Tms may be a proper period to recur to the subject of breeding, a"hd pccullarlj 
important when there cannot be a doubt that our breed of horses has, within the last 
twenty years, undergone a material change. Our running-horses still maintain theii 
speed, although their endurance is, generally speaking, considerably diminished; our 
draught and carriage horses are perhaps improved in value ; but our hunters and 
hackneys are not what they used to be. 

Our observations on this will be of a general nature, and very simple. The first 
axiom we would lay down is, that "like will produce like," and that the progeny 
will inherit the general or mingled qualities of the parents. There is scarcely a 
disease by which either of the parents is afiected that the foal does not often inherit, 
or at least occasionally show a predisposition to it. Even the consequences of ill 
usage or hard work will descend to the progeny. There has been proof upon proof, 
that blindness, roaring, thick wind, broken wind, spavins, curbs, ringbones, and 
founder, have been bequeathed to their offspring, both by the sire and the dam. It 
should likewise be recollected that although these blemishes may not appear in the 
immediate progeny, they frequently do in the next, or even more distant generation. 
Hence the necessity of some knowledge of the parentase both of the sire and the dam. 

Peculiarity of form and constitution will also be inherited. This is a most important 
but neglected consideration ; for, however desirable or even perfect may have been 
the conformation of the sire, every good point may be neutralized or lost by the 
defective structure of the mare. The essential points should be good in both parents, 
or some minor defect in either be met, and got rid of, by excellence in that particular 
point in the other. The unskilful or careless breeder too often so badly pairs the 
animals, that the good points of each are almost lost: the defects of both increased, 
and the produce is far inferior to both sire and dam. 

Mr. Baker, of Reigate, places this in a striking point of view. He speaks of his 
own experience: "A foal had apparently clear and good eyes, but the first day had 
not passed, before it was evident that it was totally blind. It had gutta serena. 

"Inquiry was then made about the sire, for the mare had good eyes. His were, 
on the slightest inspection, evidently bad, and not one of his colts had escaped the 
direful effects of his imperfect vision. 

" A mare had been the subject of farcial enlargements, and not being capable of 
performing much work, a foal was produced from her. She survived ; but the foal 
soon after birth evinced symptoms of farcy, and died. 

" A mare was lame from navicular disease. A foal was bred from her that at five 
years could scarcely go across the country, and was sold for a few pounds. The 
mare was a rank jib in single harness ; the foal was as bad." 

It is useless to multiply these examples. They occur in the experience of every 
one, and yet they are strangely disregarded. 

The mare is sometimes put to the horse at too early an age ; or, what is of more 
frequent occurrence, the mare is incapacitated for work by old age. The owner is 
unwilling to destroy her, and he determines that she shall bear a foal, and thus 
remunerate him for her keep. What is the consequence? The foal exhibits an 
unkindliness of growth, — a corresponding weakness, — and there is scarcely an organ 
that possesses its natural and proper strength. 

Of late years, these principles have been much lost sight of in the breeding of 
horses for general use ; and the following is the explanation of it. There are nearly 
as good stallions as there used to be. Few but well-formed and valuable horses will 
be selected and used as stallions. They are always the very prime of the breed : but 
the mares arc not what they used to be. Poverty has induced many of the breeders to 
part with the mares from which they used to raise their stock, and which were worth 
their weight in gold ; and the jade on which the farmer now rides to market, or 
which he uses in his farm, costs him bvit little money, and is only retained because 
ho cannot get much money for her. It has likewise become the fashion for gentlemen 
to ride mares, almost as frequenily »s gelding? , and ^nas the better kind are taicen 



BREEDING, CASTRATION, &c. 249 

from the breeding service, until old age or injury renders them worth little for it. An 
intelligent veterinary surgeon, Mr. Castley, has placed this in a very strong light.* 

It should be impressed on the minds of breeders, that peculiarity of form and con- 
stitution are inherited from both parents, — that the excellence of the mare is a point 
of quite as much importance as that of the horse, — and that, out of a sorry mare, let 
the horse be as perfect as he may, a good foal will rarely be produced. All this is 
recognised upon the turf, though poverty or carelessness have made the general 
breeder neglect or forget it. 

That the constitution and endurance of the horse are inherited, no sporting man 
ever doubted. The qualities of tlie sire or the dam descend from generation to genera- 
tion, and the excellences or defects of certain horses are often traced, and justly so, to 
some peculiarity in a far-distant ancestor. 

It may, perhaps, be justly afTirmed, that there is more difficulty in selecting a good 
mare to breed from tha.n a good horse, because she should possess somewhat opposite 
qualities. Her carcase should be long, in order to give room for the growth of the 
foetus ; and yet with his tiiere should be compactness of form and shortness of leg. 
What can they expect whose practice it is to purchase worn-out, spavined, foundered 
mares, about whom they fiincy there have been some good points, and send them far 
into the country to breed from, and, with all their variety of shape, to be covered by 
the same horse ] In a lottery like this there may be now and then a prize, but there 
must be many blanks. If horse-breeders, possessed of good judgment, would pay the 
same attention to breed and shape as Mr. Bakewell did with his sheep, they would 
probably attain their wishes in an equal degree, and greatly to their advantage, 
whether for the collar or the road, for racing or for hunting. 

As to the shape of the stallion, little satisfactory can be said. It must depend on 
that of the mare, and the kind of horse wished to be bred ; but if there is one point 
absolutely essential, it is "compactness" — as much goodness and strength as possible 
condensed into a little space. 

Next to compactness, the inclination of the shoulder will be regarded. A huo-o 
stallion, with upright sTioulders, never got a capital hunter or hackney. From him 
the breeder can obtain nothing but a cart or dray horse, and that, perhaps, spoiled by 
the opposite form of the mare. On the other hand, an upright shoulder is desirable, 
if not absolutely necessary, when a mere slow draught-horse is required. 

On the subject of breeding in and in, tiiat is, persevering in the same breed, and 
selecting the best on either side, much has been said. The system of crossing, 
requires more judgment and experience than breeders usually possess. The bad 
qualities of the cross are too soon engrafted on the original stock, and once engrafted 
there, are not, for many generations, eradicated. The good qualities of both are occa- 
sionally neutralized to a most mortifying degree. On the other hand, it is the fact, 
however some may deny it, that strict confinement to one breed, however valuable or 

*" Any one," says he, "who, durincr the last twenty or five-and-twenty years, has had 
frequent opportunities of visitinij some of our great horse-fairs in the north of England must 
be struck wuh the sad falling-off there is everywhere to be remarked in the quality of tbe one- 
half and three-part bred horses, exhibited for sale. The farmers, when taxed with this, com- 
plain that breeding horses does not sufficiently repay them ; and yet we find large sums of 
money always given at fairs for any horses that are really good, but bad ones are not at any 
time likely to pay for rearing, and less now than ever, on account of the advanced rate of 
land, and the increased expense of production. The truth is, that farmers do not, now-a-days, 
breed horses so generally good iis they used to do, and this is owing to the inferior quality of 
the mares which they now commonly employ in breeding. They have, to a great degree, 
been tempted to part with their best mares, and thus breed from the refuse. The stock con- 
sequently deteriorates, and they are disappointed. 

" The great demand for mares has also contributed to get the best material for breeding out 
of the farmer's hands. Thirty years ago few gentlemen would be seen riding a mare — it was 
unfashionable. There was, consequently, but little demand for her, and she was left for the 
most part in the farmers' hands, who were then to be seen riding to market, mounted on the 
finest mares, and from among which they selected the best for the purpose of breeding. Like 
will produce like, and the stock would seldom disappoint them. 

" Then there is the demand for the foreign market. Within the last tvyenty years, a great 
number of our finest three-parts-bred mares have been exported to various portions of the 
Continent, and particularly to France and Germany. They never find their way back again. 
The money brought into our country by their export is a mere trifle — a drop in the ocean — 
while we are doing ourselves incalculable mischief by allowing some of our best material.? *m 
pass out of our hands fo' ever." — Veteriiiarian, III., p. 371. 

2a 



250 BREEDING, CASTRATION, &c. 

perfect, produces gradual deterioration. Crossing should be attempted with great 
caution. The valuable points of the old breed should be retained, but varied or im- 
nroved by the introduction of some new and valuable quality, with reference to beaut5% 
strength, or speed. This is the secret of the turf. I'he pure south-eastern blood is 
never'left, but the stock is often changed, with manifest advantage. 

A mare is capable of breeding at three or four years old. Some have injudiciously 
commenced at two years, before her form or her strength is sufficiently developed, and 
with tlie development of which this early breeding will materially interfere. If a 
mare does little more than farm-work, she may continue to be bred from until she is 
nearly twenty ; but if she has been hardly-worked, and bears the marks of it, let hei 
have been what she will in her youth, she will deceive the expectations of the breeder 
in her old age. 

From the time of covering, to within a few days of the expected period of foaling, 
the cart-mare may be kept at moderate labour, not only without injury, but with de- 
cided advantage. It will tlien be prudent to release her from work, and keep her near 
home, and under the frequent inspection of some careful person. 

When nearly half the time of pregnancy has elapsed, the mare should have a little 
oetter food. She should be allowed one or two feeds of corn in the day. This is 
about the period wlien they are accustomed to slink their foals, or when abortion 
occurs : the eye of the owner should, therefore, be frequently upon them. Good feed- 
ing and moderate exercise will be the best preventives of this mishap. The mare that 
has once aborted, is liable to a repetition of the accident, and therefore should never be 
suffered to be with other mares between the fourth and fifth months ; for such is the 
power of imagination or of sympathy in the mare, that if one suffers abortion, others 
in the same pasture will too often share the same fate. Farmers wash, and paint, and 
tar their stables, to prevent some supposed infection ; — the infection lies in the ima- 
gination. 

The thorough-bred mare — the stock being intended for sporting purposes — should 
be kept quiet, and apart from other horses, after the first four or five months. When 
the period of parturition is drawing near, slie should be watched, and shut up during 
the night in a safe yard or loose box. 

If the mare, whether of the pure or common breed, be thus taken care of, and be in! 
good health while in foal, little danger will attend the act of parturition. If there- 
is false presentation of the fcetus, or difficulty in producing it, it will be better to have 
recourse to a well-informed practitioner, than to injure the mother by the violent and 
injurious attempts that are often made to relieve her. 

The parturition being over, the mare should be turned into some well -sheltered pas- 
ture, with a hovel or shed to run into when she pleases ; and as, supposing that she 
has foaled in April,* the grass is scanty, she should have a couple of feeds of corn 
daily. The breeder may depend upon it, that nothing is gained by starving the 
mother and stinting the foal at this time. It is the most important period of the life 
of the horse ; and if, from false economy, his growth is arrested, his puny form and 
want of endurance will ever afterwards testify the error that has been committed. 
The corn should be given in a trough on the ground, that the foal may partake of it 
with the mother. When tlie new grass is plentiful, the quantity of corn may gradu- 
ally be diminished. 

The mare will usually be found again at heat at or before the expiration of a month 
from the time of foaling, when, if she is principally kept for breeding purposes, she 
may be put again to the horse. At the same time, also, if she is used for agricultural 
purposes, she may go again to work. The foal is at first shut in the stable during the 
hours of work ; but as soon as it acquires sufiicient strength to toddle after the mare, 
and especially when she is at slow work, it will be better for the foal and the dam 
tliat they should be together. The work will contribute to the health of the mother; 
the foal will more frequently draw the milk, and thrive better, and will be hardy and 
tractalilc, and grradually familiarised with the objects among which it is afterwards to 
live. While the mother, however, is thus worked, she and the foal should be welj 
fed ; and two feeds of corn, at least, should be added to the green food which they 
get when turned out after their work, and at night. 

* By the present rules of the jockey-club, the age of turf-horses is reckoned from the 1st of 
January ; but this has not by any cornnion consent extended to the lialf-breds. The 1st of 
May is nearest to the general time of foaling, and the age of the cavahy-horses is dated froir 
that period. 



BREEDING, CASTRATION, &c. 251 

In five or six months, according to the growth of the foal, it may be weaned. Ii 
Bhould then be housed for three weeks or a month, or turned into some distant rick- 
yard. There can be no better place for the foal than the latter, as alTording, and that 
without trouble, both food and shelter. The mother should be put to harder work, 
and have drier meat. One or two urine-balls, or a physic-ball, will be useful, if the 
milk should be troublesome, or she should pine after her foal. 

There is no principle of greater importance than the liberal feeding of the foal dur- 
ing the whole of his growth, and at this time in particular. Bruised oats and bran 
should form a considerable part of his daily provender. The farmer may be assured 
that the money is well laid out which is expended on the liberal nourishment of the 
growing colt ; yet while he is well fed, he should not be rendered delicate by excess 
of care. 

A racing colt is often stabled ; but one that is destined to be a hunter, a hackney, 
or an agricultural horse, should have a square rick, under the leeward side of which 
he may shelter himself; or a hovel, into which he may run at night, and out of the 
rain. Too often, however, the foal, after weaning, is left to struggle on as he can, 
and becomes poor and dispirited. He is to be seen shrinking under a hedge, cold 
and almost shivering, his head hanging down, and rheum distilling from his eyes. 
If he is made to move, he listlessly drags his limbs along, evidently weak, and gene- 
rally in pain. He is a sad specimen of poverty and of misery. This is the first 
scene of cruelty to the horse of inferior breed, and destined for inferior purpose.* 

The process of breaking-in should commence from the very period of weaning. 
The foal should be daily handled, partially dressed, accustomed to the halter when 
led about, and even tied up. Tlie tractability, and good temper, and value of the 
horse, depend a great deal more upon this than breeders are aware. 

Everything should be done, as much as possible, by the man who feeds the colt, 
and whose management of him should be always kind and gentle. There is no fault 
for which a breeder should so invariably discharge his servant as cruelty, or even 
harshness, towards the rising stock ; for the principle on which their after usefulness 
is founded, is early attachment to, and confidence in man. and obedience, implicit 
obedience, resulting principally from this. 

After the second winter the work of breaking-in may commence in good earnest. 
Tlie colt may be bitted, and a bit selected that will not hurt his mouth, and much 
smaller than those in common use. With this he may be suffered to amuse himself, 
and to play, and to champ it for an hour, on a few successive days. 

Having become a little tractable, portions of the harness may be put upon him, 
concluding with the blind winkers; and, a few days afterwards, he may go into the 
team. It would be better if there could be one horse before, and one behind him, 
beside the shaft horse. There should at first be the mere empty wagon. Nothing 
should be done to him, except that he should have an occasional pat or kind word. 
The other horses will keep him moving, and in his place; and no great time will pass, 
sometimes not even the first day, before he will begin to pull with the rest. The 
load may then be gradually increased. 

The agricultural horse is sometimes wanted to ride as well as to draw. Let his 
first lesson be given when he is in the team. Let his feeder, if possible, be first put 
upon him. He will be too much hampered by his harness, and by the other horses, 
to make much resistance; and, in the majority of cases, will quietly and at once sub- 
mit. We need not to repeat, that no whip or spur should be used in giving the first 
lessons in riding. 

When he begins a little to understand his business, backing — the most difficult 
part of his work — may be taught him; first to back well without anything behind 
him, and then with a light cart, and afterwards with some serious load — always taking 
tlie greatest care not seriously to hurt his mouth. If the first lesson causes much sore- 
ness of the gums, the colt will not readily submit to a second. If he has been previ- 
ously rendered tractable by kind usage, time and patience will do everything that can 
be wished. Some carters are in the habit of blinding the colt when teaching him to 
back. This may be necessary with a restive and obstinate one, but should be used 
only as a last resort. 

The colt having been thus partially broken-in, the necessity of implicit obedience 

* Youatt on Humanity to Animals, p. 115. 



252 BREEDING, CASTRATION, &c. 

must be taught him, and that not by severity, but by firmness and steadiness. The 
voice will go a great way, but the whip or tiie spur is sometimes indispensable — not 
do severely applied as to excite the animal to resistance, but to convince him that we 
have the power to enforce submission. Few — it may almost be said, no horses, are 
naturally vicious. It is cruel usage which has first provoked resistance. That resist- 
ance has been followed by greater severity, and the stubbornness of the animal has 
increased. Open warfare has ensued, in which the man has seldom gained advantage, 
and the horse has been frequently rendered unserviceable. Correction may, or must be 
used, to enforce implicit obedience after the education has proceeded to a certain i 
extent, but the early lessons should be inculcated with kindness alone. Young colts I 
are sometimes very perverse. Many days will occasionally pass before they will ' 
permit the bridle to be put on, or the saddle to be worn ; and one act of harshness will 
double or treble this time : patience and kindness, however, will always prevail. On 
some morning, when he is in a better humour than usual, the bridle may be put on, 
and the saddle may be worn; and, this compliance being followed by kindness and 
soothing on the part of the breaker, and no inconvenience or pain being suffered by 
the animal, all resistance will be at an end. 

The same principles will apply to the brcaking-in of the horse for the road or the 
"ihase. The handling, and some portion of instruction, should commence from the 
time of weaning. The future tractability of the horse will much depend on this. At 
two years and a half, or three years, the regular process of breaking-in should com- 
mence. If it is delayed until the animal is four years old, his strength and obstinacy 
will be more difficult to overcome. The plan usually pursued by the breaker cannot 
perhaps be much improved, except that there should be much more kindness and 
patience, and far less harshness and crueky, than these persons are accustomed to 
exhibit, and a great deal more attention to the form and natural action of the horse. 
A headstall is put on the colt, and a cavesson (or apparatus to confine and pinch the 
nose) affixed to it, with long reins. He is first accustomed to the rein, then led rouno 
a ring on soft ground, and at length mounted and taught his paces. Next to preserv- 
ing the temper and docility of ihe horse, there is nothing of so much importance as 
to teach him every pace, and every part of his duty, distinctly and thoroughly. Each 
must constitute a separate and sometimes long-continued lesson, and that taught by a 
man who will never suffer his passion to get the better of his discretion. 

After the cavesson has been attached to the headstall, and the long rein put on, the 
colt should be quietly led about b}^ the breaker — a steady boy following behind, by 
occasional threatening with the whip, but never by an actual blow, to keep him mov- 
ing. "When the animal follows readily and quietly, he may be taken to the ring, and 
walked round, right and left, in a very small circle. Care should be taken to teach 
him this pace thoroughly, never suffering him to break into a trot. The boy with his 
whip may here again be necessary, but not a single blow should actually fall 

Becoming tolerably perfect in tiie walk, he should be quickened to a trot, and kept 
steadily at it ; the whip of the boy, if needful, urging him on, and the cavesson restrain 
ing him. These lessons should be short. The pace should be kept perfect, and dis 
tinct in each; and docility and improvement rewarded with frequent caresses, and 
handfuls of corn. The length of the rein may now be gradually increased, and the 
pace quickened, and the lime extended, until the animal becomes tractable in these 
his first lessons, towards the conclusion of which, crupper-straps, or something simi- 
lar, may be attached to tlie clothing. These, playing about the sides and flanks, 
accustom him to the flapping of the coat of the rider. The annoyance which they 
occasion will pass over in a day or two ; for when the animal finds that no harm comes 
to him, he will cease to regard them. 

Next comes the bitting. The bit should be large and smooth, and the reins buckled 
to a ring on either side of the pad. There are many curious and expensive machines 
for this purpose, but the simple rein will be quite sufficient. It should at first he 
slack, and then very gradually tightened. This will prepare for the more perfect 
manner in which the head will be afterwards got into its proper position, when the 
coit is accustomed to the saddle. Occasionally the breaker should stand in front of 
the colt, and take hold of each side rein near to the mouth, and press upon it, and 
tlins begin to teach him to stop and to back on the pressure of the rein, rewarding 
every act of docility, and not being too eager to punish occasional carelessness oi 
waywardness. 



BREAKING-IN. 253 

The colt may now be taken into the road or street to be gradually accustomed to 
the objects among which his services will be required. Here, from fear or playful- 
ness, a considerable degree of starting and shying may be exhibited. As little no- 
tice as possible should be taken of it. The same or a similar object should be soon 
passed again, but at a greater distance. If the colt still shies, let the distance be far- 
: iher increased, until he takes no notice of the object. Then he may be gradually 
brought nearer to it, and this will be usually effected without the slightest difficulty : 
whereas, had there been an attempt to force him close to it in the first instance, the 
remembrance of the contest would have been associated with every appearance of the 
object, and the habit of shying would have been established. 

Hitherto, with a cool and patient breaker, the whip may have been shown, l)ut 
will scarcely have been used; the colt must now, however, be accustomed to this 
necessary instrument of authority. Let the breaker walk by the side of the animal, 
and throw his right arm over his back, holding the reins in his left, occasionally 
quickening his pace, and at the moment of doing this, tapping the horse with the 
whip in his right hand, and at first very gently. The tap of the whip and the quick- 
ening of the pace will soon become associated in the mind of the animal. If neces- 
sary, these reminders may gradually fall a little heavier, and the feeling of pain be 
the monitor of the necessity of increased exertion. The lessons of reining in and 
stopping, and backing on the pressure of the bit, may continue to be practised at the 
same time. 

He may now be taught to bear the saddle. Some little caution will be necessary 
at the first putting of it on. The breaker should stand at the head of the colt, pat- 
ting him, and engaging his attention, while one assistant, on the off-side, gently 
places the saddle on the back of the animal ; and another, on the near-side, slowly 
tightens the girths. If he submits quietly to tliis, as he generally will when the 
previous process of breaking-in has been properly conducted, the ceremony of mount- 
•ing may be attempted on the following, or on tlie third day. The breaker will need 
two assistants in order to accomplish this. He will remain at the head of the colt, 
patting and making much of him. The rider will put his foot into the stirrup, and 
bear a little weight upon it, while the man on the off-side presses equally on the other 
stirrup-leather; and, according to the docility of the animal, he will gradually in- 
crease the weiglit, until he balances himself on the stirrup. If the colt is uneasy or 
fearful, he should be spoken to kindly and patted, or a mouthful of corn be given to 
him : but if he offers serious resistance, the lessons must terminate for that day. He 
may probably be in better humour on the morrow. 

When the rider has balanced himself for a minute or two, he may gently throw 
his leg over, and quietly seat himself in the saddle. The breaker will then lead 
the animal round the ring, the rider sitting perfectly still. After a few minutes he 
will take the reins, and handle tliem as gently as possible, and guide the horse by 
the pressure of them ; patting him frequently, and especially when he thinks of 
dismounting — and, after having dismounted, offering him a little corn or green meat. 
The use of the rein in checking him, and of the pressure of the leg and the touch of 
the heel in quickening his pace, will soon l)s taught, and his education will be nearly 
completed. 

The horse having thus far submitted himself to the breaker, these pattings and 
rewards must be gradually diminished, and implicit obedience mildly but firmly 
enforced. Severity will not often be necessary. In the great majority of cases it 
will be altogether uncalled for: but should the animal, in a moment of waywardness, 
dispute the command of the breaker, he must at once be taught that he is the slave, 
of man, and that we have the power, by other means than those of kindness, to bend 
him to our will. The education of the horse should be tiiat of the child. Pleasure 
is, as much as possible, associated with the early lessons ; but firmness, or, if need 
be, coercion, must establish the habit of obedience. Tyranny and cruelty will, more 
speedily in the horse than even in the child, provoke the wish to disobey; and, on 
every practicable occasion, the resistance to command. The restive and vicious 
horse is, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, made so by ill-usage, and not by na- 
ture. None but those who will take the trouble to try the experiment are aware how 
absolute a command the due admixture of firmness and kindness will soon pve us 
-ivei any horse. 
22 



254 CASTRATION. 



CASTRATION. 

The period at which this operation may be best performed depends much on the 
breed and form of the colt, and the purpose for which he is destined. For the com- 
mon agricultural horse the age of four or five months will be the most proper time, 
or, at least before he is weaned. Few horses are lost when cut at that age. Care, 
however, should be taken that the weather is not too hot, nor the flies too numerous. 
We enter our decided protest, however, against the recommendation of valuable but 
incautious agricultural writers, that "colts should be cut in the months of June or 
July, when flies pester the horses, and cause them to be continually moving about 
and thereby prevent swelling." One moment's reflection will convince the reader 
that nothing can be more likely to produce inflammation, and consequent swelling 
and danger, than the torture of the flies hovering round and stinging the sore part. 

If the horse is designed either for the carriage or for heavy draught, the farmer 
should not think of castrating him until he is at least a twelve-month old; and, even 
then, the colt should be carefully examined. If he is thin and spare about the neck and 
shoulders, and low in the withers, he will materially improve by remaining uncut 
another six months ; but if his fore-quarters are fairly developed at the age of a 
twelve-month, the operation should not be delayed, lest he become heavy and gross 
before, and perhaps has begun too decidedly to have a will of his own. No specific 
age, then, can be fixed; but the castration should be performed rather late in the 
spring or early in the autumn, when the air is temperate, and particularly when the 
weather is dry. No preparation is necessary for the sucking colt, but it may be pru- 
dent to bleed and to physic one of more advanced age. In the majority of cases, no 
after-treatment will be necessary, except that the animal should be sheltered from 
intense heat, and more particularly from wet. In temperate weather he will do much 
better running in the field than nursed in a close and hot stable. The moderate exer- 
cise; that he will take in grazing will be preferable to perfect inaction. A large and 
well-ventilated box, however, may be permitted. 

l^he manner in which the operation is performed will be properly left to the vete- 
rinary surgeon. The haste, carelessness, and brutality of the common gelder should 
no longer be permitted ; but the veterinary surgeon should be able and willing to 
discharge every portion of his duty. The old method of opening the scrotum on 
either side, and cutting off the testicles, and preventing haemorrhage by a temporary 
compression of the vessels while they are seared with a hot iron, must not, perhaps, 
be abandoned ; but there is no necessity for that extra pain, and that appearance, at 
least, of brutality, which occur when the spermatic cord (the blood-vessels and the 
nerve) is as tightly compressed between two pieces of wood as in a powerful vice, 
and left there until either the testicle drops off, or is removed on the following day by 
the operator. 

To the practice of some farmers, of tivitching their colts at an early period, some- 
times even so early as a month, there is stronger objection. When the operation of 
twitching is performed, a small cord is drawn as tightly as possible round the bag, 
between the testicle and the belly. The circulation is thus stopped, and, in a few 
days, the testicles and the bag drop off; but not until the animal has sadly suffered. 
[t is occasionally necessary to tighten the cord on the second or third day, and inflam- 
mation and death have frequently ensued. 

Another mode of castration has been lately introduced which bids fair to supersede 
every other : it is called the operation by Torsion. An incision is made into the 
scrotum as in the other modes of operation, and the vas deferens is exposed and | 
divided. The artery is then seized by a pair of forceps contrived for the purpose, and * 
twisted six or seven times round. It retracts as soon as the hold on it is quitted, the 
coils are not untwisted, and all bleeding has ceased. The testicle is removed, and 
there is n'~ sloughing or danger. The most painful part of the operation — the applicEh 
lion of the firing-iron or the clams— is avoided, and the wound readily heals. 



THE SHOULDER. — SPRAIN OF THE SHOULDER. 255 

CHAPTER XII. 
THE FORE LEGS. 

\Vk arrive now at those parts of the frame which are most essentially connected 
with the action and value of the horse, and oftenest, and most annoyingly, the subjects 
of disease. The extremities contain the whole apparatus of voluntary motion, with 
which the action, and speed, and strength of the horse are most concerned. 

We commence with the upper portion, of which the fore extremity, the shoulder 
is seen at G, p. 68. 

THE SHOULDER. 

The scapula or shoulder-blade, situated forward on the side of the chest, is a bone 
of a somewhat triangular shape, with its apex or narrowest point downward, and its 
broad and thin expansion upward. The point of the shoulder lies opposite to the first 
and second ribs ; the hinder expansion of the base reaches as far back as the seventh 
rib ; it therefore extends obliquely along the chest. It is divided, externally, into twc 
unequal portions by a ridge or spine running tlirough almost the whole of its extent, 
and designed, as will be presently seen, for the attachment of important muscles. 
The broad or upper part having no muscles of any consequence attached to it, is 
terminated by cartilage. 

The shoulder-blade is united to the chest by muscle alone. There is one large 
muscle, with very remarkable tendinous fibres and of immense strength (the serratus 
major, greater saw-shaped muscle), attached to the chest, and to the extensive smooth 
internal surface of the shoulder-blade, and by which, assisted, or rather strengthened, 
by the muscles of the breast, the weight of the body is supported, and the shock of 
the widest leap, or the most rapid motion, sustained. Had there been a bony union 
betv/een the shoulder and the body, the vital parts contained in the chest could not 
have endured the dreadful shock which they would occasionally have experienced ; 
nor could any bone have long remained whole if exposed to such violence. The 
muscles within the shoulder-blade act as powerful and safe springs. They yield, as 
far as necessary, to the force impressed upon them. By their gradual yielding they 
destroy the violence of the shock, and then by their elastic power, immediately regain 
their former situation. 

SPRAIN OF THE SHOULDER. 

These muscles are occasionally injured by some unexpected shock. Although in 
not more than one case in twenty is the farrier right when he talks of his shoulder- 
lameness, yet it cannot be denied, that the muscles of the shoulder are occasionally 
sprained. This is effected oftener by a slip or side-fall, than by fair, although violent 
exertion. It is. of considerable importance to be able to distinguish this shoulder- 
lameness from injuries of other parts of the fore extremity. There is not much 
tenderness, or heat, or swelling. It is a sprain of muscles deeply seated, and where 
these symptoms of injury are not immediately evident. If, on standing before the 
horse, and looking at the size of the two shoulders, or rather their points, one should 
appear evidently larger than the other, this must not be considered as indicative of 
sprain of the muscles of the shoulder. It probably arises from bruise of the point of 
tlie shoulder, which a slight examination will determine. 

The symptoms, however, of shoulder-lameness can scarcely be mistaken ; and, 
when we relate them, the farmer will recollect that they very seldom occurred when 
the village smith pointed to the shoulder as the seat of disease, and punished the 
animal to no purpose. In sprain of the shoulder the horse evidently suffers extreme 
pain while moving, and, the muscle underneath being inflamed and tender, he will 
extend it as little as possible. He will dras; his toe along ihe ground.^ It is in the 
lifting of the foot that the shoulder is principally moved. If the foot is lifted high, 
let the horse be ever so lame, the shoulder is little, if at all affected. In sprain of the 
back sinews, it is only when the horse is in motion that the injured parts are put to 
most pain ; the pain is greatest here when the weight rests on the limb in shoulder- 
i lameness, and there is a peculiar quickness in catching up the limb the moment the 



256 



THE FORE LEGS. 



weight is thrown on it. This is particularly evident when the horse is going down 
liilirand the injured limb hears an additional portion of the weight. In the stable, 
too when, in other cases, the horse points or projects one foot before the o-ther, that 
foot is usually flat on the ground. In shoulder-lameness, the toe alone rests on the 
ground. The circumstance which most of all characterises this affection is, that 
when the foot is lifted and then brought considerably forward the horse will express 
very oreat pain, which he will not do if the lameness is in the foot or the leg. This 
point lias been longer dwelt upon, in oider that the reader may be enabled to put to 
the test the many cases of shoulder-lameness, which exist only in the imagination of 
the groom or the farrier. 

In sprain of the internal muscles of the shoulder, few local measures can be adopted. 
The horse should be bled from the vein on the inside of the arm (the plate vein), 
because the blood is then abstracted more immediately from the inflamed part. A 
dose of physic should be given, and fomentations applied, and principally on the 
inside of the arm, close to the chest, and the horse should be kept as quiet as possible. 
The injury is too deeply seated for external stimulants to have very great effect, yet a 
blister will properly be resorted to, if the lameness is not speedily removed. The swim- 
ming of the horse is an inhuman practice; it tortures the animal, and increases theL 
inflammation. The pegging of the shoulder (puncturing the skin, aud blowing intol| 
the cellular structure beneath until it is considerably puffed up) is another relic of 
ignorance and barbarity. 

SLANTING DIRECTION OF THE SHOULDER. 

The lessening or breaking of the shock, from the weight being thrown violently on 
the fore legs, is effected in another way. It will be observed, that (see G and J, p. 
68) the shoulder-blade and the lower bone of the shoulder are not connected together . 
in a straight line, but form a very considerable angle with each other. This will be 
more evident from the following cut, which represents the fore and hind extremities 
in the situations which they occupy in the horse. 




This angular construction of the limbs reminds us of the similar arrangement of tha 
springs of a carriage, and the ease of motion, and almost perfect freedom from joltiog 
which are thereby obtained. 






SLANTING DIRECTION OF THE SHOULDER. ' 257 

It must not perhaps be said, that the form of the spring was borrowed from this 
construction of the limbs of the horse, but the eflect of the carriage-spring beautifully 
illustrates the connexion of the different bones in the extremities of this quadruped. 

The obliquity or slanting direction of the shoulder eflects other very useful pui- 
poses. That the stride in the gallop, or the space passed over in the trot, may be 
extensive, it is necessary that the fore part of the animal should be considerably ele- 
vated. The shoulder, by means of the muscles which extend from it to the inferior 
part of the limb, is the grand agent in eflecting this. Had the bones of the shoulder 
been placed more upright than we see them, they could not then have been of the 
length which they now are, — their connexion with the chest could not have been so 
secure, — and their movements upon each other would have been comparatively 
restricted. The slightest inspection of the preceding cut, or of that at page C8, will 
show that, just in proportion as the point of the shoulder is brought forward and ele- 
vated, will be the forward action and elevation of the limb, or the space passed over 
at every effort. 

The slanting shoulder accomplishes a most useful object. The muscles extending 
from the shoulder-blade to the lower bone of the shoulder are the powers by which 
motion is given to the whole of the limb. The extent and energy of that motion 
depend much on the force exerted or the strength of the muscle ; but there are cir- 
cumstances in the relative situations of the different bones which have far greater 
influence. 

Let it be supposed that, by means of a lever, some one is endeavouring to raise a 
certain weight. 

A is a lever, resting or turning on a pivot B ; C is the weight to be raised ; and D 
is the power, or the situation at whicii the power is applied. If the strength is 
applied in a direction perpendicular to the lever, as represented by the line E, the 
power which must be exerted can easily be calculated. 

A B 

iTtiBtiiiiiiiiiiiiiifiiiiwiniHiiin 





In proportion as the distance of the power from the pivot or centre of motion 
exceeds that of the weight from the same place, so will be the advantage gained. 
The power here is twice as far from the centre as the weight is, and therefore advan- 
vantage is gained in the proportion of two to one : or if the weight is equal to 200lbs., 
a force of lOOlbs. will balance it. If the direction in which the power is applied is 
altered, and it is in that of the line F, will lOOlbs. effect the purpose] No; nothing 
like it. How, then, is the necessary power to be calculated ] The line of direction 
must be prolonged, until another line, falling perpendicularly from the lever, and 
commencing at the centre of motion, will cut it ; and the length of that line will give 
the actual effect of the strength employed. Now, this new line is but half as long 
as the distance of the weight from the centre o*" motion, and therefore advantage is 
lost in the proportion of two to one ; or a strength equal to 400lbs. must be exerted 
to raise the 200lbs., and so on in proportion to the deviation from the right or perpen- 
dicular line. 

Let the shoulder of the horse be considered. The point of the shoulder — the 
shoulder joint — is the pivot or centre of motion ; the leg attached to the bone of the 
arm is the weight; the shoulder-blade being more fixed is the part whence the power 
emanates ; and the muscles extending from the one to the other are the lines in which 
that power is exerted. These lines approach much more nearly to a perpendicular 
in the oblique than in the upright shoulder (see cut). In the upright one, the shoul- 
der-blade and the bone of the arm are almost in a straight line, and the real_ action 
and power of the muscle are most strangely diminished. In this point of view the 
oblique shoulder is most important. It not only gives extensive action, but facility 
of action. The power of the muscles is more than doubled b/ being exerted in » 
line approaching so much nearer to a perpendicular. 
32* 2h 



258 THE FORE LEGS. 

There is yet another advantage of the oblique shoulder. The point of the shouldel 
is projected forward ; and therefore the pillars which support the fore-part of the horae 
are likewise placed proportionably forward, and they have less weight to carry. 
They are exposed to less concussion, and especially concussion in rapid action. The 
horse is also much safer ; for having less weight situated before the pillars of sup- 
port, he is not so likely to have the centre of gravity thrown before and beyond them 
by an accidental trip ; or, in other words, he is not so likely to fall ; and he rides more 
pleasantly, for there is far less weight bearing on the hand of the rider, and annoying 
and tiring him. It likewise unfortunately happens that nature, as it were to supply 
the deficiency of action and of power in an upright shoulder, has sccumulated on it 
more muscle, and therefore the upright shoulder is proverbially thick and cloddy ; 
and the muscles of the breast which were designed to strengthen the attachment of 
the shoulders to the chest, and to bind them together, must, when the point of the 
shoulder lies backward, and under the horse, be proportionably thickened and 
strengthened, and the horse is tlius still more heavy before, more unpleasant, and 
more unsafe to ride. 

Then, ought every horse to have an oblique shoulder? lSo\ The question has 
relation to those horses that are designed to ride pleasantly, or from which extensive 
and rapid action is required. In them it has been said that an oblique shoulder ia 
indispensable: but there are others which are seldom ridden ; whose pace is slow, 
and who have nothing to do but to throw as much weight as possible into the collar. 
To them an upright shoulder is an advantage, because its additional thickness gives 
tnem additional weight to throw into the collar, which the power of their hinder quar- 
ters is fully sufficient to accomplish ; and because the upright position of the shoulder 
gives that direction to the collar which enables the horse to act upon every part of it, 
and that inclination of the traces which will enable his weight or power to be most 
advantageously employed. 

An improved breed of our heavy draught-horses has of late years been attempted, 
and with much snccess. Sufficient uprightness of shoulder is retained for the purposes 
of drauffht, while a slight degree of obliquity has materially quickened the pace and 
improved the appearance. 

Above its junction with the humerus, or lower division of the limb, the shoulder- 
blade forms what is called the point of the shoulder. There is a round blunted pro- 
jection, best seen in the cut (p. 256). The neck of the shoulder-blade there forms a 
shallow cavity, into which the head of the next bone is received. 

The cavity is shallow because extensive motion is required, and because both of 
the bones being so moveable, and the motion of the one connected so much with that 
of the other, dislocation was less likely to occur. A capsular ligament, or one extend- 
ing round the heads of both bones, confines them securely together. 

This joint is rarely or never dislocated ; and, should it suffer dislocation, the muscles 
of the shoulder-blade and the lower bone of the shoulder are so strong, that the reduc- 
tion of it would be impossible. The point of the shoulder, however, projecting con- 
siderably, is miich exposed to injury from accident or violence. Even turning in a 
.\arrow stall has inflicted a serious bruise. Fomentations of warm water will usually 
remove the tenderness and lameness, but should they fail, blood should be taken from 
the plate vein, or, in very obstinate cases, a blister should be resorted to. 

A description of the principal muscles of the shoulder-blade, their situation, attach- 
ments, and use, may not be uninteresting to the lover of the horse, and may guide hi.s 
;ud"-mcnt as to the capability and proper form of that noble animal. 

CUT OF MUSCLES ON THE OUTSIDE OF THE SHOULDER. 

a and b, in the following cut, represent a portion of the Trapezius muscle attached 
to the longer bones of the withers broadly and strongly and to the ligament and fasciae 
of the neck (a portion of which is seen at b), narrowing below, terminating almost in 
a point, and inserted into a tubercle on the spine or ridge of the shoulder-blade. It 
occupies the space between the withers and the upper part of the shoulder-blade, and 
is larffe and strong in proportion to the height of the withers, and the slanting of the 
shoulder. Its use is evidently to elevate" and support the scapula—to raise it, and 
likewise to draw it backward ; therefore, constituting one of the most important mus 
cles connected with the action of the horse, and illustrating the advantage of high 
withers and a slanting shoulder. A portion of it is represented as turned hack, in 



MUSCLES ON THE OUTSIDE OF THE SHOULDER. 259 

order to show other muscles heneath. A moment's inspection will convince tha 
reader that althouorh a low forehand and thick shoulder are very properly ohjected to, 

yet still some fulness and fleshiness 
are necessary, even about the with- 
ers ; otherwise, although there may 
be height of withers, and obliquity 
of shoulder, to give extensive action, 
there will not be sufficient muscular 
power to work the machine with 
either quickness or continuance. 

At c is a portion of the levator 
humeri (the raiser of the shoulder), 
descending from the tubercle of the 
head (see cut, page 68), and from 
the base of the temporal bone, and 
attaching itself to the first four bones 
of the neck, and to the ligament of 
the neck; inserting itself into the 
covering of the muscles of the shoul- 
der, and those about the point of the 
shoulder, and at length terminating 
in a ridge on the body of the humerus, 
arising from the greater tubercle. It 
is a muscle of immense power and 
great utility, raising and drawing 
forward tlie shoulder and the arm, 
or, when these are fixed, turning the 
head and neck if one only acts^and 
depressing them if the muscles on 
both sides act at the same time. 

At (/ is a portion of the serratus 
magnus muscle, between the shoulder 
and side of the chest, and constitutinor 
the bulk of the lower part of the 
neck. It is deeply seated, arising 
from the fourth, fifth, sixth, and 
seventh bones of the neck anteriorly, 
and attached posteriorly to the eight 
first ribs. All its fibres tend towards 
and are inserted into the inner sur- 
face of the shoulder, and by means 
of them the shoulder is attached to 
t!ie chest, and the immense weight 
ot the body supported. 'J'he use of this muscle in obviating concussion, has already 
ijeen spoken of. 

When the horse is standing, this muscle occasionally discharges another importnnt 

: function. The shoulders and legs are then rendered fixed points by the weight of the 

: body, and this muscle exerts all its power in dilating the cavity of the chest, and 

I thus materially assists in the act of breathing. Therefore, as was stated when that 

disease was treated of, a horse labouring under inflammation of the lungs will obsti- 

I nately stand night and day, in order that he may obtain the assistance of this muscle 

in respiration, which is become laborious and painful ; and for the same reason it is 

1 that we regard his lying down as one of the most favourable symptoms, because it 

■ shows us that the breathing is so much relieved as not to need the assistance of thi<! 

muscle. 

At e is a small portion of the splenius muscle, which was spoker of when the necK 
. was described, p. 159. 

/ represents a muscle sometimes described as a portion of the levator numert, or 
elevator of the shoulder, arising from the nipple-shaped process or tubercle of the 
temporal bone, running down the somewhat lateral but fore part of the neck, inserted 
into the upper and middle part of the lower bone of the shoulder qnd thence co»- 




260 



THE FORE LEGS, 



tinued down to the arm. Its ofiice is to bend the head ; or, the head and necK being 
fixed, to elevate and bring forward the arm. It is in powertul action when the horse 
is runnincr at his speed, with the head projected. 

At g is a portion of the sfemn maxi/laris, or muscle common to the tore part ol the 
chest and the lower jaw, and described at p. 159. ., i, n . ,u 

h designates the principal portion of this muscle, extending from the shoulder to the 
humerus! and employed in drawing this bone towards the shoulder-blade, and bending 
the whole of the limb. Exceedingly powerful action is required from this muscle ; 
therefore it is very tendinous, and inserted in such a direction as to act with great 
mechanical advantage, and that advantage increased in proportion to the slanting 
position of the shoulder. . . r^u i, ii^. 

The muscle /, aniea spinatus, is situated on the outer and anterior part ot the shoulder, 
below and behind the muscle next mentioned; and its office is to extend the humerus 
on the scapula. It is also attached to the greater tubercle of the humerus, and to a 
bony ridcre extending from it to the capsular-ligament of the shoulder-joint. Its 
action is to assist in flexion of the humerus, and to give it a motion outwards. 

The muscle ;, postea spinatus, behind the spine or ridge, occupies that space ot the 
shoulder, and is inserted into the outer and upper head of the bone. It draws this 
bone outward and upward. n j ji 

At A-, is a muscle common to the breast and the shoulder-blade, and called the pec- 
toralis parvus. It arises from the breast-bone, and reaches to the covering ot the 
shoulder-joint, and the muscles of the shoulder. Its action, in common with that ot 
a larcrer muscle, seen at r/», the great pectoral, is to draw the head of the shoulder back- 
ward", and also the lower part of the shoulder-blade, and to give the latter a more up- 

right position. ^ , 

At 0, is the tendon of a very important muscle, the extensor longus ot the arm, 
reaching from the upper angle and the posterior border of the shou-lder-blade to the 
point of the elbow and the inside of the arm, and which will be presently described. 
At r and s, are the three divisions of another muscle concerned in the same othce, 
Rrisino- from the shoulder-blade and the lower bone of the shoulder, and likewise 
attached to the point of the elbow by a very strong 

tendon. , • -j r *i 

This cut represents the muscles on the inside oS tiie 
shoulder and fore-arm. a is a very prominent one. It 18 
called the pectoralis transversua (the muscle crossing the 
breast). It arises from the first four bones of the sternum, 
and runs across to the inner part of the arm ; it is also 
attached to the inferior part of the body of the humerus, 
and to the fascia covering the arm, and reaching a con- 
siderable way down the arm. The use of this muscle is 
obvious and important. It binds the arm to the side of 
the horse; it keeps the legs straight before the horse 
when he is at speed, that the weight of the body may be 
received on them in a direction most easy and safe to the 
horse and to the rider, and most advantageous for the full 
play of all the muscles concerned in progression. Con- 
sidering- the unevenness of surface over which a horse 
often passes, and the rapid turnings which are sometimes 
necessary, these muscles have enough to do ; and when 
the animal is pushed beyond his strength, and these 
muscles are wearied, and the fore-legs spread out, and 
the horse is " all abroad,'''' the confused and unpleasant 
manner of o-oing, and the sudden falling-off in speed, are 
well known to every rider. Mr. Percivall very properly 
observes, that this muscle has probably more to do m 
enabling the arm to support weight than to give u 
motion. 

THE HUMERUS, OR LOWER BONE OF THE SHOULDER. 

Forming a joint with the shoulder-blade, at the point ^^^^e shoulder, is ttieWrH. 
It is a short, strong bone, slanting backward in an opposite direction to the shoulder 




THE ARM. 201 

olade. At the uppe* part it has a large round head, received into the shallow cavity 
lof the shoulder-blaae ; or, as Mr. Percivall has graphically described it, " ct is the 
segment of a globe, smooth and polished, evidently for the purpose of playing like a 
spherical hinge within the cup-like concavity occupying the place of the apex of the 
scapula. There are no two bones in the skeleton whose articular connexion is of a 
nature to admit more varied and extensive motion than exists between the scapula and 
'the humerus. If we attempt to lift a horse's fore-leg, we cannot merely bring it for- 
ward and backward, but we can also, to a considerable extent, make it perform a sort 
of rotatory motion, in consequence of the mobility existing in this joint between the 
socket of the scapula and the head of the humerus."* It has several protuberances 
for the insertion of muscles, and is terminated below by two condyles, or heads, which 
in front receive the principal bone of the arm between them, as in a groove, thus add- 
ing to the security and strength of the joint, and limiting the action of this joint and 
of the limb below to mere bending and extension, without any side motion. Farther 
behind, these heads receive the elbow deep between them, in order to give more 
extensive action to the arm. In a well-formed horse, this bone can scarcely be too 
short, in order that the fore-legs may be as forward as possible, for reasons already 
stated, and because, when the lower bone of the shoulder is long, the shoulder must 
be too upright. Dislocation can scarcely occur in either of ihe attachments of the 
bone, and fracture of it is almost impossible. The lower bone of the shoulder and 
the shoulder-blade are by horsemen confounded together, and included under the 
appellation of the shoulder, and in compliance with general usage, we have described 
them as combining to form the shoulder. 

Among the muscles arising from the humerus, are two short and very strong ones, 
seen at r and s, p. 259, the first proceeding from the upper part of this bone to the 
elbow, and the second from the internal part, and likewise going to the elbow, and 
both of them being powerful agents in extending the leg. 

In front, at y, is one of the muscles of the humerus, ihe external one employed in 
, bending the arm, arising from the inner and back part of the neck and body of the 
humerus, turning obliquely round that bone, and inserted into the inner and upper part 
I of the bone of the arm. 

THE ARM. 

The arm extending from the elbow to the knee (see K and L, p. 68, and also cut, 

p. 259), consists, in the young horse, of two distinct bones. The long and front 

, bone, called the radius, is nearly straight, receiving into its upper end the lower 

heads of the humerus ; and the lower end corresponding with the upper layer of the 

bones of the knee. The short and hinder bone is called the ulna. It has a very long 

and powerful projection, received between the heads of the humerus, and called the 

i elbow; it then stretches down, narrowing by degrees (see L, p. 68, and the cut, p. 

259) to below the middle of the front bone, where it terminates in a point. The two 

: bones are united together by cartilage and ligament; but these are by degrees 

; absorbed and changed to bone, and before the horse becomes old the whole of the arm 

;, consists of one bone only. 

It will be perceived that, from the slanting direction of the humerus, the weight of 

.the horse, and the violence of the concussion, will be shared between the radius and 

(.the uhia, and therefore less liable to injure either. The circumstance, also, of so 

much weight and jar being communicated to them, will account for the extensive and 

, peculiarly strong union between these bones in the young horse ; the speedy inflam- 

■ mation of the uniting substance and absorption of it, and the substitution of bone, and 

complete bony union between the radius and ulna, in the old horse. The immense 

muscles that are attached to the point of the elbow likewise render it necessary that 

«the union between these bones should be very strong. 

\ The arm is a most important part of the horse, as will be seen when we describe 
i:the muscles that belong to it. The muscles q, r, and s, proceeding from the shouldei- 
,: blade and the humeru's, and inserted into the elbow, have been already spoken of. 
They are the grand agents in extending the arm ; and in ])roportion to the powei 
1 which they exert, will be the quickness and the length of the stride. The strength 
of the horse, so far as his fore-limbs are concerned, principally resides here. Then 

* Veterinarian, vol. xv. p. 307, 



262 THE FORE LEGS. 

there will naturally be a large and muscular arm, and such a formation of the limb, 
and particularly cf the elbow, as will enable these muscles to act with most advantage 

The principle of the lever (referred to at p. 257) is liere beautifully applicable. 
The elbow-joint is the centre of motion ; the whole of the lower part of the leg is the 
weif^ht to be raised ; and the power by which it is to be raised in one act of progres- 
sion, the extending of the limb, is the muscles inserted into the elbow. In proportion 
as the weight is more distant than the power from the centre of motion, as it is in tha 
construction of this limb, so will be the greater degree of energy requisite to be exerted 
Supposing that the weight, taking the knee to be the centre of it, is eighteen inches 
from the elbow-joint — that the limb weighs 60lbs., and that the elbow projects two 
inches from the joint — then an energy equal to nine times the weight, or 54(Jlbs., will 
be needed to move and extend the limb, because the weight is nine times farther from 
the centre of motion than the power is. If in another horse the point of the elbow 
projects three inches from the joint, the weight of the leg remaining the same, only 
six times the force, or SGOlbs., will be required, making a difference in, or saving of, 
muscular action, equal to ISOlbs. in each extension of the arm. If a few pounds in 
the weight of the rider tell so much for or against the horse in a long race, this saving 
of power must make an almost incalculable difference ; and therefore, judges of the 
horse rightly attach so much importance to the depth of the elbow, or the projection 
of the point of the elbow from the joint. 

When describing the proper obliquity of the shoulder, it was stated that the powe! 
was exerted with most advantage in a line perpendicular to the arm of the lever, and 
that the slightest deviation from that line was manifestly disadvantageous. If the 
reader will examine the cut, he will perceive that muscles from the shoulder and the 
bone of the arm take a direction much nearer to a perpendicular line in the long than 
in the short elbow, and therefore act with proportionably greater advantage ; and if this 
advantage from the direction in which the power is applied to that which we gain 
from the increased length of the bone is considered, it will be plain that the addition 
of one-third to the length or projection of the elbow would be attended by a saving of 
one-half in the expenditure of muscular power. There is, however, a limit to this. 
In proportion as the elbow is lengthened, it must move over a greater space in ordei 
to give the requisite extension to the limb ; and consequently the muscles which act 
upon it must be lengthened, otherwise, although the action might be easy it would 
be confined. There must be harmony of proportion in the different parts of the limb, 
but a deep elbow, within a certain range, is always connected with increased power 
of action. 

The elbow is sometimes fractured. If the animal is placed in the hands of a skilful 
veterinarian, although the chances of cure are certainly against the horse, yet the 
owner needs not to despair. The treatment of fracture of the elbow-joint will be con- 
sidered in its proper place. 

Enlargements sometimes appear about the elbow, either the consequence of a violent 
blow, or from the calkins of the shoes injuring this part when the horse sleeps with 
his legs doubled under him. If a seton is passed through the tumour, it will some- 
times rapidly diminish, and even disappear; but if it is of considerable magnitude, 
the skin should be opened along the middle of the swelling, and the tumour dissected 
out. 

The elbow-joint is sometimes punctured, either accidentally, or through the brutality 
of the groom or carter. The swelling is often rapid and extensive, and fatal inflam- 
mation may ensue. Rest, and the closure of the wound, are the most important 
considerations. 

There are other muscles of the fore-arm employed in extending the limb. At x 
page 259, is the principal one, called the eoctemur melacarpi. It is attached superiorly 
.0 the outer and fore parts of the externa] condyle of the humerus, and also to the 
capsular ligament, and inferiorly to the antero-superior part of tlie great metacarpal 
bone. Its superior attachments are principally fleshy, with a few tendinous fibres 
interposed. These diminish towards the centre, but a little lower down is a tendon, 
round at its origin, but gradually grow ing flat and expanding in breadth towards its 
termination. Its office is to extend the h g. 

Tne next muscle in situation and iniprrtance is seen at w, and called the extensor 
pedis. It rises from the fore part of the c> trrnal condyle of the humerus, and pursues 
its course down the leg, and expanding after it has passed the fetlock, it serves tl 



THE ARM. 263 

purpose of a capsular ligament, covering and adhering to the pastern joints. Its office 
is to extend the foot and pasterns, and, at the same time, to assist in the exumsion of 
the knee. 

At w, page 259, is the tendon of another extensor muscle, and at r a curious oblique 
one, passing over the tendon of .r, confining it in its situation, and likewise assisting 
in extending or straightening the leg. 

The muscles employed in bending the leg are both numerous and powerful. Two 
of the superficial ones are given in the cut, page 260. The first is at t, page 259 ; 
it is also seen at b, page 259. It is called the Jlexor medius melacarpi, because its 
office is to bend the leg. The other is seen at v, page 259. It is called the Jlexor 
metacarpi exlernus, and is also designed to flex the leg. 

The internal flexor is seen at e. Its office is also to bend the leg. 

A portion of one of the most powerful of the flexor muscles, and powerful indeed 
they must be, is delineated at c, page 259. It is the Jlexor brackii. It rises from the 
extremity of the ridge of the shoulder-blade in the form of a large and round tendon, 
which runs between two prominences in the upper part of the front of the lower bone 
of the shoulder, and in as perfect a groove or pulley as art ever contrived. This 
groove is lined with smooth cartilage ; and between it and the tendon there is a secre- 
tion of oily fluid, so that the tendon may play freely in the pully without friction. 
Having escaped from this pully, and passed the head of the lower bone of the shoul- 
der, the cord swells out into a round fleshy body, still containing many tendinous 
fibres. Deeply seated, it contributes materially to the bulk of the front of the arm, 
and is inserted into the head and neck of the bone of the arm, and likewise into the 
capsular ligament of the elbow-joint. It is the muscle by which, almost alone, the 
whole of the leg below the arm is bent, and carried forward and upward. 

It acts at great disadvti;:tage. It is inserted into the very head of the bone of the 
arm, and expanded even upon the joint. Then the power is applied almost close to 
the centre of motion, while the weight to be raised is far distant from it. The power 
is thirty times nearer the centre of motion than is the weight; and, calculating as 
before, the weight of the arm and the rest of the limb at COlbs., it must act with a 
force of thirty times sixty, or ISOOlbs. In addition to this, the line of the direction of the 
force strangely deviates l''rom a perpendicular. The direction of the muscle is nearly 
the same as that of the limb, and the mechanical disadvantage is almost incalculably 
great. If it is calculated at only ten times more, this muscle, and its feeble coadju- 
tors, act with a force often times 1800, or 18,0001bs. 

"Why this almost incredible expenditure of muscular power 1 That the beauty of 
the limb might be preserved, and the joint be compact. If the tendon had been 
inserted half-way down the arm, the elbow-joint would have offered a very unsightly 
appearance. 

Beauty of form, however, is the least result of this conformation. Extensive and 
rapid motion are among the excellences of the horse. He is valuable in proportion 
as he has them combined with stoutness; and by this conformation of the limb could 
he alone obtain them. Therefore the tendon is at first unusually strong; it plays 
through the natural but perfect pulley of the bone of the arm without friction; the 
body of the muscle is mixed with tendinous fibres, and the insertion into the fore-arm 
is very extensive, lest the application of such immense force should tear it from its 
adhesions. There is sufficient strength in the apparatus ; the power may be safely 
applied at this mechanical disadvantage; and it is applied close to the joint to give 
an extent and rapidity of motion which could not otherwise have been obtained, and 
without which the horse would have been comparatively useless. 

At the back of the arm are other flexor muscles of great power, to bend the lower 
portions of the limb. Two of them have been described belonging to the arm and 
the leg, and some very peculiar ones acting on the feet must not be omitted. Only a 
small portion of one of them can be seen in our cut, p. 259, at 1. 

The first is the Jlexor pedis perforaius. It is deeply seated in the posterior part of 
the arm, where, with the perforans, it forms a thick fleshy mass, the tendons issu 
ing from which are adapted to the convexity and concavity of each other. As it 
descends along the bone of the arm, it becomes tendinous ; an-d, approaching the 
knee, it is boimd down by arches or bands of ligament, that it may not start in sud- 
den and violent action. Proceeding from the knee, it widens, and partly wraps 
rounl the tendon of the perforating muscle, and they run down together in CDntacl 



264 THE FORE LEGH. 

yet not adhering; freely playing over each other, and a mucous fluid obviating all 
friction. Both of them are inclosed in a sheath of dense cellular substance, attached 
to them by numerous fibrils ; and they are likevv^ise supported by various ligamentous 
expansions. 

Near the fetlock the tendon still further expands, and forms a complete ring round 
the tendon of the perforating muscle. This is seen at J, p. 113. The use of this 
will be best explained when the fetlock is treated of. 

The perforated tendon soon afterwards divides, and is inserted into the smaller 
and larger pastern bones, and serves to flex or bend the fetlock and joints, as it had 
previously assisted in the flexion of the knee. 

The. fexor perforans mvsde has nearly the same origin as the perforatus; but it 
continues muscular farther down the arm than it, and lies before it. At the knee its 
tendon passes, like the perforatus, under strong ligamentary arches, which confine it 
in its situation. It then becomes round, and is partly enveloped in the perforatus, 
and at the fetlock is entirely surrounded by it. It emerges from the perforatus when 
that tendon divides, and continues its progress alone after the other has inserted itself 
into the pasterns, and, passing over the navicular bone, is broadly implanted into the 
posterior cavity of the foot. 

It is sufficiently plain that the arm should be large and muscular, otherwise it could 
not discharge all these duties. Horsemen differ on a variety of other points, but here 
they are agreed. A full and swelling fore-arm is the characteristic of every thorough- 
bred horse. Whatever other good points the animal may possess, if the arm is nar- 
row in front and near the shoulder, flat on the side, and altogether deficient in mus- 
cular appearance, that horse is radically defective. He can neither raise his knee for 
rapid action, nor throw his legs sufficiently forward. 

The arm should likewise be long. In proportion to the length of the muscle is 
the degree of contraction of which it is capable; and in proportion also to the degree 
of contraction will be the extent of motion in the limb beneath. A racer, with a 
short arm, would be sadly deficient in stride ; a hunter, with the same defect, would 
not be able to double his legs well under him in the leap. There is, however, a 
medium in this, and the advantage of length in the arm will depend on the use to 
which the horse is applied. The lady's horse, the cavalry horse, every horse in 
which prancing action is esteemed a beauty, and in which utility is, to a certain 
degree, sacrificed to appearance, must not be too long in the arm. If he is long 
there, he will be proportionably short in the leg; and although this is an undoubted 
excellence, whether speed or continuance is regarded, the short leg will not give the 
grand and imposing action which fashion may require. In addition to this, a horse 
with short legs may not have quite so easy action as another whose length is in the 
shank rather than in the arm. 

THE KNEE. 

Tbe Kfue (M, p. 68, and cut, p. 256), answering to the human wrist, constitutes 
the joint or joints between the arm and the shank or leg; and is far more complicated 
than any joint that has been yet considered. Beside the lower heads of the bone of 
the arm, and the upper heads of the three bones of the leg, there are no less than 
six other bones interposed, arranged in two rows, three in each row, and the seventh 
placed behind. 

What was the intention of this complicated structure 1 A joint between the elbow 
and the fetlock was absolutely necessary to the action of the horse. An inflexible 
pillar of that length could scarcely have been lifted from the ground, much less faj 
enough for rapid or safe motion. It was likewise necessary, that the interposing 
joint should be so constituted as to preserve this part of the limb in a straight direc- 
tion, and possess sufficient strength to resist all common work and accidents. Being 
in a straight direction, the shock or jar between the ends of the bones of the arm and 
the leg would be dreadful, and would specdilj- inflict irreparable injury. The heads 
of all bones are covered with elastic cartilage, in order to protect them from injury by 
concussion ; but this would be altogether insufficient here. Six distinct bones are 
therefore placed here, each covered above and below by a thick coating of cartilage, 
<^onnected together by strong ligaments, but separated by interposed fluids and mem- 
branes. The concussion is thus spread over the whole of them — shared by the 
whole of them ; and, by tht peculiarity of their connexion, rendered harmless. 



ROKEN KNEES. 265 

These six distinct bones, united to each other by numerous and powerful ligaments, 
will also afford a far stronger joint than the apposition of any two bones, however 
perfect and strong might be the capsular ligament, or by whatever other ligaments it 
might be strengthened. In addition to the connexion between the individual bones, 
tliere is a perfect capsular ligament here, extending from the bone of the arm to those 
of the leg; and the result of tlie whole is, that the hardest work and the severest 
accidents produce little deformity, and no dislocation in the knee : nor do the shocks 
and jars of many a year cause inflammation or disease. It is an undeniable fact, 
that such is the perfect construction of this joint, and to so great a degree does it 
lessen concussion, that the injuries resulting from hard work are, almost without an 
exception, found below the knee, which seems to escape the injuries of the hock. 
There is a remarkable difference in the effects of work on the knee and the hock. 
The knee is subject to enormous concussion in its strict sense. The hock to a some- 
what different work. The knee altogether escapes bony enlargements and inflam- 
mations of the ligaments, like spavins ; and, what is more remarkable, it also escapes 
the damages to which the anterior fetlock is liable from precisely the same concussion 
as the knee. 

The seventh bone, the trapezium, so called from its quadrangular figure, is placed 
(see M, p. G8) behind the others, and does not bear the slightest portion of the weight. 
It, however, is exceedingly useful. Two of the flexor muscles, already described, 
proceed from the bone of the arm, and are inserted into it; and being thus thrown 
off the limb, have a less oblique direction given to them, and, therefore, according to 
the principle of the lever, act with considerably more power. It is also useful in 
another way. As the tendons of the various muscles descend the limbs, they are 
tied down, as we have described, by strong ligamentous bands : this is particulaily 
the case in the neighbourhood of the joints. The use of it is evident. The exten- 
sor tendons, which lie principally on the front of the leg, are prevented from starting 
and strengthened and assisted in their action ; but the flexor tendons which are at the 
back would be liable to friction, and their motion impeded, if they were bound down 
too tightly. This projecting bone prevents the annular or ring-like ligament from 
pressing too closely on the main flexor tendons of the foot; and, while it leaves them 
room to play, leaves room likewise for a little bag filled with mucus to surround them, 
which mpcus oozing slowly out, supplies the course of the tendons with a fluid that 
prevents much injurious friction. 

The knee should be broad. It should present a very considerable width, compared 
with the arm above, or the shank below. In proportion to the breadth of the kneo 
is the space for the attachment of muscles, and for the accumulation of ligamentous 
expansions and bands. In proportion to the breadth of the knee there will be more 
strength ; and likewise the direction of some muscles will be less oblique, and the 
course of others will be more removed from the centre of motion, in either of which 
cases much power will be gained. 

BROKEN KNEES. 

The treatment of broken knees is a subject of considerable importance, for many 
horses are sadly blemished, and others are destroyed, by wounds in the knee-joint. 
The horse, when falling, naturally throws his knees forward; they receive all his 
weight and are sometimes very extensively lacerated. The first thing to be done is, 
by very careful washing with warm water, to cleanse the wound from all gravel and 
dirt. It must then be ascertained whether the joint is penetrated. The grating of 
the probe on one of the bones of the knee, or the depth to which the probe enters the 
wound, will too plainly indicate that the joint has been opened. Should any doubt 
exist, a linseed-meal poultice must be applied. This will at least act as a fomenta- 
tion to the wound, and will prevent or abate inflammation ; and when, twelve hours 
afterwards, it is taken off, the synovia or joint-oil, in the form of a glairy, yellowish, 
transparent fluid, will be seen, if the capsular ligament has been penetrated. Should 
doubt remain after the first poultice, a second ought to be applied. 

It having been ascertained that the interior of the joint is not injured, attention 
must be paid to the wound that is actually made. The horse should wear a crsdle 
to prevent his getting at the wound. A stimulating application — the common black- 
oil of the farrier is as good as any — should be lightly applied every day until health-y 
23 2i 



2CG THE FORE LEGS. 

pus is produced on the wound, and then a little friar's balsam will probably effect a 
cure. 

Tiie opening of the joint, however, being ascertained, the first and immediate care 
is to close the orifice ; for the fluid which separated and lubricated the bones of the 
knee being suffered to escape, they will be brought into contact with and will rub 
upon each other; the delicate membrane with which they are covered will be highly 
inflamed ; tlie constitution will be speedily affected, and a degree of fever will ensue 
that will destroy the horse : while, in the mean time, of all the tortures that can bo 
inflicted on the poor animal, none can equal that which accompanies inflammation of 
the membranes lining the joints. 

The manner of closing the orifice must be left to the judgment of the veterinary 
surgeon, who alone is capable of properly treating such a case. It may be effected 
by a compress enclosing the whole of the wound, and not to be removed for many 
days ; or it may be attempted by the old and generally successful method of apply- 
ing the hot iron over the wound, and particularly over the spot where the ligament 
appears to be lacerated. A poultice may then be placed on the part, and the case 
U'eated as a common wound. The surgeon will find no difficulty in determining 
whether the sharp edge of the conunon firing-iron should be used — as would be the 
case if the laceration is considerable, or whether the budding-iron should be resorted 
to. After the use of the cautery, the application of a blister may, in some cases, be 
serviceable. Should the joint-oil continue to flow, the iron may be applied a second, 
or even a third time. By its application, so much swelling is produced on the imme- 
diate puncture, and in the neighbouring parts, as mechanically to close and plug up 
the orifice. 

If, however, the opening into the joint is extensive, and the joint-oil continues to 
flow, and the horse is evidently suffering much pain, humanity will dictate that he 
should be destroyed. The case is hopeless. A high degree of fever will ere long 
sarry him oft', or the inflammation will cause a deposit of matter in the cavity of the 
joint that will produce incurable lameness. 

The pain caused by the iron is doubtless great; it is, however, necessary : but let 
no reader of " The Horse" permit the torturing experiments of the farrier to be tried, 
who will frequently inject stimulating fluids, and even oil of vitriol, into one of the 
most sensible and irritable cavities in the whole frame. 

A person well acquainted with the anatomy of the part will judge of the proba- 
bility of a favourable result, not merely by the extent, but by the situation of the 
wound. If it is low down, and opposite to the bottom row of the bones of the knee, 
a small opening into the joint will be easily closed. A larger one needs not to cause 
despair, because there is little motion between the lower row and the bones of the 
leg. If it is high up, there is more danger, because there is more motion. If it is 
situated opposite to the union of the two rows, the result is most to be dreaded, be- 
cause between these is the principal motion of the joint, and that motion will not 
only disunite and irritate the external wound, but cause a dreadful friction between 
the bones brought into actual contact with each other, through the loss of the joint- 
oil. 

Among the various meilu ds of treating opened knee-joint, where the lesion is very 
considerable, is one introduced by Mr. Turner, of Croydon, which must not be passed 
over in silence. The wound having been cleansed, a paste is prepared composed of 
wheaten flour and table-beer, which are stirred together and boiled for five minutes, 
or until they become of the consistence commonly used by paper-hangers. This is 
spread on the wound, and round the joint, and four inches above and below it. 
Pledgets of tow are passed over this and confined in their places by means of a stock- 
ing, and over the whole is another layer, and another stocking or bandage. This is 
not removed until the joint has closed, and the synovia ceases to flow. On the second 
or third day the bandage will become dry and hard, and cause consideral)le pain. I; 
must not be meddled with before or behind, but four longitudinal incisions may b(- 
made through the bandages on each side, which will sufficiently liberate the joint and 
remove the pam.* 

When the knee has been much lacerated, although the wound may be healed, some 
blemisn will remain. The extent of this blemish will depend on that of the original 

* A full account of this interesting operation may be found in the Veterinarian for 1S29 



THE LEG. 267 

wound, and. more especially on the nature of the treatment that has bten adopted. 
Every caustic application will destroy a portion of the skin, and leave a certain mark! 
Should the blemish be considerable, a mild blister may be applied over the part, after 
the wound has healed. It will stimulate the hair to gi-ow more rapidly and thickly 
round the scar, and particularly hair of the natural colour; and, by contracting the 
skin, it will lessen the scar itself. Many persons have great faith in ointments" that 
are said to promote the growth of the hair. If they have this property, it must be 
from their stimulating the skin in which the roots of the hair are imbedded. These 
ointments usually contain a small portion of blistering matter, in the form of turpen- 
tine, or the Spanish-fly. The common application of gunpowder and lard may, by 
blackening the part, conceal the blemish, but can have no possible effect in quickeninfr 
the growth of the hair. *^ 

In examining a horse for purchase, the knees should be very strictly scrutinised. 
A small blemish on them should not induce us at once to condemn the animal for a 
bad rider, for the merest accident may throw the safest horse. A broken knee, how- 
ever, is a suspicious circumstance, and calls for the most careful observation of the 
make and action of the horse; If it is accompanied by a thick and upright shoulder, 
and legs far under the horse, and low slovenly action, he is unwise wlio does not 
take the hint. This faulty conformation has produced its natural consequence. But 
if the shoulder is oblique, and the pastern of the proper length and inclination, and 
the fore-arm strong, the good judge will not reject the animal because he may have 
been accidentally thrown. 

THE LEG. 

The part of the limb between the knee and the fetlock consists of three bones — a 
large one before, called the cannun or shank, and two smaller or splint bones behind 
(see N, p. 68). The shank-bone is rounded in front, and flattened, or even concave, 
behind. It is the straightest of the long bones, as well as the most superficially 
situated, for in some parts it is covered only by the skin. The upper head is flat, 
with slight depressions corresponding with the lower row of the bones of the knee. 
The lower head is differently and curiously formed. It resembles a double pulley. 
There are three elevations ; the principal one in the centre, and another on each side. 
Between them are two slight grooves, and these so precisely correspond with deep 
depressions and slight prominences in the upper head of the larger pastern, and are so 
enclosed and guarded by the elevated edges of that bone, that when the shank-bone 
and the pastern are fitted to each other, they form a perfect hinge. They admit of the 
bending and extension of the limb, but of no lateral or side motion. This is a circum- 
stance of very great importance in a joint so situated, and having the whole weight 
of the horse thrown upon it. 

The smaller bones are placed behind the larger ones on either side. A slight pro- 
jection of the head of each can alone be seen in front. The heads of these bones arc 
enlarged, and receive part of the weight conveyed by the lower row of the bones of 
the knee. They are united to the larger bone by the same kind of substance which 
is found in the colt between the bone of the elbow and the main bone of the arm; and 
which is designed, by its great elasticity, to lessen the concussion or jar when the 
weight of the animal is thrown on them. They reach from one-half to two-thirds of 
the length of the shank-ljone, and, through their whole extent, are united to it by this 
substance ; but, as in the elbow, from the animal being worked too soon, or too 
violently, inflammation ensues — bony matter is deposited in the room of the 
ligamentous, and a bony union takes place instead of the natural one. There is no 
doubt that the ease of motion is somewhat lessened by this substitution of bone, but 
other elastic principles are probably called into more powerful action, and the value 
of the horse is not perceptibly impaired, although it is hard to say what secret injury 
may be done to the neighbouring joints, and the cause of which, the lameness not 
appearing until a distant period, is not suspected. 

In this process, however, mischief does often immediately extend to the neigh- 
bouring parts. The disposition to deposit bone reaches beyond the circumscribed 
space between the larger and smaller bones of the leg, and a tumour, first callous, 
and afterwards bony,' is found, with part of its base resting on the line of union 
between these bones. This is called a 



26S THE FORE LEGS. 



SPLINT. 



The splint is invariably found on the outside of the small bones and generally on 
the inside of the leg (c, p. 277). Why it should appear on the outside of the small 
bones it is difficult to explain, except that the space between these bones is occupied 
by an important mechanism, which will be presently described; and, as in th6 case 
of abscess, a natural tendency was given to them to determine outward, that vital 
parts might not be injured. The cause of their almost exclusive appearance on the 
inside of the leg adm.its of easier explanation. The inner splint-bone is placed nearer 
the centre of the weight of the body than the other, and, from the nature of its con- 
nexion wdth the bones of the knee, actually receives more of the weight than does the 
cuter bone, and therefore is more liable to injury, and inflammation, and this con- 
sequent deposit of bony matter. The inner boi.e receives the whole of the weight 
transmitted to the small bone of the knee. It is the only support of that bone. A 
portion only of one of the bones rests on the cuter splint-bone, and the weight i? 
shared between it and the shank. In addition to tliis, there is the absurd practice ol 
many smiths of raising the outer heel of the shoe to an extravagant degree, which 
throws still more of the weight of tlie horse on the inner splint-bone. Bony tumours 
occasionally appear on other parts of the shank-bone, being the consequence of 
violent blows or other external injuries, and are commonly called splints. 

When the splint of either sort is forming, the horse is frequently lame, for the 
periosteum or membrane covering the bone is painfully stretched ; but when this 
membrane has accommodated itself to the tumour that extended it, the lameness sub- 
sides, and altogether disappears, unless the splint be in a situation in which it inter- 
feres with the action of some tendon or ligament, or in the immediate neighbourhood 
of a joint. Pressing upon a ligament or tendon, it may cause inflammation of those 
substances ; or, being close to a joint, it may interfere with its action. Splints, theru 
do not necessarily cause unsoundness, and may not lessen in the slightest degree the 
action or value of the horse. All depends on their situation. 

The treatment of splints, if it is worth while to meddle with them, is exceedingly 
simple. The hair should be closely shaved off round the tumour ; a little strong mer- 
curial ointment rubbed in for two days; and this followed by an active blister. If 
the splint is of recent formation, it will generally yield to this, or to a second blister. 
Should it, however, resist these applications, it can rarely be advisable to cauterize 
the part, unless the tumour materially interferes with the action of the suspensory 
ligament, or the flexor tendon ; for it not unfrequently happens, that, although the 
splint may have apparently resisted this treatment, it will afterwards, and at no 
great distance of time, begin rapidly to lessen, and quite disappear. There is also a 
natural process by vi'hich the greater part of splints disappear when the horse grows 
old. 

The hydriodate of potash, made into an ointment with lard, and a small quantity 
of mercurial ointment being added, will frequently cause the disappearance of a splint 
of either sort. 

As for the old remedies, many of them brutal enough — bruising the splint with a 
hammer, boring it with a gimlet, chipping it oflf with a mallet, sawing it off, slitting 
down the skin and periosteum over it, sweating it down with hot oils, and passing 
setons over it — the voice of humanity, and the progress of science, will consign them 
to speedy oblivion. 

Professor Sewell has introduced a new treatment of splints, which is certainly 
ingenious, and generally successful. He removes any inflammation about tlie part 
by the use of poultices or fomentations, and then, the horse being cast, the operation 
is commenced by pinching up the skin, immediately above the bony enlargement, 
witli the finger and thumb of the left hand, and with the knife, or lancet, or scissors, 
making an orifice sufficient to introduce a probe-pointed bistoury, with the edge on 
the convex side. This is passed under the skin along the whole length of the ossifi- 
cation beneath, cutting through the thickened periosteum down to the bone ; and this 
being effectually completed by drawing the knife backwards and forwards severai 
times, a small tape or seton is inserted, and if the tumour is of long standing, kept in 
during a few days. The operation is attended with very slight pain to the animal. 
Perhaps slight inflammation may appear, which subsides in a few days, if fomentation 



SPRAIN OF THE BACK-SINEWS. 2G0 

Is used. The inflammation being removed, the enlargement considerably subsides 
and in many cases becomes quite absorbed.* 

The inside of the leg, immediately under the knee, and extending to the head of the 
inner splint-bone, is subject to injury from what is termed the speedy cut. A horse 
with high action, and in the fast trot, violently strikes this part, either with his hoof 
or the edge of the shoe. Sometimes bony enlargement is the result ; at others, greal 
heat and tenderness ; and the pain from the blow seems occasionally to be so great, 
that the horse drops as if he were shot. The only remedy is to take care that no part 
of the shoe projects beyond the foot; and to let the inner side of the shoe — except the 
country is very deep, or the horse used for hunting — have but one nail, and that near 
the toe. This part of the hoof, being unfettered with nails, will expand when it 
comes in contact with the ground, and contract when in air and relieved from the 
pressure of the weight of the body ; and, although this contraction is to no great 
extent, it will be sufficient to carry the foot harmlessly by the leg. Care should like- 
wise be taken that the shoe is of equal thickness at the heel and the toe, and that the 
bearing is equal on both sides. 

Immediately under the knee, is one of those ligamentous rings by which the ten- 
dons are so usefully bound down and secured; but if the hinder bone of the knee, the 
trapezium, described at p. 206, is not sufficiently prominent, this ring will confine the 
flexor tendons of the foot too tightly, and the leg will be very deficient in depth under 
the knee. This is called being tied in below the knee {b, p. 277). Every horseman 
recognises it as a most serious defect. It is scarcely compatible with speed, and 
most assuredly not with continuance. Such a horse cannot be ridden far and fast, 
without serious sprain of the back sinews. The reason is plain. The pressure of the 
ring will produce a degree of friction inconsistent with the free action of the tendons; 
more force must, therefore, be exerted in every act of progression; and although the 
muscles are powerful, and sufficiently so for every ordinary purpose, the repetition of 
this extra exertion will tire and strain them. 

A more serious evil, however, remains to be stated. When the back sinews, or 
tendons, are thus tied down, they are placed in a more oblique direction, and in which 
the power of the muscles is exerted with greater disadvantage. A greater degree of 
exertion is required, and fatigue and sprain will not unfrequently result. There are 
few more serious defects than this tying-in of the tendons immediately below the 
knee. The fore-leg may be narrow in front, but it must be deep at the side, in order 
to render the horse valuable; for then only will the tendons have free action, and the 
muscular force be exerted in the most advantageous direction. There are few good 
race-horses whose legs are not deep below the knee. If there are exceptions, it is 
because their exertion, although violent, is but of short continuance. The race is 
decided in a few minutes, and, during that short period, the spirit and energy of the 
animal may successfully struggle with the disadvantages of form : but where great 
and long-continued exertion is required, as in the hunter or the hackney, no strength 
can long contend with a palpably disadvantageous misapplication of muscular power. 

As they descend the back part of the leg, the tendons of the perforated and per- 
forating flexor muscles should be far and distinctly apart from the shank-bone. There 
should be space free from thickening for the finger and thumb on either side to be 
introduced between them and the bone, and that extending from the knee to the fet- 
lock. In a perfect leg, and towards its lower part, there should be three distinct and 
perfect projections visible to the eye, as well as perceptible by the finger — the sides 
of the shank-bone being the most forward of the three ; next, the suspensory liga- 
ment; and '.indermost of all, the flexor tendons. When these are not to be distinctly 
seen or felt, or there is considerable thickening about them and between them (d, p. 
277), and the leg is round instead of flat and deep, there has been what is commonlv, 
but improperly, called 

SPRAIN OF THE BACK-SINEWS. 

These tendons are enclosed in a sheath of dense cellular substance, in order to con- 
fine them in their situation, and to defend them from injury. Between the tendon and 
tne sheath, there is a mucous fluid to prevent friction; but when the horse has been 
over-worked, or put to sudden or violent exertion, the tendon presses upon the delicate 

Vide Veterinarian, vol. viii. p. 504. 
23* 



270 THE FORE LEGS. 

membranf" lining the sheath, and inflammation is produced. A different fluid xs then 
thrown out, which coagulates, and adhesions are formed between the ten^'on and the 
slieath, and the motion of the limb is more difficult and painful. At other times, from 
violent or long-continued exertion, some of the fibres which confine the tendons are 
ruptured. A slight injury of this nature is called a sprain of the back-sinews or ten- 
dons; and, when it is more serious, the horse is said to have broken down. It should 
be remembered, however, that the lendon can never be sprained, because it is inelastic 
and incapable of extension ; and the tendon, or its sheath, are scarcely ever ruptured, 
even in what is called breaking down. The first injury is confined to inflammation 
of the sheath, or rupture of a few of the attaching fibres. This inflammation, how- 
ever, is often very great, the pain intense, and the lameness excessive. The anguish 
expressed at every bending of the limb, and the local swelling and heat, will clearly 
indicate the seat of injury. 

In every serious aflection of this kind, care should be taken that the local inflam- 
mation does not produce general disturbance of the system; and, therefore, the horse 
should be bled and physicked. The bleeding may be at the toe, by which an import- 
ant local, as well as general, effect will be produced. The vessels of the heart will 
be relieved, while fever will be prevented. Let not the bleeding be performed in the 
farrier's usual way of first paring down the sole, and then taking out a piece of it 
at the toe of the frog ; in which case a wound is made often difficult to heal, and 
through which fungous granulations from the sensible parts beneath will obstinately 
spring: but, after the sole has been well thinned, let a groove be cut with the rounded 
head of a small drawing-knife, at the junction of the sole and the crust (see z, in the 
next cut, p. 272). The large vein at the toe will thus be opened, or the groove may 
be widened backward until it is found. When the blood begins to appear, the vein 
may be more freely opened by a small lancet thrust horizontally under the sole, and 
almost any quantity of blood may be easily procured. The immersion of the foot in 
warm water will cause the blood to flow more rapidly. A sufficient quantity having 
been withdrawn, a bit of tow should be placed in the groove, and a patten shoe tacked 
on, by which the heels may be raised from the ground, and much tension removed 
from the sinews. The bleeding will, thus, be immediately stopped, and the wound 
will readily heal. 

As a local application, no hot farrier's oil should come near the part, but the leg 
should be well fomented with warm water two or three times in the day, and half an 
hour at each time. Between the fomentations, the leg should be enclosed in a poul- 
tice of linseed-meal. Any herb that pleases the owner may be added to the fomenta- 
tion, or vinegar or Goulard's extract to the poultice ; for the beneficial effect of both 
depends simply on the warmth of the water and the moisture of the poultice. All 
stimulating applications will infallibly aggravate the mischief. 

The horse beginning to put his foot better to the ground, and to bear pressure on 
the part, and the heat having disappeared, the object to be accomplished is changed. 
Recurrence of the inflammation must be prevented, the enlargement must be got rid 
of, and the parts must be strengthened. The two latter purposes cannot be better 
effected than by using an elastic bandage — one of thin flannel will be the best. This 
will sustain and support the limb, while by few means are the absorbents sooner 
induced to take up the effused coagulable matter of which the swelling is composed, 
than by moderate pressure. If the bandage is kept wet with vinegar — to each pint 
of which a quarter of a pint of spirit of wine has been added — the skin will be 
slightly stimulated and contracted, and the cold produced by the constant evapora- 
tion will tend to subdue the remaining and deep-seated inflammation. This band- 
age should be daily tightened in proportion as the parts are capable of bearing 
increased pressure, and the treatment should be persisted in for a fortnight. If, at 
the expiration of that period, there is no swelling, tenderness, or heat, the horse may 
gradually, and very cautiously, be put to his usual work. 

Should there, however, remain the slightest lameness or considerable enlargement, 
the leg must be blistered, and, indeed, it would seldom be bad practice to blister 
after every case of severe sprain, for the inflammation may lie deep in the sheath of 
the tendons, and the part once sprained may long remain weak, and subject to 
renewed injury, not only from unusual, but even ordinary exertion. If a blister is 
resorted to, time should be given for it to produce its gradual and full effect, and 
the horse should be afterwards turned out for one or two months. We must heie 



WIND-GALLS. 271 

be permitted to repeat that a blister should never be used while any heat or tender- 
ness remains about the part, otherwise the sligiitest injury may be, and often is, con- 
verted into incurable lameness. 

Very severe sprains, or much oftener, sprains badly treated, may require the appli- 
cation of the cautery. If from long-continued inflammation the structure of the part 
is materially altered — if the swellinnr is becoming callous, or the skin is thickened 
and prevents the free motion of the limb, no stimulus short of the heated iron w'U be 
sufficient to rouse the absorbents to remove the injurious deposit. The principal use 
of firing is to rouse the absorbents to such increased action that they shall take up 
and remove the diseased thickness of the skin, and likewise the unnatural deposit in 
the cellular substance beneath. The firing should be applied in straight lines, 
because the skin, contracting by the application of the cautery, and gradually regain- 
ing its elastic nature, will thus form the best bandage over the weakened part. It 
should likewise be as deep as it can be applied without penetrating the skin. Here, 
even more particularly than in the blister, time should be given for the full action of 
the firing. This removal of diseased matter is a work of slow progress. Many 
weeks pass away before it is perfectly accomplished ; and, after firing, the horse 
should have at least a six months', and it would be better if he could be given a 
twelve months' run at grass. When the animal has been set to work in a few weeks, 
and the enlargement remains, or lameness returns, the fault is to be attributed to the 
impatience of the owner, and not to the want of power in the operation or skill in the 
operator. 

Farriers are apt to blister immediately after firing. A blister may be useful six 
weeks or two months after firing, if lameness remains ; but can never be wanted 
immediately after the severe operation of the cautery. If the iron has been skilfully 
applied, subsequent blistering inflicts on the animal, already sufficiently tortured, 
much unnecessary and useless pain, and should never be resorted to by him who 
possesses the slightest feeling of humanity. 

In examining a horse for purchase, the closest attention should be paid to the 
appearance of these flexor tendons. If there is any thickness of cellular substance 
around them, that horse has been sprained violently, or the sprain has not been pro- 
perly treated. This thickening will probably fetter the motion of the tendon, and 
dispose the part to the recurrence of inflammation and lameness. Such a horse, 
although at the time perfectly free from lameness, should be regarded with suspicion, 
and cannot fairly be considered as sound. He is only patched up for a while, and 
will probably fail at the close of the first day's hard work. 

WIND-GALLS. 

In the neighbourhood of the fetlock there are occasionally found considerable 
enlargements, oftener on the hind-leg than the fore-one, which are denominated, 
wind-galls (e, p. 277). Between the tendons and other parts, and wherever the ten- 
dons are exposed to pressure or friction, and particularly about their extremities, little 
bags or sacs are placed, containing and suflfering to ooze slowly from them a mucous 
fluid to lubricate the parts. From undue pressure, and that most frequently caused 
by violent action and straining of the tendons, or, often, from some predisposition 
about the horse, these little sacs are injured. They take on inflammation, and sonic- 
times become large and indurated. There are lew horses perfectly free from them. 
When they first appear, and until the inflammation subsides, they may be accompa- 
nied by some degree of lameness; but otherwise, except when they attains great 
size, they do not interfere with the action of the animal, or cause any considerable 
unsoundness. The farriers used to suppose that they contained wind — hence their 
name, wind-galls; and hence the practice of opening them, by which dreadful inflam- 
mation was often produced, and many a valuable horse destroyed. It is not uncom- 
mon for wind-galls entirely to disappear in aged horses. 

A slight wind-gall will scarcely be subjected to treatment; but if these tumours 
are numerous and large, and seem to impede the motion of the limb, they may ba 
attacked first by bandage. The roller should be of flannel, and soft pads should be 
placed on each of the enlargements, and bound down tightly upon them. The band- 
age should also be wetted with the lotion recommended for sprain of the back-sinews. 
The wind-gall will often diminish or disappear by this treatment, but will too fre- 



272 



THE FORE LEGS, 



(luently return when the horse is again hardly worked. A blister is a more effec 
lual, but too often temporary remedy. Wind-galls will return with the renewal of 
work. Firing is still more certain, if the tumours are sufficiently large and annoy- 
ing to justify our having recourse to measures so severe ; for it will not only effect 
the immediate absorption of the fluid, and the reduction of the swelling, but, by con- 
tracting the skin, will act as a permanent bandage, and therefore prevent the reap- 
pearance of the tumour. The iodine and mercurial ointments have occasionally 
been used with advantage in the proportion of three parts of the former to two of the 
latter. 

THE PASTERNS. 




1/ The shank-bone. 
6 The upper and larger pastern-bone. 
I The sessamoid-bone. 
d The lower or smaller pastern-bone. 
e The navicular or shuttlo-bone. 
/The coffin-bone, or bone of the foot. 

"■ The suspensory ligament, inserted into the scssamoid-bone. 

h A continuation of the suspensory ligament, inserted into the smaller pastern-bone. 
J The small inelastic litjament, tying down the sessamoid-bone to the larger pastern-bone. 
k A long ligament reaching from the pastern-bone to the knee. 
I The extensor tendon inserted into both the pasterns and the coffin-bone. 
m The tendon of the perforating flexor inserted into the coffin-bone, after having passed ovei 
the navicular bone. 
n The seat of the navicular joint lameness, 
o The inner or sensible frog. 
p The cleft of the horny frog. 

q A ligament uniting the navicular bone to the smaller pastern, 
r A ligament uniting the navicular bone to the coffin-bone, 
s The sensible sole, between the coffin-bone and the horny sole. 
t The horny sole. 
u The crust or wall of the foot. 
V The sensible laminae to which the crust is attached, 
to The coronary ring of the crust. 

« The covering of the coronary ligament from which the crust is secreteA 
« Place of bleeding at the toe. 



THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS. 273 

At the back of the shank just below the knee, and in the space between the two 
splint-bones, is found an important ligament, admirably adapted to obviate concus- 
sion. It originates from the head of the shank-bone, and also from the heads of the 
splint-bones ; then, descending down the log, it fills the groove between the splint- 
bones, but is not attached to either of them. A little lower down it expands on either 
side, and, approaching the pasterns, bifurcates, and the branches are inserted into two 
little bones found at the back of the upper pastern, one on each side, called the seasa- 
moid bones. (See page 272, and in this cut which represents the pastern and foot, 
sawn through the centre.) The bones form a kind of joint both with the lower liead 
of the shank-bone and the upper jjastern-bone, to both of which they are united by 
ligaments {i and g), but much more closely tied to the pastern than to the shank. 
The flexor tendons pass down between them through a large mucous baa- to relieve 
them from the friction to which, in so confined a situation, they would be exposed. 
The suspensory ligament is continued over the sessamoids, and afterwards obliquely 
forward over the pastern to unite with the long extensor tendon, and downward to the 
perforated tendon, which it surrounds and fixes in its place, and also to the' smaller 
pastern-bone. 

It will be easy to perceive, from this description of the situation of the suspensory 
ligament, why splints placed backward on the leg are more likely to produce lame- 
ness than those which are found on the side of it. They may interfere with the motion 
of this ligament, or, if they are large, may bruise and wound it. 

The principal action of these ligaments is with the sessamoid bones, which they 
seem to suspend in their places, and they are therefore called the suspensory liga- 
ments. The pasterns (see cut p. 272) are united to the shank in an oblique direction, 
differing in degree in the different breed of liorses, and in each adapted to the pur- 
pose for which that breed was designed. The weight falls upon the pastern in the 
direction of the shank-bone, and the pastern being set on obliquely, a portion of that 
weight must be communicated to the sessamoids. Much concussion is saved by the 
yielding of the pasterns, in consequence of their oblique direction ; and the concus 
sion which would be produced by that portion of weight which falls on the sessa- 
moid bones is completely destroyed, for there is no bone underneath to receive it. 
They are suspended by this ligament — an elastic ligament, which gradually yields 
to, and is lengthened by, the force impressed upon it, and in this gradual yielding and 
lengthening, materially lessening, or generally preventing, all painful or dangerous 
concussion. 

If the ligament lengthens, the sessamoid bones must descend when the weight is 
thrown on them, and it would appear that they do so. If the thorough-bred horse 
with his long pasterns is carefully observed as he stands, the tuft at the fetlock will 
be some inches from the turf; but when he is in rapid motion, and the weight is 
thrown violently on this joint, the tuft descends and sweeps the very ground. This, 
however, is from the combined action of the fetlock and pastern-joints, and tlie sessa- 
moid-bones. The sessamoids do not actually descend ; but they revolve, they partly 
turn over. The strong ligament by which they are attached to the pastern-bone acts 
as a hinge, and the projecting part of the bone to which the suspensory ligament is 
united, turns round with the pressure of the weight; so that part of the bone be- 
comes lower. How is it raised again 1 This ligament, strangely constructed as a 
ligament, is elastic. It yields to the force impressed upon it and lengthens ; but as 
soon as the foot is lifted from the ground, and the weight no longer presses, and the 
force is removed, its elastic power is exerted, and it regains its former dimenr,ioi;s, 
and the sessamoid-bone springs back into its place, and by that forcible return assists 
in raising the limb.* 

It may be supposed that ligaments of this character, and discharging such functions, 

* Mr. Percivall very clearly describes this: " Furthermore it seems to ns that these elastic 
parts assist in the elevation of the feet from the ground in those paces in which they are called 
into sudden and forcible action. The suspensory ligament, by its reaction, instantaneously 
after its extension, aids the flexor muscles in bending the pastern-joints. The astonishing 
activity and expedition displayed in the movements of the race-horse at speed, seem to be 
referable, in part, to the promptitude with which the suspensory ligament can act before the 
aexor muscles are duly prepared ; the latter, we should say catch, as it were, and then direct 
the limb first snatched from the ground by the powers of elasticity."— Percivali's Lectures 
on the Veterinary Art, vol. i. p. 334. 

2k 



274 THE FORE LEGS. 

will occasionally be subject to injury, and, principally to strains. Mr. W. C. Spooner* 
D-ives a very satisfactory account of this. He says that "hunters and race-horsef. 
are considerably more liable to lesions of the suspensory ligament than any other 
description of horses. The cliaractcr cf these strains is very rarely so acute as that 
of the tendons. They generally come on gradually with little inflammation or lame- 
ness. Occasionally the injury is sudden and severe, but then it is rarely confined to 
these ligaments, for although they may be principally involved, the neighbouring 
parts are generally implicated. The usual symptoms are a slight enlargement and 
lameness at first, or there may be the former without the latter. The enlargement is 
commonly confined to the ligament below the place of bifurcation, and sometimes one 
division alone is affected. \Vilh the exception of strains of the flexor sinews, this 
unfits more animals for racing than any other cause — indeed horses are rarely or never 
fit for the turf after the suspensory ligaments have been diseased," or for hunting. 

The case being evidently a lesion of the suspensory ligament, nothing short of firing 
will be of service. 

The length and obliquity of the pastern vary in the different breeds of horses, and 
on it depends the elastic action of the animal, and the easiness of his paces. The 
pastern must be long in proportion to its obliquity, or the fetlock will be too close to 
the ground, and, in rapid action, come violently into contact with it. It is necessary 
that the fetlock should be elevated a certain distance from the ground, and this may 
be effected either by a short and upright, or a long and slanting pastern. In propor- 
tion as the pastern is oblique or slanting, two consequences will follow, less weight 
will be thrown on the pastern, and more on the sessamoid, and, in that proportion, 
concussion will be prevented. 

Every advantage, however, has, to a certain extent, its corresponding disadvantage. 
In proportion to the obliquity or slanting of the pastern, will be the stress on the fet- . 
lock-joint, and, therefore, the liability of that joint to injury and strain; and also the | 
liability to sprain of the back-sinews from the increased action and play of the flexor I 
tendons ; and likewise to injuries of the pastern-joints, for the ligaments will be weak 
in proportion to their length. The long and slanting pastern is advantageous in the 
race-horse, from the springiness of action and greater extent of stride by which it ia 
accompanied. A less degree of it is given in the hunter who is to unite continuanc'e 
of exertion with ease of pace. For the hackney there should be sufficient obliquity to 
give pleasantness of going, but not enough to endanger continuance and strength. 
Experience among horses will alone point out the most advantageous direction of the i 
pastern, for the purpose required ; but the slightest observation will show the necessity I 
of considerable variety in the structure of this part. Let the reader imagine the ■ 
heavy dray-horse with his short and upright pasterns contending in the race ; or the 
race-horse with his long and weak pasterns, endeavouring to dig his toe into the 
ground in order to move some heavy weight. The concussion which attends the com- 
mon action of the cart-horse is little, because his movements are slow, and therefore 
the upright and strong pastern is given to him, which he can force into the ground, 
and on which he can throw the w hole of his immense weight. The oblique pastern 
is given to the race-horse because that alone is compatible with extent of stride and 
great speed. Except a horse for general purposes, and particularly for riding, is very 
hardly used, a little too much obliquity is a far less evil than a pastern too upright. 
While the jolting of the upright pastern is an insufferable nuisance to the rider, it is 
mjuriouT and most unsafe to the horse, and produces many diseases in the feet and 
legs, and particularly ringbone, ossification of the cartilages, and contracted feet. 

Strains of the pastern-joint are not so frequent, nor so severe as those of the fetlock, 
but they are not unc irmon, especially in horses with pasterns naturally too upright. 
By car-^less observers they are not so readily detected as in the fetlock-joint, for *he 
increased heat round the pastern-joint may be overlooked. 

The treatment will not differ materially from that of the fetlock-joint. 

LESIONS OF THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT. 

The suspensory ligament is sometimes strained and even ruptured by extraordinary 
itxertiri. The sessamoids, which in their natural state are suspended by it, and from 
which function its name is derived, are in the latter case let down, and the fetlock 

* Mr. W. C. Spooner on the Foot and Leg of the horse. 



THE FETLOCK — GROGGINESS — CUTTING. 275 

tlmobt touches the ground. This is generally mistaken for rupture of the flexor 
tendon; but one circumstance will sufficiently demonstrate that it is tiie suspensory 
ligament which is concerned, viz. : that the horse is able to bend his foot. Ruptun; 
of this ligament is a bad, and almost desperate case. The hofse is frequently lame 
for life, and never becomes perfectly sound. Keeping him altogether quiet, bandaging 
the leg, and putting on a high-heeled shoe, will aflbrd the most probable means of 
relief. 

The common injury to this ligament is sprain, indicated by lameness, and swelling, 
and heat, more or less severe in proportion as th.e neighbouring parts are involved. 
This will sometimes yield to rest and cooling treatment ; but if t!ie case is obstinate, 
it will be necessary to have recourse to the actual cautery. The hunter and the race- 
horse are most subject to lesions of these ligaments — the hunter from leaping the. 
fence, and the race-horse from the violent efforts which -ire occasionally demanded 
from him. In both cases, the neighbouring parts usuall}* share in the injury, and a 
cure is rarely completely effected. 

The means of cure are the same as in lesions of^other joints, but they must be more 
seriously and perseveringly applied. 

THE FETLOCK. 

The fetlock-joint is a very complicated one, and from the stress which is laid on it, 
and its being the principal seat of motion below the knee, it is particularly subject to 
injury. There are not many cases of sprain of the back-sinew that are not accom- 
panied by inflammation of the ligaments of this joint; and numerous supposed cases 
of sprain higher up are simple affections of the fetlock. It requires a great deal of 
care, and some experience, to distinguish the one from the other. The heat about the 
part, and the point at which the horse least endures the pressure of the finger, will be 
the principal guides. Occasionally, by the application of cooling lotions, the inflam- 
mation may be subdued, but, at other times, the horse suffers dreadfully, and is unable 
to stand. A serious affection of the fetlock-joint demands treatmeut more prompt and 
severe than that of the sheaths of the tendons. 

GROGGINESS. 

The peculiar knuckling of the fetlock-joint, and the tottering of the whole of the 
fore-leg, known by the name of gros^ij;77tcss, and which is so often seen in old and 
over-worked horses, is seldom an affection of either the fetlock or the pastern-joints 
simply. Indeed it is difficult to fix on any particular joint, unless it is that which is 
deep in the foot, and where the flexor tendon runs over the navicular bone. It seems 
oftenest to be a want of power in the ligaments of the joints generally, produced by 
frequent and severe sprains, or by ill-judged and cruel exertion. Professor Stewart 
very truly says, that " it is common among all kinds of fast v/orkers, and long journeys 
at a fast pace will make almost any horse groggy. Bad shoeing and want of stable 
care may help to increase, but never can alone produce grogginess. It is one of the 
evils of excessive work."* In the majority of cases it admits of no remedy. 

CUTTING. 

The inside of the fetlock is often bruised by the shoe or the hoof of the opposite 
foot. Many expedients used to be tried to remove this ; the inside heel has been 
raised and lowered, and the outside raised and lowered ; and sometimes orio operation 
has succeeded, and sometimes the contrary ; and there was no point so involved in 
obscurity or so destitute of principles to guide the practitioner. The most successful 
remedy, and that which in the great majority of cases supersedes all others, is Mr. 
Turner's shoe, of equal thickness from heel to toe, alnd having but one nail, and that 
near the toe on the inside of the shoe ; care being taken that the shoe shall not 
extend beyond the edge of the crust, and that the crust shall be rasped a little at the 

There are some defects, however, in the natural form of the horse, which are the 
causes of cutting, and which no contrivance will remedy ; as when the legs are 
placed too near to each other, or when the feet are turned inward or outward. A 

• Stewart's Stable CEconomy, p. 385. 



•276 



THE FORE LEGS. 



horse with these defects should be carefully examined at the inside of the fetlock, and 
if there are any sore or callous places from cutting, there will be sufficient reason foi 
rejecting the animal. Some horses will cut only when they are fatigued or lame, and 
old ; many colts will^cut before they arrive at their full strength. 

A consideration of the pasterns will throw more light upon this and other diseases 
of the extremities. 

The upper pastern bone (&, p. 272, and a in the first figure, and h in the second in 
the following cuts) receives the lower pulley-like head of the shank-bone, and forms 
a hinge-joint admitting only of bending and extension, but not of side motion ; it 
likewise articulates with the sessamoid-bones. Its lower head has two rounded pro- 
tuberances, which are received into corresponding depressions in the lower pastern. 
On either side, above the pastern ioint, are roughened projections for the attachment 
of very strong ligaments, both in capsular ligaments, and many cross ligaments, 
which render the joint between the two pasterns sufficiently secure. 



Fig.l 




Fig. 1. ' 
a The upper pastern. 
6 The lower pastern. 
e The navicular bone. 
d The coffin-bone. 

Fig. 2. 
a The sessamoid bone. 
b The upper pastern. 
c The lower pastern. 
d Tlie navicular bone. 
e The coffin-bone, with the homy laminae. 



The lower pastern (</, p. 272, and b in the first figure, and c in the second in this 
cut) is a short and thick bone with its larger head downward. Its upper head has 
two depressions to receive the protuberances on the lower head of the upper bone, 
bearing some resemblance to a pulley, but not so decidedly as the lower head of the 
shank-bone. Its lower head reseml)les that of the other pastern, and has also two 

Erominences, somewhat resembling a pulley, by which it articulates with the coffin- 
one ; and a depression in front, corresponding with a projection in the coffin-bone. 
There are also two slight depressions behind, receiving eminences of the navicular 
bone. Neither of these joints admits of any lateral motion. The ligaments of this 
joint, both the capsular and the cross ones, are like those of 
the pastern-joint, exceedingly strong. The tendon of the 
extensor muscle is inserted into the fore part, both of the 
upper and lower pastern-bones as well as into the upper part 
of the coffin-bone (/, p. 272) ; and at the back of these bones 
the suspensory ligament is expanded and inserted, while a 
portion of it goes over the fore part of the upper pastern to 
reach the extensor tendon. These attachments in front of 
the bones are seen in the accompanying cut, in which a 
represents the lower part of the shank-bone ; b the sessamoid 
bones ; c the upper pastern ; d the lower pastern ; and e the 
coffin-bone ; / are the branches of the suspensory liga 
ments going to unite with the extensor tendon ; g tha 
long extensor tendon; h ligaments connecting thu two 
pastern-bones together; and i the lateral cartilage? of the 
foot. 




I 



SPRAIN OF THE COFFIN-JOINT — RINGBONE. 



277 



SPRAIN OF THE COFFIN-JOINT 

The projf of this is when the lameness is sudden, and the heat and tenderness are 
principally felt round the coronet. Bleeding at the toe, physic, fomentation, and 
blisters are the usual means adopted. This lameness is not easily removed, even by 
a blister; and if removed, like sprains of tiie fetlock and of the back sinews, it is ap"l 
o return, and finally produce a great deal of disorganization and mischief in the foot. 

Sprain of the coffin-joint sometimes becomes a very 
serious affair. Not being always attended by any 
external swelling and being detected only by heat 
round the coronet, the seat of the lameness is 
often overlooked by the groom and the farrier; 
and the disease is suffered to become confirme<l 
before its nature is discovered. 

From violent or repeated sprains of the pastern 
or coffm joints, or extension of the ligament? 
attached to other parts of the pastern-bones, in- 
flammation takes place in the periosteum, and bony 
matter is formed, which often rapidly increases, 
and is recognized by the name of 

RINGBONE. 

Ringbone is a deposit of bony matter in one of 
the pasterns, and usually near the joint. It rapidly 
spreads, and involves not only the pastern-bones, but 
the cartilages of the foot, and spreading around the 
pasterns and cartilages, thus derives its name. 
When the first deposit is on the lower pastern, 
and on both sides of it, and produced by violent 
inflammation of the ligaments of the joints, it is 
recognised by a slight enlargement, or bony tumour 
on each side of the foot, and just above the coronet* 
(See / in the accompanying cut.) Horses with 
short upright joints, and with small feet and high 
action, are oftenest, as may be supposed, the sub- 
jects of this disease, which is the consequence 
either of concussion or sprain of the pastern-joints. 
It is also more frequent in the hind foot than the 
fore, because, from the violent action of the hind 
legs in propelling the horse forward, the pasterns 
are more subject to ligamentary injury behind than 
before ; yet the lameness is not so great there, 
because the disease is confined principally to the 
ligaments, and the bones have not been injured by 
concussion; while from the position of the tore 
limbs, there will generally be in them injury of 
the bones to be added to that of the ligaments. In 
its early stage, and when recognized only by a bony 
enlargement on both sides of the pastern-joint, or 
in some few cases on one side only, the lameness 
is not very considerable, and it is not impossiblf. 
to remove the disease by active blistering, or by 
the application of the cautery : but there is so much 
wear and tear in this part of the animal, that the 
inflammation and the disposition to the formation 
of bone rapidly spread. The pasterns first become 
connected together by bone instead of ligament 
and thence results what is called an anchylosed or 
fixed joint. From this joint the disease proceeds 
to the cartilages of the foot, and to the unior 
between the lower pastern, and the coffin and 




278 • THEFORELEGS 

navicular bones. The motion of these parts likewise is impeded or lost, and the 
whole of the foot becomes one mass of spongy bone. From a disposition to spread, 
and at first around the pastern-joint, which is situated just above the coronet, the 
disease has acquired the name of ringbone. 

On the preceding page we have introduced a bird's-eye view of some of the principal 
lamenesses to whicli the fore extremities of the horse are subject. 

At a is a representation of the capped hock, or enlargement of the joint of the elbow. 

b is the tying-in of the leg below the knee. 

c is the most frequent situation of splint on the side of the shank-bone, and not pro* 
ducinfr lameness after its first formation, because it does not interfere with the motion 
of the knee, nor injure the suspensory ligament. 

d is the situation and appearance of the enlargement accompanying sprain of the 
back sinews. This, however, is an aggravated case ; and the sprain may be great, 
and the lameness distressing, without all this swelling. 

e is the place of wind-gall. 

/ gives the appearance of ringbone when it first appears on the side of the pastern, 
about the joint, and where there is naturally some prominence of bone. 

o- is the situation of sand-crack in the fore-leg. 

h the situation of mallenders. 

The fore-legs, when viewed in front, should be widest at the chest, and should 
trradually approach to each other as we descend towards the fetlock. The degree of 
width must depend on the purpose for which the horse is wanted. The legs of a 
heavy draught-horse can scarcely be too far apart. His rounded chest enables him to 
throw more weight into the collar; and not being required for speed, he wants not 
that occasionally increased expansion of chest which the circular form is not calculated 
to give. A hunter, a hackney, and a coach-horse should have sufficient expansion of 
the chest, or the legs sufficiently wide apart, to leave room for the play of the lungs ; 
but depth more than roundness of chest is here required, because the deep chest admita 
of most expansion when the horse, in rapid action, and the circulation proportionally 
quickened, needs most room to breathe : yet if the breast is too wide, there will be 
considerable weight thrown before, and the horse will be heavy in hand and unsafe. 

Whether the legs are near to each other or wide apart, they should be straight. 
The elbow should not have the slightest inclination inward or outward. If it inclines 
towards the ribs, its action will be confined, and the leg will be thrown outward when 
in motion, and describe a curious and awkward curve. This will give a peculiar 
rolling motion, unpleasant to the rider and unsafe to the animal. The toe will like- 
wise be turned outward, which will not only prevent the foot from coming flat on the 
ground in its descent, but be usually accompanied by cutting, even more certainly 
than when the toe turns inward. If the elbow is turned outward, the toes will 
necessarily be turned inward, which is a great unsightliness, and to a considerable 
degree injurious, for the weight cannot be perfectly distributed over the foot — the 
bearing cannot be true. There w ill also be undue pressure on the inner quarter, a 
tendency to unsafeness, and a disposition to splint and corn. The legs should come 
down perpendicularly from the elbow. If they incline backward and under the horse, 
there is undue stress on the extensor muscles ; and, the legs being brought nearer the 
centre of gravity, too great weight is thrown forward, and the horse is liable to 
knuckle over and become unsafe. If the legs have a direction forward, the flexof 
muscles are strained, and the action of the horse is awkward and confined. The tow 
should be found precisely under the point of the shoulder. If it is a little more lor- 
ward, the horse will probably be deficient in action; if ii is more under the horse, 
oasifeness will be added to still greater defect in going. 



THE HAUNCH — THE THIGH 278 

CHAPTER Xlfl. 
THE HIND LEGS. 



THE HAUNCH. 

The haunch (see O, p. GS, and the cut, p. 256,) is composed of three bones. Tho 
fust is the ilium, principally concerned in tlie formation of the haunch. Its extended 
branches behind the flanks are prominent in every horse. When they are more than 
usually wide, the animal is said to be ra<rged-hipped. A branch runs up to the spine 
at the commencement of the sacral vertebrai (E), and here the haunch-bones are firmly 
united with the bones of the spine. The ischium, or hip-bone, is behind and below 
tlie ilium. Its tuberosities or prominences are seen under the tail (cut, p. 08). The 
pubis unites with the two former below and behind. 

From the loins to the setting-on of t!ie tail a line should be carried on almost 
straight, or rounded only in a slight degree. Thus the haunch-bones will be most 
oblique, and will produce a corresponding obliquity, or slanting direction, in the thio-h- 
bone — a direction in which, as stated when the fore legs weredescribed, the muscles 
act with most advantage. This direction of the haunch is characteristic of the 
thorough-bred horse ; and by the degree in which it is found, we judge to a considera- 
ble extent of the breeding of the animal. If the bones at D and E, p. 08, take a 
somewhat arched form, as they do in the cart-horse, it is evident that the haunch- 
bone O would be more upright. The thigh-bone P would likewise be so. The stifle 
Qjvould not be so for under the body, ami the power of the horse would be considera- 
bly impaired. The oblique direction of the haunch and thigh-bones, produced by the 
straightness of the line of the spine, does not, as is commonly supposed, afford 
increased surface for the attachment of muscles, but places the muscles in a direction 
to act with great advantage. It is in the advantageous direction, quite as much as in 
the bulk of the muscle, that the strength of the horse consists. 

It will be seen, from the different cuts, that the angles formed by the fore and hind 
extremities have diflerent directions. One points forward, and the other backward. 
The action of the fore legs thus least interferes with the chest, and that of the hind 
'.egs with the belly. 

Width of haunch is a point of great consequence, for it evidently aflTords more room 
for the attachment of muscles ; and even though it should be so wide as to subject 
the horse to the charge of being ragged-hipped, and may somewhat offend the eye, it 
will not often be any detriment to action. If the loins are broad and the horse well 
ribbed home, the protuberances of the ilium can scarcely be too far apart. Many ?. 
ragged-hipped horse has possessed both fleetness and strength, while but few th'a 
were narrow across the haunch could boast of the latter quality. 

The opening in the centre of these bones, which constitutes the passage throug.. 
which the young animal is expelled from the mother, is large in the mare, and in 
eA^ery quadruped, because there cannot, on account of the form of the animal, be any 
danger of abortion from the weight of the foetus pressing on the part. 

The only portion of these bones exposed to injury or fracture are the tuberosities or 
prominences of the haunch. A fall or blow may chip off or disunite a portion of them, 
and, if so, there are no means of forcibly bringing the disunited parts together again, 
and retaining them in their natural position. The power of nature, however, will 
gradually unite them, but that union will be attended by deformity and lameness. A 
charge, or very strong adhesive plaster, across the haunch may be useful, as helping, 
in some slight degree, to support the parts, and hold them together. 

THE THIGH. 

In the lower and fore part of the hip-bones is a deep cavity or cup for the reception 
of the head of the thigh-bone.* Although in the movement of the hind legs there 

* Tliis, ahhoush the true thigh-bone, is so concealed by thick muscles that its shuation and 
shape are not visible to the eye. It is therefore frequently overlooked by horsemen, who calJ 
■he next bone, extending from the stifle to the hock, the thigh. 



280 THE HIND LEGS. 

C'dtinc* be the concussion to Avhich the fore legs are exposed (for the weight of the 
body s never tlirown violently upon them), yet in the powerful action of these limbs 
there is much strain on the joints, and we shall, therefore, find that there are, in all 
of them, admirable provisions against injury. The head of the upper bone of the thigh 
is received into a deep cup (the acetabulum'), by which it is surrounded on every side, 
and dislocation from which would seem almost impossible. But the bony cup may 
o-ive way ? Not so, provision is made against this. All three of the haunch-bones 
unite in the formation of this cup, and the sutures by -which they are held together are 
of such a nature, that, generally speaking, no shock, or exertion, or accident, can dis- 
unite them. There is even something more in order to make the attachment doubly 
sure. In addition to the usual capsular and other ligaments, a singularly strong one 
rises from the base of the cup, and is inserted into the head of the thigh-bone, seeming 
as if it would render separation or dislocation altogether impossible. Such, however, 
is the strange power of the muscles of the hind limbs, that, with all these attach- 
ments, sprain of the ligaments of the thigh, or the ruund hone, as horsemen call it, and 
even dislocation of it, are occasionally found. 

Tiie thigh-bone is both the largest and strongest in the frame. It is short and 
thick, and exhibits the most singular prominences, and roughnesses, and hollows, for 
the insertion of the immense muscles that belong to it. Four prominences, in particu- 
lar, called by anatomists irtichunters, two on the outside, one on the inside, and on 
near the head of the bone, aftord attachment to several important muscles. The head 
of the bone is placed at right angles with its body, by which this important advantage 
is gained, that the motion of the thigh-joint is principally limited to the act of bending 
and extending, although it possesses some slight lateral, and even some rotatory action. 
The lower head of the thigh-bone is complicated in its form. It consists of two 
prominences, which are received into corresponding depressions in the next bone, 
and a hollow in front, in which the bone of the knee or stifle plays as over a perfect 
pulley. 

A short description of the muscles of the hinder.extremities may not be uninterest- 
ing to the horseman. T!ie next cut will contain a few of them. 

The muscles of the hinder extremity are more powerful than those of any other 
part of the frame; therefore an extraordinary provision is made to confine them in 
their respective situations, and thus contribute to their security and strength. When 
the skin is stripped from any part, we do not at once arrive at the nmscles, but they 
are thickly covered by a dense, strong, tendinous coat, intended to confine them to 
theii places. This membrane, called the fascia, is of extraordinary strength in the 
hind quarter, and reaches over the whole of the haunch and thigh, and only ceases 
to be found at the hock where there are no muscles to be protected. If the power of 
the muscles is sufficient to dislocate or fracture the thigh-bone, they need the support 
and confinement of this tendinous coat. When this tendinous band is dissected off, 
another is found beneath, which is represented at «, in the cut at p. 281, raised and 
turned back, larger than the former, thicker and more muscular. It proceeds from the 
haunch-bones to the stifle, upon the fore and outer part of the haunch and thigh, and 
is intended to tighten and strengthen the other. 

Under the part of this flat and binding muscle, which is represented in our cut as 
raised from its natural situation, is a large round one, proceeding from the ilium, not 
far from the cup which receives the upper bone of the thigh, and running straight 
down this bone, and thence its name rectus. It is inserted into the bone of the stifle. 
An inspection of the cut, p. 68, will show that it is so situated as to be enabled to 
exert its great power in the most advantageous way. It is a very prominent muscle, 
and possesses immense strength. It terminates in a tendon, which is short and very 
strong, and which is, before its insertion into the patella, united with the prolongation 
of the tendinous substance at s:, in the cut, p. 282, and also with the tendon of the 
muscle at ?, in that cut, and at c, in that on page 281, and which is properly called 
vastus, from its great bulk. Some have divided this into two muscles : the external 
and internal. The external arising from the outer surface of the upper bone of the 
thigh ; the internal, from the inner surface ; and they are inserted into the upper pa-t 
of the bone of the stifle, both on the inner and outer side. These muscles act af 
consiaerable mechanical disadvantage. They form a very slight angle, not at all 
approaching to a right angle ; but ihej are muscles of immense size, and occupj^ all 
he fore part of the thigh, from the stifle upwards. They are pi^werful extensors of 



THE THIGH. 



281 



the thiarh, and of the hinder leg gene- 
rally ; for they are all inserted into 
the bone of the knee, and that 13 
connected by strong tendons with 
the bone of the true leg. 

On the inside of the thigh are 
several other large fleshy muscles, 
which will be easily recognized on 
the thigh of the living horse. First 
is a long, narrow, prominent muscle, 
the sarturius, d, arising partly from 
the lumbar vertebrae, and extending 
down the thigh — assisting in bind- 
ing the leg, and turning it inward — 
giving it a rotatory motion, and also 
aiding in many of the natural actions 
of the horse. 

Next comes a broad, thin muscle, 
the gracilis, e, occupying the greater 
portion of the surface of the inner 
part of the thigh, and particularly 
the prominent part of it. It arises 
from the lower portion of the 
haunch-bone, and, in its passage 
with the last 



downward uniting 
muscle, is inserted with it into the 
inner and upper part of the tibia. 
It acts with great mechanical disad- 
vantage, but its power is equal to 
the task. It bends the leg, and 
rotates it inward. 

Still, on the inside of the thigh, 
and forming the posterior edge of 
the thigh inwards, and contributing 
much to its bulk, is another import- 
ant muscle, the peclineus. Part of 
it acts with very great mechanical 
advantage, and powerfully flexes the 
thigh on the pelvis, and lifts and bends the leg. It is one of the most effectual of 
the" extensor muscles. Considering the weight of limb which it has to raise an(( 
Ilex, it had need to possess great power. 

We now turn to some of the muscles that are evident to the eye on the outside ot 
the thigh. 

First is the ghdseus exferrius, situated in the middle of the external part of the 
haunch. It is of a triangular figure, attached to the antero-superior and to the inferior 
spines of the ilium, and is inserted into the smaller outer prominence of the upper bone 
of the thigh. Next is the great ghitisus muscle, arising from the spinous and transverse 
processes"of several of the bones of the loins, and from the sacrum, and from the dif- 
ferent edges of the ilium, and inserted into the great protuberance of the upper bone 
of the thfgh (page 68), behind and a little above the joint that unites the thigh to the 
haunch-bone, ft is seen at c, in the cut on the following page. It constitutes the 
upper and outer part of the haunch, and gives that fulness and roundness to it which 
good judges so much admire in the quarters of the horse. It is one of the main 
instruments in progression. When the thigh has been brought forward under the 
body by the muscles already described, the plain action of these glutei muscles is to 
extend the haunch, and force or project the body onward. To effect this, they must 
be very powerful, and therefore they are so large, and rise from such an extensive 
Surface. They ought, also, to act at great mechanical advantage, and so, in one 
sense, they do. Sp'ringing from the loins and the ilium, and the sacrum, they act 
almost m a right, or perpendicular line ; in that line in which we ha^e seen that the 
greatest power is gained. 

24* 21. 




282 



^ T H E HIND LEGS, 



CUT OF THE MUSCLES OF THE OUTSIDE 
OF THE THIGH. 



There is another and smaller gluLtus 
muscle under that which has heen last 
described, arising likewise from the 
back of the ilium, inserted into tho same 
protuberance of the thigh-bone, and 
assisting in the same office. It is not 
visible in the cut. 

These muscles, as Mr. Percivall well 
explains it, are extensors either of the 
femoris upon tiie pelvis, or the pelvi* 
and loins upon the hind quarter. "V\'hen 
the limb has been carried in advance 
under the body by the muscles of the 
anterior femoral region, and the toe 
firmly set down upun the ground, the 
glutei, by extending the haunch, will 
carry the trunk forward ; thus becom- 
ing potent agents in progression, and 
the viaxirmis being the most powerful 
of them. 

In the acts both of rearing and kick- 
ing, these muscles are thrown into vio- 
lent and forcible contraction. In the 
former action, the limbs become the 
fixed points, and the trunk the weight 
moved, and vice versa in the latter.* 

There are also several other muscles 
proceeding from different parts of the 
iiaunch-bones, and inserted about the 
heads of the upper thigh-bone, and per- 
forming the same work ; but there are 
two muscles to which we nmst par- 
ticularly refer. The first occupies the 
outer part of the quarter behind, and is 
beautifully developed in the blood- 
horse; it is found at e, above. It lises 
high up from the bones of the spine, 
from others at the root of the tail, from the protuberances of the ischium (vide cut, p. 
68), and from other bones of the pelvis. It in fact consists of two muscles, but is 
usually described as one muscle with two heads, biceps femoris, the two-headed mus- 
cle of the thigh. It is situated on the postero-external side of the haunch and thigh, 
where, being superficial, it is well marked in the living animal. The two divisions 
of it have an opposite action. The anterior or superior one assists the vasti in extend- 
ing the thigh — the posterior one flexes it. They both, however, co-operate in 
abducting the limb, and also in rotating it forward, the hock, at the same time, turn- 
ing outwards. 

Those muscles alone have been selected which are particularly prominent in tht 
tliorough-bred horse, and are the source of his strength and speed. The ibllowing 
cut, containing one excellence above and many defects below, will not be unaccepta 
ble here : — 

7'he Os Femoris, or Thigh Bone (see P, page 68), is long and cylindrical, taking 
an oblique direction from above, downwards, and from behind, forwards. At its 
upper extremities, and projecting from the body, is a thick flattened neck, terminat- 
iv.7 in a large smooth hemispherical head, adapted to a hollow, or acetabulum, in the 
superior poini of the haunch. 

This bone is commonly called the Round Bone. It has, in some rare instances, 
been dislocated and fractured. It is much oftencr sprained, but not so frequently as 
the groom or farrier imagines. There is nothing peculiar in the lamene^.^ to detect 
injury of this part, except, that the horse will drag his leg after him. Injury ?f the 




Percivall's Anatomy, p. 14S. 



THE STIFLE. 



283 



C'CT OF THE HAUNCH AND HIND LEGS. 



round bone will be principally dL«covered by 
heat and tenderness in the situation of tlie 
joint. 

A part so deeply situated is treated witli 
difficulty. Fomentions should at first be used 
to abate the intlamraation, and, after that, an 
active blister should be ap))lied. Strains of 
this joint are not always immediately relieved, 
and the muscles of the limb in some cases 
waste considerably : it therefore may be neces- 
sary to repeat the blister, while absolute rest 
should accompany every stage of the treat- 
ment. It may even be requisite to fire the 
part, — or, as a last resort, a charge may be 
placed over the joint, and the horse turned out 
for two or three months. 

Proceeding- from the body of the bone is a 
large irregular projection, rising from a kind 
of pyramidal eminence (see p. G8), and into 
which are implanted various powerful mus- 
cles. 

THE STIFLE. 

The inferior extremity presents a pulley- 
like articulatory surface in front, over which 
plays the patella, and two condyles, rounded 
and smooth, presenting inferiorly and posteri- 
orly, and which are received into slight de- 
pressions on the upper surface of the lower 
bone; while in front is a curious groove, over 
which plays a small irregular bone, the pa- 
tella, or stifle bone. The whole is commonly 
called the stijle joint. The patella (Q, p. 68) 
answers to the kneepan in the human subject. 
Some of the tendons of the strongest muscles 
of the upper bone of tlie thigh are inserted 
into it, and continued from it over the lower 
bone. This important joint is hereby much 
strengthened ; for the proper ligaments be- 
tween tlie upper and lower bones, and these 
additional tendons and ligaments from the 
patella, must form altogether a very pow- 
erful union. The patella likewise answers another and even more important purpose. 
The tendons of some strong muscles are inserted into it. When these muscles are 
not in action, the patella lies in the groove which nature has contrived for it; but 
when they begin to contract, it starts from its partial hiding-place, becomes promi- 
nent from the joint, and alters the line of direction in which the muscles act. It 
increases the angle, and thus very materially increases the power of the muscles. 

The lower bone of the thigh is double. The larger portion, in front, extending 
from the stifle to the hock, is called the Tibia. The smaller bone, or fibula, behind 
(see R, p. 68), reaches not more than a third of the way down. It is united to the 
shank-bone, like the splint-bone, by a cartilaginous substance, which is soon changed 
into a bony one. Of the use of these little bones we cannot speak. 

The lower bone of the thigh forms an angle with the upper one, being the reversu 
of that which exists between the upper bone and the pelvis. The object of this is 
twofold, — to obviate concussion, and to give a direction to the muscles favourable to 
their powerful action; and in proportion to the acuteness of the angle, or the degree 
in which the stifle is brought under the horse, will these purposes be accomplished. 
There is much difference in this in different horses, and the construction of this part 
of the frame is a matter worthy of more regard than is generally paid to it. 
Th\s part of the thigh should likewise be long. In proportion to the length of the 




284 THE HIND LEGS, 

niusc]e is the degree of contraction of whicli it is capable ; and also in proportion tc 
the contraction of the muscle is the extent of motion in the limb ; but it is still more 
necessary that this part of the thigh should have considerable muscle, in order that 
strength may be added to such extent or compass of motion. Much endurance would 
not be expected from a horse w ith a thin arm. A horse with thin and lanky thighs 
will not possess the strength which considerable exertion would sometimes require. 
In the cuts p. 281 and 282, the principal muscles of this part of the thigh are deli- 
neated. They are usually somewhat prominent, and may readily be traced in the 
living animal : a very brief notice of them may not be uninteresting. 

The continuation from g, p. 282, is the tendinous expansion given to bind and 
strengthen these muscles. 

n is a very important muscle. It is the principal extensor muscle of the hind leg 
{extensor pedis, extensor of the foot). It commences by a small flat tendon, common 
to it, and the flexor metatarsi. Passing over the tibia it becomes fleshy : but a little 
above the hock it changes to a flat tendon, and pursues its course in front of the hock 
in union with the tendon of the peronacus. On the fetlock joint they disunite. It 
now begins to expand, and is finally inserted into the upper part of the coffin-bone. 
or bone of the foot, after having given various fibres to both the pasterns. The 
course of the corresponding tendon in the hind leg is given in the cut p. 282, fig. /. 
It helps to flex the hock joint, but is principally concerned in the extension of the 
foot, and also the pastern and fetlock joints. 

At Til, p. 282, is another of the extensor muscles, called \he pcronsevs, from a name 
given to the fibula. It arises from the whole course of the fibula, and also becomes 
tendinous before it reaches the heck. About half-way down the shank it is found in 
the same sheath with the principal extensor muscle, and is inserted with it into the 
coffin-bone. Its office is to co-operate with the extensor pedis in raising the foot from 
the ground, and bringing it forward under the body. 

At is the Jlexor pedis, one of the principal flexor muscles of the foot, arising from 
the upper part of the tibia. As it approaches the hock it is distinguished i)y its 
large round tendon, which is seen to enter into a groove at the back of the hock. Its 
tendon passes down the back of the leg like that of a similar muscle in the fore leg. 
It is the perforating flexor muscle of the hind leg, and assists in flexing the pastern 
and fetlock. 

k is a very slender muscle, arising from the head of the fibula, and proceeding over 
the external part of the thigh, and, just above the hock, its tendon unites with that 
of the perforating muscle. 

j is a very powerful muscle, springing from the head of the upper bone of the 
thigh, and, midway down the lower bone of it, ending in a flat tendon, which is 
inserted into the point of the hock. Its use is to extend the hock. It is evidently 
most advantageously situated for powerful action ; for it acts almost at right angles, 
and its effect is increased in proportion to the projection of the point of the hock. 

"We will now turn to the inner side. See cut, p. 281. 

772 gives a portion of the muscle which has been just described. 

n is an inside view of the perforating flexor muscle of the foot. 

/ is the peronaeus. 

o is the flexor perforatus muscle, having its origin from near the lower head of the 
upper b(Qe of the thigh — becoming tendinous as it passes down the thigh — ex- 
panding over and surrounding the point of the hock, and assisting in extending it. 
After this the tendon pursues its course down the posterior part of the leg, in a man- 
ner so much resembling that of similar tendons in the fore leg, tliat it will be suffi 
cicnt to refer to a description of the perforated and perforating flexor tendons at page 
280. 

At e is a continuation of the gracilis muscle, p. 281, over the stifle. 

At h is the extensor pedis, already described, p. 282, with its tendon. 

At i is a muscle used to bend the hock, the Jlexor metatarsi, or bender of the leg; 
arising from the external condyle of the os femoris, and inserted into the large and 
small metatarsal bones. It is a muscle of considerable power, although disadvania- 
geously situated, both as to its direction and its being inserted so near to the joint 
It flexes the hock, the joint turning somewhat inwards. 

At k is a short muscle extending from the upper to the lower thigh-bones Cthe vopA' 
trus), bending the stifle and turning the limb inward. 



THOROUGH. PIN — THE HOCK. 285 

These cuts represent the situation of some of the principal blood-vessek and nerves 
-if the hind extremities. 

In the cut of the inside of the thigh, page 281, p represents the course of the prin- 
cipal artery ; at q are blood-vessels belonging to the groin ; at r is the large cutane- 
ous vein, or the vein immediately under the skin. The principal nerves on the fore 
part of the inside of the thigh pursue their course at i, in the direction of the subcu- 
taneous vein ; and those of the posterior part are seen at s, while at u are those im- 
portant ligamentous bands at the bending of the hock which confine the tendons. 

In the cut of the outside of the thigh, page 282, p will give the course of the an- 
terior arteries and veins ; q that of the principal nerves, and coming into sight below ; 
and r the bands described in the former plate. 

Also, in the cut of the outside of the shoulder and arm, p. 259, the figures 1, 2, and 
3, designate the places of the principal artery, nerve, and vein of the leg; 4 gives 
the subcutaneous vein running within the arm ; and 5 the subcutaneous vein of the 
side of the chest. 

In the cut of the inside of the arm, p. 260, the lines above represent, in the order 
from the front, the principal nerves, arteries, and veins of the shoulder and arm ; and, 
on the muscles, k represents the principal subcutaneous vein of the inside of the arm, 
and i the artery by which it is accompanied. 

The stifle joint is not often subject to sprain. The heat and tenderness will guide 
to the seat of injury. Occasionally, dislocation of the patella has occurred, and the 
horse drags the injured limb after him, or rests it on the fetlock ; the aid of a veteri- 
nary surgeon is here requisite. The muscles of the inside of the thigh have some- 
times been sprained. This may be detected by diftused heat, or heat on the inside 
of the thigh above the stifle. Rest, fomentationSj bleeding, and physic, will be the 
proper means of cure. 

THOROUGH-PIN. 

Mention has been made of wind-galls and their treatment. A similar enlargement 
is found above the hock, between the tendons of the flexor of the foot and the exten- 
sor of the hock. As from its situation it must necessarily project on both sides of 
the hock, in the form of a round swelling, it is called a fhorougk-pin, a, p. 283. It is 
an indication of considerable work, but is rarely attended by lameness. The mode 
of treatment must resemble that for wind-galls. Although thorough-pin cannot, per- 
haps, be pronounced to be unsoundness, it behoves the buyer to examine well a horse 
tliat is disfigured by it, and to ascertain whether undue work may not have injured 
him in other respects. 

THE HOCK. 

This is a most important joint, occasionally the evident, and much oftener the un- 
suspected seat of lameness, and the proper formation of which is essentially connect- 
ed with the value of the horse. It answers to the ancle in the human being. 

The inferior head of the tibia is formed into two deep grooves, with three sharpen- 
ed ridges, one separating the grooves, and the other two c nstituting the sides of 
them. It is seen at a in the following cut. It rests upon a singularly-shaped bone, 
ZT, the astralgus, which has two circular risings or projections, and, with a depression 
between them, answering exactly to the irregularities of the tibia. These are re- 
ceived and mortised into each other. At the posterior part its convex surface is re- 
ceived into a concavity near the base of another bone, and with which it is united by 
very strong ligaments. This bone, c, is called the os calcis, or bone of the heel, and 
it projects upwards, flattened at its sides, and receives, strongly implanted into it, the 
tendons of powerful muscles. These bones rest on two others, the os cuboides, d 
(cube-formed), behind, and the larger cuneiform or wedge-shaped bone e, in front. 
The larger wedge-shaped bone is supported by two smaller ones, /, and these two 
smaller "ones and the cuboides by the upper heads of the shank-bone g, and the splint- 
Dones h. The cuboides is placed on the external splint-bone, and the cannon-bone, 
or principal bone of the leg; the small wedge-bone is principally evident on the inner 
splint-bone, not seen in the cut; and the middle wedge-bone on the shank-bone only, 
g. These bones are all connected together by very strong ligaments, wnich prevent 
dislocation, but allow a slight degree of motion between them, and the surfaces which 
V8 oppose: to each other are thickly covered by elastic cartilage. 



28U 



THE HIND LEGS. 



Considering the situation and action of this joint, the weight and stress thrown 

upon it must be exceedingly great, 
CUT OF THE HOCK. and it is necessarily liable to much 

injury in rapid and powerful mo- 
tion. What are the provisions to 
prevent injury] The grooved or 

t--^ \\\l\)lBiHllf Blllll I 11 ' ''"I'MIt V^^l'^"^^ heads of the tibia and 

■^Ivitfiiilfflllll iill/l II / lllm ^^^ astragalus, received deeply 

into one another, and confined by 
powerful ligaments, admitting 
freely of hinge-like action ; but 
of no side motion, to which the 
joint would otherwise be exposed 
in rapid movement, or on an un- 
even surface. A slight inspection 
of the cut will show that the stress 
or weight thrown by the tibia a 
on the astragalus b, does not 
descend perpendicularly, but in a 
slanting direction. By this much 
concussion is avoided, or more 
readily diffused among the dif- 
ferent bones; and, the joint con- 
sisting of six bones, each of them 
covered with elastic cartilage, and 
each admitting of a certain degree 
of motion, the diminished con- 
cussion is diffused among them 
all, and thereby neutralised and 
rendered comparatively harmless. 
Each of these bones is covered 
not only by cartilage, but by a 
membrane secreting synovia ; so 
that, in fact, these bones are 
formed into so many distinct 
joints, separated from each other, 
and thereby guarded from injur}', 
yet united by various ligaments — 
possessing altogether sufficient 
motion, yet bound together so 
strongly as to defy dislocation. 
When, however, the work which 
this joint has to perform, and the 
thoughtlessness and cruelty with 
which that work is often exacted, 
are considered, it will not excite 
any surprise if this necessarily complicated mechanism is sometimes deranged. The 
hock, from its complicated structure and its work, is the principal seat of lameness 
behind. 

ENLARGEMENT OF THE HOCK. 

First, there is inflammation, or sprain nf the knck-jainf. generally, arising from sud- 
den violent concussion, by some check at speed, or over-weight, and attended with 
enlargement of the whole joint, and groat tenderness and lameness. This, however, 
like other diffused inflammations, is not so untractable as an intense one of a more 
circumscribed nature, and by rest and fomentation, or, perchance, firing, the limb 
recovers its action, and the horse becomes fit for ordinary work. 

The swelling, however, does not always subside. Enlargement, spread over the 
whole of the hock-joint, remains. A horse with an enlarged hock must always be 
regarded with suspicion. In truth, he is unsound. The parts, altered in structure, 
must be to a certain degree weakened. The animal may discharge his usual work 




BOG SPAVIN. 287 

•hiring a long period, without return of lameness ; but if one of those emergencies 
sliould occur when all his energies require to be exerted, the disorganised and 
weakened part will fail. The purchase, therefore, of a horse with enlarged hock 
will depend on circumstances. If he has other excellences, he will not be uniformly 
rejected ; for he may be ridden or driven moderately for many a year without incon- 
venience, yet one extra hard day's work may lame him for ever. 

CURB. 

There are often injuries of particular parts of the hock-joint. Curb is an affection 
of this kind. It is an enlargement at the back of the hock, three or four inches below 
its point. It is represented at d, p. 283, and is either a strain of the ring-like liga- 
ment which binds the tendons in their place, or of the sheath of the tendon's ; oftenlir, 
however, of the ligament than of the sheath. Any sudden action of the limb of more 
than usual violence may produce it, and therefore horses are found to ' throw out 
curbs' after a hardly-contested race, an extraordinary leap, a severe gallop over heavy 
ground, or a sudden check in the gallop. Young horses are particularly liable to it, 
and horses that are cow-hocked (vide cut, p. 283), — whose hocks and legs resemble 
those of the cow, the hocks being turned inward, and the legs forming a considerable 
angle outwards. This is intelligible enough; for in hocks" so formed, the annular 
ligament must be continually on the stretch, in order to confine the tendon. 

Curbs are generally accompanied by considerable lameness at their first appearance, 
but the swelling is not always great. They are best detected by observing the leg 
sideway. 

The first object in attempting the cure is to abate inflammation, and this will be 
most readily accomplished by cold evaporating lotions frequently applied to the part. 
Equal portions of spirit of wine, water, and vinegar, will afford an excellent applica- 
tion. It will be almost impossible to keep a bandage on. If the heat and lameness 
are considerable, it will be prudent to give a dose of physic, and to bleed from the 
subcutaneous vein, whose course is represented at r, p. 281 ; and whether the injury 
•s of the annular ligament, or the sheath of the tendon, more active means will be 
necessary to perfect the cure. Either a liquid blister should be rubbed on the part, 
consisting of a vinous or turpentine tincture of cantharides, and this daily applied 
until some considerable swelling takes place ; or, what is the preferable plan, the hair 
should be cut olT, and the part blistered as soon as the heat has been subdued. The 
blister should be repeated until the swelling has disappeared, and the horse goes 
sound. In severe cases it may be necessary to fire ; but a f\iir trial, however, should 
be given to milder measures. If the iron is used, it should be applied in straight 
lines. 

There are few lamenesses in which absolute and long-continued rest is more requi- 
site. It leaves the parts materially weakened, and, if the horse is soon put to work 
again, the lameness will frequently return. No horse that has had curbs, should be 
put even to ordinary work in less than a month after the apparent cure; and, even 
then, he should very gradually resume his former habits. 

A horse with a curb, is manifestly unsound. A horse with the vestige of curb, 
should be regarded with much suspicion, or generally condemned as unsound. 

Curb is also an hereditary complaint; and therefore a horse that has once suffered 
from it, should always be regarded with suspicion, especially if either of the parents 
has exhibited it. 

BOG SPAVIN. 

The hock is plentifully supplied with reservoirs of mucus, to lubricate the differeni 
portions of this complicated joint. Some of these are found on the inside of the joint, 
which could not be represented in the cut, p. 286. From over-exertion of the joint, 
they become inflamed, and considerably enlarged. They are wind-galls of the hock. 
The subcutaneous vein passes over the inside of the Wk, and over some of these 
enlarged mucous reservoirs, and is compressed between them and the external integu- 
ment — the course of the blood is partially arrested, and a portion of the vein below 
the impediment, and between it and the next valve, is distended, and causes the soft 
tumour on the inside of the hock, called Bog or Bhwd spavin. 

This is a very serious disease, attended with no great, but often peih ^nent lame 
ness, and too apt to return when the enlargement has subsided under medical treat 



288 THE HIND LEGS. 

ment. It must be considered as decided unsoundness. In a horse for slow draught, 
it is scarcely worth while even to attack it. And in one destined to more rapid action, 
the probability of a relapse should not be forgotten, when the chances of success and 
the exuenses of treatment are calculated. 

The cause of the disease — the enlarged mucous capsule — lies deep, and is with 
difiiculty operated upon. Uniform pressure would sometimes cause the absorption 
of the fluid contained in cysts or bags like these, but in a joint of such extensive 
motion as the hock, it is difficult, or almost impossible, to confine the pressure on the 
precise spot at which it is required. Could it be made to bear on the enlarged bag, 
it would likewise press on the vein, and to a greater degree hinder the passage of the 
blood, and increase the dilatation below the obstruction. The old and absurd method 
of passing a ligature above and below the enlarged portion of the vein, and then dis- 
secting out the tumour, is not, in the advanced stage of veterinary science, practised 
by any surgeon who regards his reputation. The only method cf relief which holds 
out any promise even of temporary success, is exciting considerable inflammation on 
the skin, and thus rousing the deeper-seated absorbents to carry away the fluid effused 
in the enlarged bag. For this purpose, blisters or firing may be tried : but in the 
majority of cases, the disease ■will bid defiance to all appliances, or will return and 
Daffle our hopes when we had seemed to be accomplishing our object, 

A horse with bog spavin will do for ordinary work. He may draw in a cart, or 
trot fairly in a lighter carriage, with little detriment to his utility; but he will never 
do for hard or rapid work. 

BONE SPAVIN. 

A still more formidable disease ranks under the name of Spavin, and is an affec- 
tion of the bones of the hock-joint. It has been stated that the bones of the leg, the 
shank-bone, g, p. 286, and the two small splint-bones behind, h, support the lower 
layer of the bones of the hock. The cube-bone, d, rests principally on the shank- 
bone, and in a slight degree on the outer splint-bone. The middle wedge-bone, /, 
rests entirely upon the shank-bone, and the smaller wedge-bone presses (not seen in 
the cut) in a very slight degree on the shank-bone, but principally, or almost entirely, 
on the inner splint-bone. Then the splint-bones sustain a very unequal degree of 
concussion and weight. Not only is the inner one placed more under the body, and 
nearer the centre of gravity, but it has almost the whole of the weight and concussion 
communicated to the smaller cuneiform bone carried on to it. It is not, therefore, to 
be wondered at that, in the violent action of this joint in galloping, leaping, heavy 
draught, and especially in young horses, and before the limbs have become properly 
knit, the inner splint-bone, or its ligaments, or the substance which connects it with 
the shank-bone, should suffer material injury. 

The smith increases the tendency to this by his injudicious management of the feel. 
It is a common notion that cutting, and wounds in the feet — from one foot treading on 
the other — are prevented by putting on a shoe with a calkin on the outer heel — that 
is, the extremity of the heel being considerably raised from the ground. It is not 
unusual to see whole teams of horses with the outer heel of the hind foot considerably 
raised above the other. This unequal bearing, or distribution of the weight, cannot 
fail of being injurious. It places an unequal strain on the ligaments of the joints, 
and particularly of the hock-joint, and increases the tendency to spavin. 

The weight and concussion thus thrown on tlie inner splint-bone, produce inflam- 
mation of the cartilaginous substance that unites it to the shank-bone. In conse- 
quence of it, the cartilage is absorbed, and bone deposited ; the union between the 
splint-bone and the shank becomes bony, instead of cartilaginous; the degree of 
elastic action between them is destroyed, and there is formed a splint of the hind leg. 
This is uniformly on the inside of the hind leg, because the greatest weight and con- 
cussion are thrown on the inner splint-bones. As in the fore leg, the disposition to 
form bony matter having commenced, and the cause which produced it continuing to 
aci, bone continues to be deposited, and it generally appears in the form of a tumour, 
where the head of the splint-bone is united with the shank, and in front of that union. 
It is seen at c, p, 283, This is called bo\e spavin. Inflammation of the ligaments 
of any of the small bones of the hock, proceeding to bony tumour, would equally 
class under the name of spavin ; but, commonly, the disease commences on the pro- 
viso spot that has been described. 



BONE SPAVIN. 2S9 

While spavin is /orming, there is always lameness, and that frequently to a vtry 
great degree: but when the membrane of the bone has accommodated itself to tho 
tumour that extended it, the lameness subsides or disappears, or depends upon the 
degree in which the bony deposit interferes with the motion of the joint. It is well 
known to horsemen, that many a hunter, with spavin that would cause his rejection 
by a veterinary surgeon, stands his work without lameness. The explanation is this : 
there is no reason why an old bony tumour on the outside of any of the bones of the 
hock, free from connexion with the next bone, and from any tendon, should be at all 
injurious; as, for instance, one immediately under e or/, p. 286 : but, from the com- 
plicated nature of the hock, it is difficult, if not impossible, to be quite sure of tho 
place, or extent, from inspection, of the tumour; and, besides, the disposition to throw 
out bone covered by the tumour, may continue and extend to the joint. The surgeon, 
therefore, cannot be perfectly safe in pronouncing a bone spavin to be of no conse- 
quence. Horses with exceedingly large spavins, are often seen that are only slightly 
lame, or that merely have a stiffness in their gait at first starting, but which gradually 
goes off after a little motion ; while others, with the bony tumour comparatively 
small, have the lameness so great as to destroy the usefulness of the horse. There is 
nlways this peculiarity in the lameness of spavin, that it abates, and sometimes dis- 
appears, on exercise ; and, therefore, a horse, with regard to which there is any sus- 
picion of this affection, should be examined when first in the morning it is taken from 
the stable. 

If the spavin continues to increase, the bony deposit first spreads over the lower 
wedge-bones, /, page 286, for these are nearest to its original seat. They are capa- 
ble of slight motion, and share in every action of the joint, but their principal de- 
sign is to obviate concussion. The chief motion of the joint, and that compared 
with which the motion of the other bones is scarcely to be regarded, is confined to 
the tibia a, and the astragalus b, and therefore stiffness rather than lameness may 
accompany spavin, even when it is beginning to affect the small bones of the joint. 
Hence, too, is the advantage of these bones having each its separate ligaments and 
membranes, and constituting so many distinct joints, since injury may happen to 
some of them, without the effect being propagated to the rest. When the bony de- 
posit continues to enlarge and takes in the second layer of bones — the larger wedge- 
bones e — and even spreads to the cuboid bones on the other side, the lameness may 
not be very great, because these are joints, or parts of the joint, in which the motion 
is small ; but when it extends to the union of the tibia a, and the astragalus b — when 
the joint, in which is the chief motion of the hock, is attacked — the lameness is 
indeed formidable, and the horse becomes nearly quite useless. 

Spavined horses are generally capable of slow work. They are equal to the greater 
part of the work of the farm, and therefore they should not be always rejected by the 
small farmer, as they may generally bo procured at little price. These horses are 
not only capable of agricultural work, but they generally improve under it. The 
lameness in some degree abates, and even the bony tumour to a certain degree dimin- 
ishes. There is sufficient moderate motion and friction of the limb to rouse the ab- 
sorbents to action, and cause them to take up a portion of the bony matter thrown 
out, but not enough to renew or prolong inflammation. It cannot be said that the 
plough affords a cure for spavin, but the spavined horse often materially improves 
while working at it. 

For fast work, and for work that must be regularly performed, spavined horses are 
not well calculated ; for this lameness behind produces great difficulty in rising, and 
the consciousness that he will not be able to rise without painful effort occasionally 
prevents the horse from lying down at all ; and the animal that cannot rest well can- 
not long travel far or fast. 

The treatment of spavin is simple enough, but far from being always effectual. 
The owner of the horse will neither consult his own interest, nor the dictates of hu- 
manity, if he suffers the chisel and mallet, or the gimlet, or the pointed iron, or arse- 
nic, to be used ; yet measures of considerable severity must be resorted to. Repeated 
blisters will usually cause either the absorption of the bony deposit, or the abatement 
ar removal of the inflammation of the ligaments, or, as a last resource, the heated 
iron may be applied. 

The accoun*. of the diseases of the hock is not yet completed. It is well known 
that the horse 's frequently subject to lameness behind, when no ostensible cause foi 
25 2m 



290 THE HIND LEGS. 

it can be found, and there is no external heat or enlaro^emeni to indicate its seaJ^ 
Farriers and j'Tooms pronounce these to be aflections of the stifle, or round bone ; or, 
f the gait of the horse and peculiar stiffness of motion point out the hock as the 
affected part, yet the joint may be of its natural size, and neither heat nor tenderness 
can be discovered. The groom has his own method of unravelling the mystery. He 
says that it is the beginning of spavin ; but months and years pass away, and the 
ipavin does not appear, and the horse is at length destroyed as incurably lame. 

Horsemen are indebted to Mr. W. .1. Goodwin, V. S. to Her Majesty, for the dis- 
covery of the seat of frequent lameness behind. The cut, p. 286, represents the two 
•ayersof small bones within the hock — the larger wedge-like bone e, above; and the 
middle /, and the smaller one below, and it will be seen that almost the whole of the 
\veight of the horse, communicated by the tibia o, is thrown upon these bones. The 
cube-bone d does little more than support the point of the hock c. It is then easy to 
imagine that, in the concussion of hard work or rapid travelling, these bones, or the 
delicate and sensible membranes in which they are wrapped, may be severely injured. 
Repeated dissections of horses that have been incurably lame behind, without any- 
thing external, during life, to point out the place or cause of lameness, have shown 
that inflammation of the membranes lining these joints, and secreting the fluid that 
lubricates them, has taken place. 

Mr. Goodwin narrates a very interesting case in corroboration of this account of 
hock lameness. The author of this work had the honour of being present when the 
examination took place. " The patient was a harness horse of unusual perfection, 
both in shape and action, and was a great favourite with an illustrious personage. 
He suddenly became lame behind on the off-leg, but without the least accident oi 
alteration of structure to account for it. He was turned out for a short time, and the 
lameness disappeared. He was then incautiously made to perform his usual work, 
until perfectly incapacitated for it by returning and aggravated lameness. Suspect- 
ing the seat of lameness to be in the hock, although the joint was perfectly unaltered 
in form, he was, three months after the commencement of the lameness, blistered and 
fired, and placed either in a loose place or paddock, as circumstances seemed to re- 
quire. Not the least amendment took place at the end of six months, even in his 
quiescent state, and, after twelve months from the time of his being given up for 
treatment, he was destroyed, his case being naturally considered a hopeless one. 
Ulceration of the synovial membrane was found, taking its origin between the two 
cuneiform bones. These bones had become carious, and the disease had gradually 
extended itself to other parts of the joint. Mr. Goodwin had no doubt that if the 
animal had been suflfered to work on for any greater length of time, necrosis, or an- 
chylosis of every bone concerned in the hock, would have been the result."* — {Vete- 
rinarian, iii. 158.) 

Much more depends, than they who are not well accustomed to horses imagine, on 
the length of the os calcis, or projection of the heck. In proportion to the length of 
this bone will two purposes be effected. The line of direction will be more advanta- 
geous, for it will be nearer to a perpendicular, and the arm of the lever to which the 
power is applied will be lengthened, and thus mechanical advantage will be gained 
to an almost incredible extent. The slightest lengthening of the point of the hock 
will wonderfully tell in the course of a day's work, and therefore it is that the char- 
acter of the OS calcis is of such immense importance. 

The point of the hock is sometimes swelled. A soft, fluctuating tumour appears 
on it. This is an enlargement of one of the mucous bags of which mention has been 
made, and that surrounds the insertion of the tendons into the point of the hock. It 
is termed, 

CAPPED HOCK. 

It is selr'om accompanied by lameness, and yet it is a somewhat serious business. 
for it is usually produced by blows and mostly by the injuries which the horse in- 

* These opinions of the seat and nature of obscure bock-lameness are now maintained b • 
the majority of veterinary surseons, allhough some of them differ a little with regard to the 
articulation that is f^enerally affected, and the manner in which the depressions or excavauons 
on the surface of these hones is effected. In the 10th volume of the '^Veterinarian," are 
Bomc valuable observations on this subject by Professor Dick, and Messrs. Pritchard and 
Spooner. 



MALLENDERS AND SALLENDERS. -SWELLED LEGS. 291 

flicts upon himself In the act of kicking: therefore it is that a horse with a capped 
hock IS very properly regarded with a suspicious eye. The whole of the hock 
should be carefully examined in order to discover whether there are other marks of 
violence, and the previous history of the animal should be carefully inquired into 
Does he kick in harness or in the stall, or has he been lying on a thin bed, or on m; 
bed at all ; and Uius may the hock have been bruised, and the swelling produced ] 

It is exceedingly difficult to apply a bandage over a capped hock ; and puncturina 
the tumour, or passing a seton through it, would be a most injudicious practice". 
Blisters, or iodine, repeated as often as may be necessary, are the best means to be 
employed. Occasionally the tumour will spontaneously disappear; but at other 
times it will attain a large size, or assume a callous structure, tliat will bid defiance, 
to all the means that can be employed. 

MALLENDERS AND SALLENDERS. 

On the inside of the hock, or a little below it, as well as at the bend of the kne*) 
(/i, p. 277), there is occasionally a scurfy*eruption, called malknders in the fore leg, 
and sa/lenders in the hind leg. They seldom produce lameness; but if no means are 
taken to get rid of them, a discharge proceeds from them which it is afterwards 
difficult to stop. They usually indicate bad stable management. 

A diuretic ball should be occasionally given, and an ointment of sugar-of-lead and 
tar, with treble the quantity of lard, rubbed over the part. Should this fail, a weak 
mercurial ointment may be used. Iodine has here also been useful. 

The line of direction of the legs beneath the hocks should not be disregarded. Thn 
leg should descend perpendicularly to the fetlock. The weight and stress will thus 
be equally diffused, not only over the whole of the hock, but also the pasterns and 
the foot. Some horses have their hocks closer than usual to each other. The legs 
take a divergent direction outward, and the toes also are turned outward. These 
horses are said to be Cat or Caw hocked. They are generally supposed to possess 
considerable speed. Perhaps they do so; and it is thus accounted for. The cow- 
hocked horse has his legs not only turned more outward, l)ut bent more under him, 
and this increases the distance between the point of tlie hock and the tendons of the 
perforating muscle : see b, in the cut, page 283. It increases the s;yace which is 
usually occupied by thorough pin, see a, in the same page. Then tl e point of the 
hock, moved by tlie action of the muscles, is enabled to describe a gieater portion of 
a circle ; and in proportion to the increased space passed over by the point of the hock, 
will the space traversed by the limb be increased, and so the stride of the horse may 
be lengthened, and, thus far, his speed may be increased. But this advantage is 
more than counterbalanced by many evils. This increased contraction of the muscles 
is an expenditure of animal power; and, as already stated, the weight and the con- 
cussion being so unequally distributed by this formation of the limbs, some part must 
be over-strained and over-worked, and injury must ensue. On this account it is that 
the cow-hocked horse is more subject than others to thoroughpin and spavin; and is 
so disposed to curbs, that these hocks are denominated by horsemen curbi/ hocks. 
The mischief extends even farther than this. Such a horse is peculiarly liable to 
windgall, sprain of the fetlock, cutting, and knuckling. 

A slight inclination to this form in a strong powerful horse may not be very objec 
tionable, but a horse decidedly cow-hocked should never be selected. 

SWELLED LEGS. 

The fore legs, but oftener the hind ones, and especially in coarse horses, are some 
times subject to considerable enlargement. Occasionally, when the horse does not 
seem to labour under any other disease, and sometimes from an apparent shifting of 
disease from other parts, the hind legs suddenly swell to an enormous degree from 
the hock and almost from the stifle to the fetlock, attended by a greater or less degree 
of heat, and tenderness of the skin, and sometimes excessive and very peculiar lame- 
ness. The pulse likewise becomes quick and hard, and the horse evidently labours 
under considerable fever. It is acute inflammation of the cellular substance of the 
legs, and that most sudden in its attack, and inost violent in it^egree, and therefore 
attended by the effusion of a considerable quantity of fluid into the cellular membrane. 
It occurs in young horses, and in those which are over-fed and little exercised 



2D2 THE HIND LEGS. 

Fomentation, diuretics, oi purgatives, or, if there is much fever, a moderate" bleeding 
will often relieve the distension almost as suddenly as it appeared. 

The kind of swelled legs most frequently occurring and most troublesome is of a 
different nature, or rather it is most various in its kind and causes, and consequences 
and mode of treatment. JSometimes the legs are filled, but there is little lameness or 
inconvenience. At other times the limbs are strangely gorged, and with a great 
degree of stiffness and pain. Occasionally the horse is apparently well at night, but, 
on the followino- morning, one or both of the legs are tremendously swollen; and on 
its beinor touched, the horse catches it up suddenly, and nearly falls as he does so. 
Many horses, in seemingly perfect health, if suffered to remain several days without 
exercise, will have swelled legs. If the case is neglected, abscesses appear in various 
parts of the legs ; the heels are attacked by grease, and, if proper measures are not 
adopted, the horse has an enlarged leg for life. 

The cure, when the case has not been too long neglected, is sufficiently plain. 
Physic or diuretics, or both, must be had recourse to. Mild cases will generally 
yield to their influence; but, if the animal has been neglected, the treatment must be 
decisive. If the horse is in high condition, these should be preceded or accompanied 
by bleeding ; but if there are any symptoms of debility, bleeding would only increase 
the want of tone in the vessels. 

Horses taken from grass and brought into close stables very speedily have swelled 
legs, because the difference of food and increase of nutriment rapidly increase the 
quantity of the circulating fluid, while the want of exercise takes away the means by 
which it might be got rid of. The remedy here is sufliciently plain. Swelled legs, 
however, may proceed from general debility. They may be the consequence of 
starvation, or disease that has considerably weakened the animal ; and these parts, 
being farthest from the centre of circulation, are the first to show the loss of power 
by the accumulation of fluid in them. Here the means of cure would be to increase 
the general strength, with which the extremities would sympathise. Mild diuretics 
and tonics would therefore be evidently indicated. 

Horses in the spring and fall are subject to swelled legs. The powers of the con- 
stitution are principally employed in providing a new coat for the animal, and the 
extremities have not their share of vital influence. Mingled cordials and diuretics are 
indicated here — the diuretic to lessen the quantity of the circulating fluid, and the 
cordial to invigorate the frame. 

Swelled legs are often teasing in horses that are in tolerable or good health : but 
where the work is somewhat irregular the cure consists in giving more equal exercise, 
walking the horse out daily when the usual work is not required, and using plenty 
of friction in the form of hand-rubbing. Bandages have a greater and more durable 
effect, for nothing tends more to support the capillary vessels, and rouse the action 
of the absorbents, tlian moderate pressure. Hay-bands will form a good bandage for 
the agricultural horse, and their effect will probably be increased by previously 
dipping them in water. 

GREASE. 

The physic, or the diuretic ball, may occasionally be used, but very sparingly ; and 
only when they are absolutely required. In the hands of the owner of the horse, or 
of the veterinary surgeon, they may be employed with benefit ; but in those of the 
carter or the groom they will do fir more harm than good. The frequent and undue 
stimulus of the urinary organs by the diuretic ball, will be too often followed by 
speedy and incurable deiiility. If the swelling bids defiance to exercise and friction 
and bandage, the aid of the diuretic may be resorted to, but never until these have 
failed, unless there is an evident tendency to humour or grease. 

Swelled legs, although distinct from grease, is a disease that is apt to degenerate 
into it. Grease is a specific inflammation of the skin of the heels, sometimes of the 
fore-feet, but oftener of the hinder ones. It is not a contagious disease, as some have 
asserted, although when it once appears in a stable it frequently attacks almost every 
horse in it. Bad stable management is the true cause of it. 

Tnere is a peculiarity about the skin of the heel of the horse. In its healthy state 
there is a secretion of greasy matter from it, in order to prevent excoriation and chap- 
ping, and the skin is soft and pliable. Too often, however, from bad management, 
the secretion of this greasy matter is stopped, and the skin of the heel becomes red, 



GREASE. 293 

and dry, and scurfy. The joint still continuing to be extended and flexed, cracks of 
the skin begin to appear, and these, if neglected, rapidly extend, and the heel becomes 
a mass of soreness, ulceration, and fun<nis. 

The distance of the heel from the centre of circulation, and the position of the hina 
limbs, render the return of blood slow and difficult. There is also more variation of 
temperature here than in any otlier part of the frame. As the horse stands in the 
closed stable, the heat of this part is too often increased by its being embedded in 
straw. When the stable door is open, the bee's are nearest to it, and receive first, 
and most powerfully, the cold current of air. When he is taken from his stable to 
work, the heels are frequently covered with mirw and wet, and they are oftenest and 
most intensely chilled by the long and slow process of evaporation which is taking 
place from tliem. No one, then, can wonder at the frequency with which the heels 
are attacked by inflammation, and the difliculty there is in subduing it. 

Much error has prevailed, and it has led to considerable bad practice, from the 
notion of humours flying about the horse, and which, it is said, nmst have vent some- 
where, and attack the heels as the weakest part of the frame. Thence arise the 
physicking, and the long course of diuretics, which truly weaken the animal, and often 
do irreparable mischief. 

Grease is a local complaint. It is produced principally by causes that act locally, 
and it is most successfully treated by local applications. Diuretics and purgatives 
may be useful in abating indammation ; but the grand object is to get rid of the inflam- 
matory action which exists in the skin of the heel, and to heal the wounds, and 
remedy the mischief which it has occasioned. 

The first appearance of grease is usually a dry and scurfy state of the skin of the 
heel, with redness, heat, and itchiness. The heel should be well but gently washed 
with soap and water, and as much of the scurf detached as is easily removable. An 
ointment, composed of one part plumb, diaeet. and seven of adeps suillae, will usually 
fiuppJe, and cool, and heal the part. 

VVhen cracks appear, the mode of treatment will depend on their extent and depth- 
If they are but slight, a lotion, composed plumbi sulph. oij. et aiuminis 3iiij., dis- 
solved" in a pint, of water, will often speedily dry them up, and close them. There is 
sometimes considerable caprice in the application of this lotion, which has induced 
Professor Morton to have recourse to alumen et terebinthinus vulgaris one part each, 
and adeps suillae three parts, made into an ointment. 

If the cracks are deep, witli an ichorous discharge and considerable lameness, it 
will be necessary to poultice the heel. A poultice of linseed meal will be generally 
effective, unless the discharge is thin and offensive, when an ounce of finely-powdered 
charcoal should be mixed with the linseed meal ; or a poultice of carrots, boiled soft 
ind mashed. The efficacy of a carrot-poultice is seldom sufficiently appreciated ia 
«ases like this. 

When the infiammation and pain have evidently subsided, and the sores discharge 
good ma-tter, the calamine ointment may be applied with advantage; and the cure 
will generally be quickened if a very diluted vitriolic or alum solution is applied. 

The best medicine will consist of mild aloetic balls ; gentle diuretics being givea 
towards the close of the treatment. 

After the chaps or cracks have healed, the legs will sometimes continue gorged and 
swelled. A flannel bandage, evenly applied over the whole of the swelled part, will 
be very serviceable ; or, should the season admit of it, a run at grass, particularly 
spring grass, should be allowed, A blister is inadmissible, from the danger of 
bringing back the inflammation of the skin, and the discharge from it; but the 
actual cautery, special care being taken not to penetrate the skin, may occasionally be 
sesorted to. 

In some cases the cracks are not confined to the centre of the heels, but spread over 
them, and extend on the fetlock, and even up the leg, while the legs are exceedingly 
swelled, and there is a watery discharge from the cracks, and an apparent oozing 
through the skin at other places. The legs are exceedingly tender and sometimv-s 
hot. znA there is an appearance which the farrier thinks very decisive as to the state 
of the disease, and which the better informed man should not overlook — the heek 
smoke— X\iQ skin is so hot, that the watery fluid partly evaporates as it runs from the 
cracks or oozes through the skin. 

There will be great dano-er in suddenly stopping this discharge. Inflammation of 
25* 



29-* THE HIND LEGS. 

a more important part has rapidly succeeded to the injudicious attempt. The local 
application should he directed to the abatement of the inflammation. The poultices 
just referred to should be diligently used night and day, and especially the carrot- 
poultice; and when the heat, and tenderness, and stiffness of motion have diminished, 
astringent lotions may be applied — either the alum lotion, or a strong decoction of oak- 
bark, changed, or used alternately, but not mixed. The cracks should likewise be 
dressed with the ointment above-mentioned ; and, the moment the horse can bear it, a 
flannel bandage should be put on, reaching from the coronet to three or four inches 
above the swelling. 

The medicine should he confined to mild diuretics, mixed with one-third part of 
cordial mash ; or, if the horse is gross, and the inflammation runs high, a dose of 
physic may be given. If the horse is strong, and full of flesh, physic should always 
precede and sometimes supersede the diuretics. In cases of much debility, diuretics, 
with aromatics or tonics, will be preferable. 

The feeding should likewise vary with the case, but with these rules, which admit 
of no exception, that green meat should be given, and more especially carrots, when 
they are not too expensive, and mashes, if the horse will eat them, and never the full 
allowance of corn. 

Walking exercise should be resorted to as soon as the horse is able to bear it, and 
this by degrees may be increased to a gentle trot. 

From bad stable management at first, and neglect during the disease, a yet worse 
kind of grease occasionally appears. The ulceration extends over the skin of the heel 
and the fetlock, and a fungus springs from the surface of both, highly sensible, bleed- 
ing at the slightest touch, and interspersed with scabs. By degrees, portions of the 
fungus begin to be covered w ith a horny substance protruding in the form of knobs, 
and collected together in bunches. These are known by the name of grapes. A 
foetid and very peculiar exudation proceeds from nearly the whole of the unnatural 
substance. The horse evidently suffers much, and is gradually worn down by the 
discharge. The assistance of a veterinary surgeon is here indispensable. 

Some horses are more subject to grease than others, particularly draught-horses, 
both heavy and light, but particularly the former, and if they have no degree of blood 
in them. It was the experience of this which partly contributed to the gradual 
change of coach and other draught-horses to those of a lighter breed. In the great 
majority of cases, grease arises from mismanagement and neglect. 

Everything that has a tendency to excite inflammation in the skin of the heel is a 
cause of grease. Therefore want of exercise is a frequent source of this disease 
The fluid which accumulates about the extremities and is unable to return, is a source 
of irritation by its continual pressure. When high feeding is added to irregular or 
deficient exercise, the disease is evidently still more likely to be produced. Want 
of cleanliness in the stable is a fruitful source of grease. When the heels are 
embedded in filth, they are weakened by the constant moisture surrounding them — 
irritated by the acriinony of the dung .and the urine, and little prepared to endure the 
cold evaporation to itvhich they are exposed when the horse is taken out of the stable. 
The absurd practice of w'ashing the feet and legs of horses when they come from 
their work, and either carelessly sponging them down afterwards, or leaving them to 
dry as they may, is, however, the most common origin of grease. 

When the horse is warmed by his work, and the heels share in the warmth, the 
momentary cold of washing may not be injurious, if the animal is immediately rubbed 
dry ; yet even this would be better avoided : but to wash out the heels, and then 
leave them partially dry or perfectly wet, and suffering from the extreme cold that is 
produced by evaporation from a moist and wet surface, is the most absurd, danger- 
ous, and injurious practice that can be imagined. It is worse when the post-horse or 
the plough-horse is plunged up to his belly in the river or pond, immediately after 
his work. The owner is little aware how many cases of inflammation of the lungs, 
and bowels, and feet, and heels follow. After they have been suflered to stand for 
twenty minutes in the stable, during which time the horse-keeper or the carter may 
bo employed in taking care of the harness, or carriage, or beginning to dress the 
horse, the greater part of the dirt which had collected about the heels may he got rid 
of with a dry brush ; and the rest will disappear a quarter of an hour afterwards under 
the operation of a second brushing . The trouble will not be great, and the heels 
will not be chilled and subject to inflammation. 



THE FOOT, 



29b 



There has been some dispute as to the propriety of cuttintr the h?.ir from the heels • 
Custom has very properly retained the hair on our farm-horses. Nature would not 
have given it, had it not been useful. It guards the heel from being injured by the 
inequalities of the ploughed field ; it prevents the dirt, in which tiie heels are cor. 
stantly enveloped, from reaching and caking on, and irritating the skin; it hinders 
the usual moisture which is mixed with the clay and mould from reaching the skin 
ind it preserves an equal temperature in the parts. If the hair is suffered^to remain 

r. the heels of the farm-horses, there is greater necessity for brushing and hand-rub- 

ing the heels, and never washing them. 
Fashion and utility have removed the hair from the heels of our hackney and car- 

iage horses. When the horse is carefully tended after his work is over, and his leo-s 
quickly and completely dried, the less hair he has about them the belter, for then 
both the skin and the hair can be made perfectly dry before evaporation begins, or 
pioceeds so far as to deprive the legs of their heat. Grease is the child of negligence 
and mismanagement. It is driven from our cavalry, and it will be the fault of the 
gentle-nan and the farmer if it is not speedily banished from every stable. 



CHAPTER XIV. 
THE FOOT. 




a The external crust seen at 
the quarter. 

h The coronary ring. 

c The little horny plates lining 
the crust. 

d The same continued over the 
bars. 

c e The two concave surfaces 
of the inside of the horny frog. 

/ That wliich externally is the 
cleft of the frog. 

g The bars. 

h The rounded part of the heels, 
belonging to the frog. 



This smaller cut exhibits, in as satisfactory a manner, the mechanism and struc- 
ture of the base of the foot. 



a a The frog. 
h The sole. 
c c The bars. 
dd The crust. 




* Professor Stewart has the following observations: — "During two very wet winters 1 
nad opportunitv of observing the results of trimming and no trimming, among upwards of 
500 horses. More than 300 of these have been employed in coaching and posinig. or work 
of a similar kind, and about 150 are cart-horses. Grease, and other skin diseases oi the heels 
have been of most frequent occurrence where the horses are both trimmed and washed • they 
have been common where the horses were trimmed but not washed, and there have been 
very few case« where washing or trimming were forbidden or neglected." — Stable CEconumy, 
oage 116. 



296 THE FOOT. 

The foot is composed of the horny box that covers the extremities of the horse, and 
lite contents of that box. The hoof or box is composed of the crust or wall, the coro- 
nary ring and band, the bars, the horny laminae, the sole, and the horny frog. 

THE CRUST OR WALL OF THE HOOF. 

The. crust, or ivall, is that portion which is seen when the foot is placed on the 
•rround, and reaches from the termination of the hair to the ground. It is deepest in 
front, where it is called the toe, measuring there about three inches and a half in 
depth (see cut, p. 297), shallower at the sides, which are denominated the quarters, 
ind of least extent behind, where it is seldom more than an inch and a half in height, 
and is termed the heel. The crust in the healthy foot presents a flat and narrow sur- 
face to the ground, ascending obliquely backwards, and possessing different degrees 
of obliquity in different horses. In a sound hoof the proper degree of obliquity is 
calculated at forty-five degrees, or the fourth part of a semicircle, at the front of the 
foot. When the obliquity is greater than this, it indicates undue flatness of the sole, 
and the crust is said to have " fallen in." If the obliquity is very much increased, the 
sole projects, and is said to be pumiced or convex. 

If the foot is more upright, or forms a greater angle than forty-five degrees, it 
indicates much contraction, and a sole too concave ; and this difference of obliquity 
is often so great, that the convexity or concavity of the sole may be afiirmed without 
the trouble of raising the foot for the purpose of examination. 

It is of some importance to observe whether the depth of the crust appears rapidly 
or slowly to decrease from the front to the heel. If the decrease is little, and even at 
the iieel the crust is high and deep, this indicates a foot liable to contraction, sand- 
crack, thrush, and inflammation. The pasterns are upright, the paces of that horse 
are not pleasant. On the other hand, if the crust rapidly diminishes in depth, and 
the heels are low, this is accompanied by too great slanting of the pastern, and dis- 
position to sprain in the back sinew. The foot, generally, is liable to be weak and 
flat, and bruised, and there is more tendency to the frequent, but obscure lameness, 
of which there will presently be occasion to treat — the navicular-joint disease. 

The crust is composed of numerous horny fibres, connected together by an elastic 
membranous substance, and extending from the coronet to the base of the hoof. It 
differs materially in its texture, its elasticity, its growth, and its occasional fragility, 
according to the state in which it is kept, and the circumstances that are acting 
upon it. 

The exterior wall of the hoof should be smooth and level. Protuberances or rings 
round the crust indicate that the horse has had inflammation in the feet, and that to 
such a degree, as to produce an unequal growth of horn, and probably to leave some 
injurious consequences in the internal part of the foot. If there is a depression or 
hollow in front of the foot, it betrays a sinking of the coffin-bone, and a flat or pumiced 
sole. If there is a hollow at the quarters, it is the worst symptom of bad contraction. 

The thickness of the crust, in the front of the foot, is rather more than half an inch ; 
it becomes gradually thinner towards the quarters and heels, but this often varies to 
a considerahle extent. In some hoofs, it is not more than half the above thickness. 
If however there is not, in the majority of horses, more than half an inch for nail-hold 
at the toe, and not so much at the quarters, it will not appear surprising that these 
horses are occasionally wounded in shoeing, and especially as some of them are very 
unmanageable while undergoing this process. 

While the crust becomes thinner towards both quarters, it is more so at the innei 
quarter than at the outer, because more weight is thrown upon it than upon the outer. 
It is more under the horse. It is under the inner splint-bone, on which so much more 
of the weight rests than on the outer ; and, being thinner, it is able to expand more. 
Its elasticity is called more into play, and concussion and injury are avoided. When 
the expansion of the quarters is prevented by their being nailed to an unbending shoe, 
the inner quarter suffers most. Corns are oftenest found there; contraction begins 
there; sand-crack is seated there. Nature meant that this should be the most yield- 
ing part, in order to obviate concussion, because on it the weight is princinally 
thrown, and therefore when its power of yielding is taken away it must be the first 
U) suffer. 

A careful observer will likewise perceive that the inner quarter is higher than the 




THE CORONARY RING. — THE BARS. 297 

outer. While it is thin to yield to the shock, its increased surface gives it sufficient 
fctrength. 

On account of its thinness, and the additional weight which it bears, the inner heel 
wears away quicker than the outer ; a circumstance that should never be forgotten by 
the smith. His object is to give a plane and level bearing to the whole of the crust. 
To accomplish this, it will be often scarcely necessary to remove anything from tho 
inner heel, for this has already been done by the wear of the foot. If he forgets this, 
as he too often seems to do, and cuts away with his knife or his buttress an equal 
portion all round, he leaves the inner and weaker quarter lower than the outer; he 
throws an uneven bearing upon it; and produces corns and sand-cracks and splints, 
ivhich a little care and common sense might have avoided. 

THE CORONARY RING. 

The crust does not vary much in thickness' (see a, page 995, and J, in the accom- 
panying cut), until near the top, at the coronet, or union of the horn of the foot with 
the skin of the pasterns, where {w, page 272), it rapidly gets 
thin. It is in a manner scooped and hollowed out. It likewise 
changes its colour and consistence, and seems almost like a con- 
tinuation of the skin, but easily separable from it by maceration 
or disease. This thin part is called the coronary ring, x, p. 272. 
It extends round the upper portion of the hoofs, and receives, 
within it, or covers, a thickened and bulbous prolongation of the 
skin, called the coronary ligament (see b, in the accompanying 
cut). This prolongation of the skin — it is nothing more — is 
thickly supplied with blood-vessels. It is almost a mesh of 
blood-vessels connected together by fibrous texture, and many 
of them are employed in secreting or forming the crust or wall 
of the foot. Nature has enabled the sensible laminae of the coffin-bone, c", which will 
be presently described, to secrete a certain quantity of horn, in order to afford an 
immediate defence for itself when the crust is wounded or taken away. Of this there 
is proof when in sand-crack or quittor it is necessary to remove a portion of the crust. 
A pellicle of horn, or of firm hard substance resembling it, soon covers the wound ; 
but the crust is principally formed from this coronary ligament. Hence it is, that in 
sand-crack, quittor, and other diseases in which strips of the crust are destroyed, it is 
so long in being renewed, or growing down. It must proceed from the coronary 
ligament, and so gradually creep down the foot with the natural growth or lengthen- 
ing of the horn, of which, as in the human nail, a supply is slowly given to answei 
to the wear and tear of the part. 

Below the coronary ligament is a thin strip of horny matter, wliich has been traced 
to the frog, and has been supposed by some to be connected with the support or 
action of that body, but which is evidently intended to add to the security of tlie part 
on which it is found, and to bind together those various substances which are collected 
at the coronet. It resembles, more than anything else, the strip of skin that surrounds 
the root of the human nail, and which is placed there to strengthen the union of tho 
nail with the substance from which it proceeds. 

THE BARS. 

At the back part of the foot the wall of the hoof, instead of continuing round and 
forming a circle, is suddenly bent in as in the small cut, in page 29.5, where d repre- 
sents the base of the crust, and e its inflection or bending at the heel. The bars are, 
in fact, a continuation of the crust, forming an acute angle, and meeting at a point at 
the toe of the frog — see a, b, and c, in the smaller cuts — and the inside of the bars, 
like the inside of the crust — see the first and larger cut — presents a continuance of the 
horny leaves, showing that it is a part of the same substance, and helping to discharge 
the same office. 

It needs only the slightest ' onsideration of the cut, or of the natural hoof, to show 
llie importance of the bars. The arch which these form on either side, between the 
frocr and the quarters, is admirably contrived both to admit of, and to limit to its pro- 
per^xtent, the expansion of the foot. When the foot is placed on the ground, and the 
weiffht of the animal is thrown on the leaves of which mention has just been made. 



298 THE FOOT. 

these arches will shorten and widen, in order to admit of the expansion of the quar- 
ters— the bow returning to its natural curve, and powerfully assisting- the foot in 
-egaining its usual form. It can also he conceived that these bars must form a power- 
ful protection against the contraction, or wiring in, of the quarters. A moment's 
inspection of the cut {g, p. 295) will show that, if the bars are taken away, there will 
be nothing to resist the contraction or falling in of the quarters, when the foot is 
exjiosed to any disease, or bad management, that would induce it to contract. One 
moment's observation of them will also render evident the security which they afford 
to the frog {f), and the eflectual protection which they give to the lateral portions of 
the foot. ^ 

Then appears the necessity of passing lightly over them, and leaving prominent, 
when the loot is pared for shoeing, that which so many smiths cut perfectly away. 
They imagine that it gives a more open appearance to the foot of the horse. Horses 
shod for the purpose of sale, have usually the bars removed with this view ; and the 
smiths in the neighbourhood of the metropolis and large towns, shoeing for dealers, 
too often habitually pursue, with regard to all their customers, the injurfous practice 
of removing the bars. The horny frog, deprived of its guard, will speedily contract, 
and become elevated and thrushy ; and the whole of the heel, having lost the power 
of resilience or reaction which the curve between the bar c and the crust d gave it 
(vide p. 295, cut), will speedily fall in. 

THE HORNY LAMINA. 

The inside of the crust is covered by thin horny leaves (c, p. 295), extending al 
round it, and reaching from the coronary ring to the toe. They are about 500 in num- 
ber, broadest at their base, and terminating "in the most delicate expansion of horn. 
They not a little resemble the inner surface of a mushroom. In front, they run in a 
direction from the coronet to the tre, and towards the quarters they are more slantina 
from behind forwards. They correspond, as will be presently shown, with simila'r 
cartilaginous and fleshy leaves on the surface of the coffin-bone, and form a beautiful 
elastic body, by which the whole weight of the horse is supported. 

THE SOLE 

Is under, and occupies the greater portion of the concave and elastic surface of the 
foot (see i, p. 295), extending from the crust to the bars and frog. It is not so thick 
as the crust, because, notwithstanding its situation, it does not support so much 
weight as the crust; and because it was intended to expand, in order to prevent con- 
cussion, when, by the descent of the bone of the foot, the weight was thrown upon it. 
It IS not so brittle as the crust, and it is more elastic than it. It is thickest at the toe 
(see /, p. 272), because the first and principal stress is thrown on that part. The 
coffin-bone, /, is driven forward and downward in that direction. It is likewise 
thicker where it unites with the crust than it is towards the centre, for a similar and 
evident reason, because there the weight is first and principally thrown. 

In a state of nature it is, to a certain degree, hollow. The reason of this is plain. 
It IS intended to descend or yield with the weight of the horse, and by that oradual 
descent or yielding, most materially lessen the" shock which would result from the 
sudden action of the weight of the animal in rapid and violent exercise ; and this 
descent can only be given by a hollow sole. A flat sole, already pressing upon the 
ground, could not be brought lower ; nor could the functions of the frog be then dis- 
charged ; nor would the foot have so secure a hold. Then if the sole is naturally 
hollow, and hollow because it must descend, the smith should not interfere with this 
important action. When the foot will bear it, he must pare out sufficient of the horn 
to preserve the proper concavity ; also a small portion at the toe and near the crust, and 
cutting deeper towards the centre. He must put on a shoe which shall not prevent 
liie descent of the sole, and which not only shall not press upon it, but shall leavt 
sufiicient room between it and the sole to admit of this descent. If the sole is pressei 
upon by the coflin-bone during the lengthening of the elastic lamin<e, and the shot 
will not permit its descent, the sensible part between the coflin-hone and the horn wif 
necessarily he bruised, and inflammation and lameness will ensue. It is from this 
cause, that if a stone insinuates itself between the shoe and the sole, it produces s.) 
much lameness. Of the too great concavity of the sole, or the want cf concavity \\\ 
it, we shall treat when we arrive at diseases of the foot. 



THE FROG. 290 



THE FROG. 



In the space between the bars, and accurately filling it, is the frog. It is a trian- 
gular portion of horn, projecting from the sole, almost on a level with the crust and 
covering and defending a soft and elastic substance called the sensible frog. It is 
wide at the heels, and there extending beyond a portion of the crust ; narrowing 
rapidly when it begins to be confined between the bars, and terminating in a point at 
somewhat more than half the distance from the heel to the toe. It consists of two 
rounded or projecting surfaces, with a fissure or cleft between them, reaching half- 
way down the frog, and the two portions again uniting to form the point or toe of the 
frog. 

The frog is firmly united to the sole, but it is perfectly distinct from it. It is of a 
ditTerent nature, being softer, and far more elastic ; and it is secreted from a different 
.surface, for it is thrown out from the substance which it covers. It very much 
resembles a wedge, with the sharp point forwards ; and it is placed towards the back 
part of the foot. The foot is seldom put flush and flat upon the ground, but in a 
direction downwards, yet somewhat forwards ; then the frog evidently gives safety to 
the tread of the animal, for it occasionally ploughs itself into the ground, and pre- 
vents the horse from slipping. This is of considerable conseqnence, when some of 
the paces of the horse are recollected, in which his heels evidently come first to the 
ground, and in which the danger from slipping would be very great. Reference needs 
only be made to the gallop, as illustrative of this. 

The frog being placed at, and filling the hinder part of the foot, discharges a por- 
tion of the duty sustained by the crust ; for it supports the weight cf the animal. It 
assists, likewise, and that to a material degree, in the expansion of the foot. It is 
formed internally of two prominences on the sides (see a, p. 295), and a cleft in the 
centre, presenting two concavities with a sharp projection in the middle, and a gradu- 
ally rounded one on each side. It is also composed of a substance peculiarly flexible 
and elastic. What can be so well adapted for the expansion of the foot, when a por- 
tion of the weight of the body is thrown on it] How easily will these irregular sur- 
faces yield and spread out, and how readily return again to their natural state ! In 
this view, therefore, the horny frog is a powerful agent in opening the foot; and the 
diminution of the substance of the frog, and its elevation above the ground, are both 
the cause and the consequence of contraction — the cause, as being able no longej 
powerfully to act in expanding the heels ; and the consequence, as obeying a law of 
nature, by which that which no longer discharges its natural function is gradually 
removed. It is, however, the cover and defence of the internal and sensible frog, 
which will be presently treated of; enough, however, has been said to show the 
absurdity of the common practice of unsparingly cutting it away. In order to dis- 
charge, in any degree, some of the offices which we have assigned to it, and fully to 
discharge even one of them, it must come in occasional contact with the ground. In 
the unshod horse, it is constantly so : but the additional support given by the shoes, 
and more especially the hard roads over which the horse is now compelled to travel, 
render this complete exposure of the frog to the ground not only unnecessary, but 
injurious. Being of so much softer consistence than the rest of the foot, it would be 
speedily worn away : occasional pressure, however, or contact with the ground, it 
must have. 

The rough and detached parts should be cut off at each shoeing, and the substance 
jf the frog itself, so as to bring it just above or within the level of the shoe. It will 
then, in the descent of the sole, when the weight of the horse is thrown upon it in 
the putting down of the foot, descend likewise, and pressing upon the ground, do its 
duty; while it will be defended from the wear, and bruise, and injury that it would 
receive if it came upon the ground with the first and full shock of the w-eight. This 
will be the proper guide to the smith in shoeing, and to the proprietor in the direc- 
tion which he gives. The latter should often look to this, for it is a point of very 
great moment. A few smiths carry the notion of fmg pressure to an absurd extent 
and leave the frog beyond the level of the sole,— a practice which is dangerous in 
the horse of slow draught, and destructive to the hackney or the hunter; but the 
majority of them err in a contrary way, and, cutting off too much of the frog, lift ii 
above the ground, and destroy its principal use. It should be left just above, or within 
ihe level a* the shoe 



:^00 THE FOOT. 

THE COFFIN-BONE. 

The interior part of the foot must now be considered. The lower pastern, a smal! 
portion of which (see rf, nage 272) is contained in the horny box, has been already 
described, p. 276. — Beneath it, and altogether inclosed in the hoof, is the coffin-bone, 
or proper bone of the foot, (see /, page 272, and d, fig. 1, page 27G). It is fitted to, 
md fills the fore part of the hoof, occupying about half of it. It is of a light and 
spongy structure (see rf, fig. 1, page 276), and filled with numerous minute foramina. 
I'hrouo-h these pass the blood-vessels and nerves of the foot, which are necessarily 
numerous, considering the important and various secretions there carrying on, and 
the circulation through the foot which could not possibly be kept up if these ves- 
sels did not run tlirough the substance of the bone. Considering the manner in 
which this bone is inclosed in the horny box, and yet the important surfaces around 
and below it that are to be nourished with blood, the circulation which is thus carried 
on within the very body of the bone is one of the most beautiful provisions of nature 
that is to be found in the whole frame. No inconvenience can arise from occasional 
or constant pressure, but the bone allows free passage to the blood, and protects it 
from every possible obstruction. 

The fore part of the coffin-bone is not only thus perforated, but it is curiously rough- 
ened for the attachment of the numerous minute laminse about to be described. On 
its upper surface it presents a concavity for the head of the lower pastern, p. 276. 
In front, immediately above d, is a striking prominence, into which is inserted the 
extensor tendon of the foot. At the back, e, p. 272, it is sloped for articulation with 
the navicular bone, and more underneath, is a depression for the reception of the per- 
forating flexor tendon, m, continued down the leg, passing over the navicular bone \t 
n, and at length inserted into this bone. On cither side, as seen p. 276, are projec- 
tions called the wings, or heels of the coffin-bone, and at the bottom it is hollowed \o 
ar.swer to the convexity of the internal part of the sole. 

That which deserves most attention in the coffin-bone is the production of the nu- 
merous laminae round its front and sides. They are prolongations of the thick and 
elastic membrane covering it, and consist of cartilaginous, fleshy plates, proceeding 
from it, running down the coffin-bone, and corresponding with and received between 
ihe horny leaves that line the inside of the hoof-bone — each horny plate being re- 
ceived between two sensitive plates, and vice versa. These lamiuEe are exceedingly 
sensitive and vascular, and elastic, and, as first simply and beautifully explained by 
Mr. Percivall, their elasticity is not inherent in the laminae, but in the substance 
which connects these laminae with the coffin-bone, and which, while it contains highly 
elastic properties, affords a convenient bed for the numerous vessels that secrete the 
laminae. While the animal is at rest, the whole weight of the horse is supported by 
them, and not by the sole. This extraordinary fact has been put to the test of expe- 
riment. The sole, bars, and frog were removed from the foot of a horse, and yet as 
he stood, the coffin-bone did not protrude, or in the slightest degree descend ; but 
when the rapidity with which the foot descends is added to the weight of the horse, 
these little leaves, horny and fleshy, gradually lengthen, and suffer the bones to press 
upon the sole. The sole then descends, and in descending, expands; and so, by an 
admirable mechanism, the violent shock which would be produced by the pressure 
of such a weight as that of the horse, and the velocity with which it descends, is 
lessened or destroyed, and the complicated apparatus of the foot remains uninjured. 
When the foot is again lifted, and the weight which pressed upon it is removed, 
the principle of elasticity is called into exercise, and by it the sole resumes its con- 
cavity, and the horny frog its folded state ; — the quarters return to their former situ- 
ation, — the leaves regain their former length, and everything is prepared for a repeti- 
tion of action. 

THE SENSIBLE SOLE. 

Between the coffin-bone and the horny sole is situated the sensible sole, p. 272, 
formed above of a substance of a ligamentous or tendinous nature, and below of a 
cuticular or skin-like substance, plentifully supplied with blood-vessels. It was 
placed between the coffin-bone and the sole, by its yielding structure to assist in pre 
renting concussion, and also to form a supply of horn for the sole. It extends be 
Vond the coffin-bone, but not at all under the frog. Leaving a space for the frog, i« 



THE SENSIBLE FROG— THE NAVICULAR BONE, &c. JOI 

proceeds over the bars, and there is covered by some laminae, to unite with those 
that have been described, page 295, as found in the bars. It is here likewise thicker, 
and more elastic, and by its elasticity is evidently assisting in obviating concussion. 
It is supplied with nervous fibres, and is highly sensible, as the slightest experience 
in horses will evince. The lameness which ensues from the pressure of a stone or 
of the shoe on the sole is caused by inflammation of the sensible sole. Corns result 
from bruise and inflammation of the sensible sole, between tlie crust and the bar. 

THE SENSIBLE FROG. 

ITie coffin-bone does not occupy more than one-half of the hoof. The posterior 
part is filled by a soft mass, partly ligamentous, and partly tendinous (o, p. 27"2). Its 
shape below corresponds with the cavities of the horny frog ; in front it is attached 
to the inferior part of the coffin-bone ; and farther back, it adheres to the lower part 
of the cartilages of the heels, where they begin to form the rounded protuberances 
that constitute the heel of the foot. It occupies the w'lole of the back part of the 
foot above the horny frog and between the cartilages. Running immediately above 
the frog, and along the greater part of it, we find the parforans flexor tendon, which 
passes over the navicular bone, e, p. 273, and is inserled into the heel of the coffin- 
bone. 

THE NAVICULAR BONE 

Is placed behind and beneath the lower pastern-bone, and behind and above the heel 
of the coffin-bone, e, p. 272, so that it forms a joint with both bones, and answers a 
very important office in strengthening the union between these parts, in receiving a 
portion of the weight which is thrown on the lower pastern and in enabling the flexor 
tendon to act with more advantage. Supposing that this tendon were inserted into 
the coffin-bone without the intervention of the navicular bone, it would act at great 
mechanical disadvantage in bending the pastern, for it is inserted near the end of the 
coffin-bone, and the weight, concentrated about the middle of the bone, is far off, and 
requires a great power to raise it; but when the navicular bone is interpos.il, the 
centre of motion becomes the posterior edge of that bone, where it is in contact with 
the tendon, and then it will be seen that the distance of the power from the centre of 
motion is nearly or quite the same as the weight, and very great expenditure of mus- 
cular power will be saved. In the one case, the power must be at least double the 
weight, in the other they will be nearly equal ; and also the angle at which the tendon 
is inserted, is considerably more advantageous. Perhaps this is the principal use of 
the navicular bone ; yet at the same time we are aware of the benefit which accrues 
(see page 272) from a portion of the weight being taken from the coffin-bone, and 
thrown on the navicular bone; and from it on the tendon, and the tendon resting on 
tlie elastic frog underneath. The navicular bone is sometimes, but inaccurately, said 
to descend with the motion of the foot. It does not do that. It cannot ; for it is 
connected both with the pastern and coffin-bones by inelastic ligaments. When, how- 
ever, the horny bulb, with its tuft of hair, at the back of an oblique fetlock, descends 
in the rapid gallop, and almost touches the ground, the navicular bone, being, as it 
were, a part of the pastern, must descend with it. With this exception, both in the 
extending and the bending of the pastern, the navicular bone turns or rolls upon the 
other bones rather than descends or ascends, and with this remarkable advantage, 
tliat when the pastern is extended (see page 273), the navicular bone is placed in that 
situation which enables the flexor tendon to act with greatest advantage in again 
bending the foot. 

THE CARTILAGES OF THE FOOT. 

There is a groove extending along the upper part of the coffin-bone and on either 
side, except at the protuberance which receives the extensor tendon e, page 272, occu- 
pied by cartilage, which, like the crust, is convex outwards and concave inwards. It 
extends to the very posterior part of the foot, rising about the quarters half an inch or 
more above the hoof, and diminishing in height forward and backward. These car- 
tilages occupy a greater portion of the foot than does the coffin-bone, as will be seen 
in the lowest cut, page 276, where they are represented as extending far behind the 
coffin-bone. They are held in their situation not merely by this groove, but by other 
26 



J02 THE DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 

■connexions with the coffin-bone, the navicular bone, and the flexor tendon, and are 
thus perfectly secured. 

Below are other cartilages connected with the under edges of the former, and on 
either side of the frog. 

Between these cartilages is the sensible frog, filling up the whole of the space, and 
answering several important purposes, being an elastic bed on which the navicular 
bone and the tendon (see page 272) can play with security, and without concussion 
or shock, by which all concussion communicated to the cartilages of the foot are 
destroyed — by which these cartilages are kept asunder, and the expansion of the upper 
jart of the foot preserved. As the descent of the sole increases the width of the lower 
part of the foot, so the elevation of the frog, a portion of it being pressed upward and 
outward by the action of the navicular bone and tendon, causes the expansion of its 
upper part. Precisely as the strong muscle peculiar to quadrupeds at the back of the 
eye (see page 8G), being forcibly contracted, presses upon the fatty matter in which 
\he eye is embedded, which may be displaced, but cannot be squeezed into less com- 
pass, and which, being forced towards the ir.ner corner of the eye, drives before it that 
important and beautiful mechanism the haw, so the elastic and yielding substance the 
frog, being pressed upon by the navicular bone and the tendon, and the pastern, and 
refusing to be condensed into less compass, forces itself out on either side of them, 
and expands the lateral cartilages, which again, by their inherent elasticity, recur to 
their former situation, when the frog no longer presses them outward. It appears, 
that by a different mechanism, but both equally admirable, and referable to the same 
principle, viz. : that of elasticitj', the expansion of the upper and lower portions of 
the hoof are effected, the one by the descent of the sole, the other by the compression 
and rising of the frog. 

It is this expansion upward, which contributes principally to the preservation of 
the usefulness of the horse, when our destructive methods of shoeing are so calculated 
to destroy the expansion beneath. In draught-horses, from the long-continued as well 
as violent pressure on the frog, and from the frog on the cartilage, inflammation is 
occasionally produced, which terminates in the cartilages being changed into bony 
matter. 



CHAPTER XV. 

THE DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 

Of these there is a long list. That will not be wondered at by those who have 
duly considered the complicated structure of the foot, the duty it lias to perform, and 
the injuries to which it is exposed. It will be proper to commence with that which 
is the cause of many other diseases of the foot, and connected with almost all. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE FOOT, OR ACUTE FOUNDER. 

The sensible lamina}, or fleshy plates on the front and sides of the coffin-bone, being 
replete with blood-vessels, are, like every other vascular part, liable to Inflammation, 
from its usual causes, and particularly from the violence with which, in rapid and 
long-continued action, these parts are strained and bruised. When in a severely con- 
tested race they have been stretched to their utmost, while, at the fullest stride of the 
horse, his weight has been thrown on them with destructive force ~; or, when the feet 
have been battered and bruised in a hard day's journey, it will be no wonder if inflam- 
mation of the over-worked parts should ensue, and the occurrence of it may probably 
be produced and the disease aggravated by the too prevalent absurd mode of treating 
the animal. If a horse that has been ridden or driven hard is sufllered to stand in the 
cold, or if his feet are washed and not speedily dried, he is very likely to have " fevei 
in the feet." There is no more fruitful source of inflammation in the human being, or 
the brute, than these sudden changes of temperature. This has been explained as it 
regards grease, but it bears more immediately on the point now under consideration. 
The danger is not confined to change from heat to cold. Sudden transition from cold 
oheat is as injurious, and therefore it is that so many horses, after having been ridden 



INFLAMMATION OF THE FOOT, OR ACUTE FOUNDER. 303 

fnr in frost and snow, and placed immediately in a hot stable, and littered up to the 
inees, are attacked by this complaint. The feet and the lungs are the organs oftenest 
attacked, because they have previously suffered most by our mismanagement, and are 
most disposed to take on disease, and that which would cause slight inflammation of 
other parts, or trifling general derangement, will produce all its mischief on thes^ 
organs ; therefore it is that horses, the crust or laminae of whose feet are warped or 
obliquely placed, are most subject to it. 

Sometimes there is a sudden change of inflammation from one organ to anothei. 
A horse may have laboured for several days under evident inflammation of the lungs; 
all at once that will subside, and the disease will appear in the feet, or inflammation 
of the feet may follow similar affections in the bowels or the eyes. In cases of 
severe inflammation of the lungs, it may not be bad practice to remove the shoes and 
poultice the feet. 

To the attentive observer the symptoms are clearly marked, and yet there is no 
disease so often overlooked by the groom and the carter, and even by the veterinary 
surgeon. The disease may assume an acute or chronic form. The earliest symp- 
toms of fever in the feet are fidgetiness, frequent shifting of the fore-legs, but no 
pawing, much less any attempts to reach the belly with the hind-feet. The pulse is 
quickened, the flanks heaving, the nostrils red, and the horse, by his anxious coun- 
tenance, and possibly moaning, indicating great pain. Presently he looks about hia 
litter, as if preparing to lie down, but he does not do so immediately ; he continues to 
shift his weight from foot to foot; he is afraid to draw his feet sufiiciently under him 
for the purpose of lying down : but at length he drops. The circumstance of his 
lying down at an' early period of the disease will sufficiently distinguish inflamma- 
tion of the feet from that of the lungs, in which the horse obstinately persists in 
standing until he drops from mere exhaustion. His quietness when down will dis- 
tinguish it from colic or inflammation of the bowels, in both of which the liorse is up 
and down, and frequently rolling and kicking when down. When the grievance is 
in the feet, the horse experiences so much relief, from getting rid of the weight pain- 
fully distending the inflamed and highly sensible laminae, that he is glad to lie as 
long as he can. He will likewise, as clearly as in inflammation of the lungs or 
bowels, point out the seat of disease by looking at the part. His muzzle will often 
rest on the feet or the aflTected foot. He must be inattentive who is not aware of 
what all this indicates. 

If the feet are now examined, they will be found evidently hot. The patient will 
express pain if they are slightly rapped with a hammer, and the artery at the pastern 
will throb violently. No great time will now pass, if the disease is suffered to pur- 
sue its course, before he will be perfectly unable to rise ; or, if he is forced to get up, 
and one foot is lifted, he Avill stand with difficulty on the other, or perhaps drop at 
once from intensity of pain. 

The treatment will resemble that of other inflammations, with such differences as 
the situation of the disease may suggest. Bleeding is indispensable; and that to its 
fullest extent. If the disease is confined to the fore-feet, four quarts of blood should 
be taken as soon as possible from the toe of each at the situation pointed out, fig. z, 
p. 272, and in the manner already described ; care being taken to open the artery as 
well as the vein. The feet may likewise be put into warm water, to quicken the 
flow of the blood, and increase the quantity abstracted. Poultices of linseed meal, 
made very soft, should cover the whole of the foot and pastern, and be frequently 
renewed, which will promote evaporation from the neighbouring parts, and possibly 
through the pores of the hoof, and, by softening and rendering supple the hoof, will 
lelieve its painful pressure on the swelled and tender parts beneath. More fully to 
accomplish this last purpose, the shoe should be removed, the sole pared as thin as 
possible, and the crust, and particularly the quarters, well rasped. All this must be 
done gently, and with a great deal of patience, for the poor animal can scarcely bear 
his feet to be meddled with. There used to be occasional doubt as to the adminis- 
tration of physic, from fear of metastasis of inflammation which has sometimes 
occurred, and been generally fatal. When, however, there is so much danger 
of losing the patient from the original attack, we must run the risk of the other. 
Sedative and cooling medicines should be diligently administered, consisting of digi- 
talis, nitre, and emetic tartar. 

If no amendment is observed, three quarts of blood should be taken from each foot 



304 DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 

on the folhwing day. In extreme cases, a third bleeding of two quarts may be jus- 
tifiable, and, instead of the poultice, cloths kept wet with water in which nitre has 
been dissolved immediately before, and in the proportion of an ounce of nitre to a 
pound of water, may be wrapped round the feet. About the third day a blister may 
be tried, taking in the whole of the pastern and the coronet ; but a cradle must pre- 
viously be put on the neck of the horse, and the feet must be covered after the blis- 
ter, or they will probably be sadly blemished. The horse should be kept on mash 
diet, unless o-reen meat can be procured for him; and even that should not be given 
too liberally, nor should he, in the slightest degree, be coaxed to eat. When he 
-.Mipears to be recovering, his getting on his feet should not be hurried. It should be 
left perfectly to his own discretion; nor should even walking exercise be permitted 
until he stands firm on his feet. When that is the case, and the season will permit, 
two months' run at grass will be very serviceable. 

It is not always, however, or often, that inflammation of the feet is thus easily 
subdued ; and, if it is subdued, it sometimes leaves after it some fearful consequences. 
The loss of the hoof is not an unfrequent one. About six or seven days from the 
first attack, a slight separation will begin to appear between the coronet and the hoof. 
This should be carefully attended to, for the separated horn will never again unite 
with the parts beneath, but the disunion will extend, and the hoof will be lost. It is 
true that a new hoof will be formed, but it will be smaller in size and weaker than 
the first, and will rarely stand hard work. When this separation is observed, it 
will be a matter of calculation with the proprietor of the horse whether he will suffer 
the medical treatment to proceed. 

CHRONIC LAMINITIS. 

This is a species of founder, insidious in its attack, and destructive to the horse. 
It is a milder form of the preceding disease. There is lameness, but it is not so 
severe as in the former case. The horse stands as usual. The crust is warm, and 
that warmth is constant, but it is not often probably greater than in a state of health. 
The surest symptom is the action of the animal. It is diametrically opposite to that 
in the navicular disease. The horse throws as much of his weight as he can, on the 
posterior parts of his feet. 

The treatment should be similar to that recommended for the acute disease — blood- 
letting, cataplasms, fomentations, and blisters, and the last much sooner and much 
more frequently than in the former disease. 

PUMICED FEET. 

The sensible and horny little plates which were elongated and partially separated 
during the intensity of the inflammation of founder, will not always perfectly unite 
again, or will have lost much of their elasticity, and the coffin-bone, no longer fully 
supported by them, presses upon the sole, and the sole becomes flattened, or convex, 
from this unnatural weight, and the horse acquires a pumiced foot. This will also 
happen when the animal is used too soon after an attack of inflammation of the feet, 
and before the laminae have regained sufllcient strength to support the weight of the 
horse, or to contract again by their elastic power when they have yielded to the 
weight. When the coffin-bone is thus thrown on the sole, and renders it pumiced, 
the crust at the front of the hoof will "/a// «j," leaving a kind of hollow about the 
middle of it. 

Pumiced feet, especially in horses with large, wide feet, are frequently produced 
without this acute inflammation. Undue work, and especially much battering of the 
feet on the pavement, will extend and sprain these laminae so much, that they will 
not have the power to contract, and thus the coflln-bone will be thrown backward on 
the sole. A very important law of nature will unfortunately soon be active here. 
When pressure is applied to any part, the absorbents become busy in removing it; 
so, when the coffin-bone begins to press upon the sole, the sole becomes thin from the 
increased wear and tear to which it is subjected by contact with the ground, and also 
because these absorbents are rapidly taking it away. 

This is one of the diseases of the feet for which there is no cure. No skill is 
competent to effect a reunion between the separated fleshy and horny laminae, or to 
restore to them the strength and elasticity of which they have been deprived, or to 
take up that hard, horny substance which speedily fills the space between the crus 



CONTRACTION. 305 

and the receding coflin-bone. Some efforts have been made to palliate the disease, 
but they have been only to a slight degree successful. If horses, on the first ap 
pearance of flat feet, were turned out in a dry place, or put into a box for two or 
three months, sufficient stress would not be thrown on the lamina to increase the 
evil, and time might be given for the growth of horn enough in the sole to support 
the coffin-bone ; yet it is much to be doubted whether these horses would ever be 
useful, even for ordinary purposes. The slowest work required of them would drive 
the coffin-bone on the sole, and the projection would gradually reappear, for no power 
and no length of time can again unite the separated leaves of the coffin-bone and the 
hoof. All that can be done in the way of palliation is by shoeing. Nothing must 
press on the projecting and pumiced part. If the projection is not considerable, a 
thick bar shoe is the best thing that can be applied; but should the &ole have much 
descended, a shoe with a very wide web, bevelled off so as not to press on the part, 
may be used. These means of relief, however, are only temporary, the disease will 
proceed ; and, at no great distance of time, the horse will be useless. 

The occasional removal of the shoe, and compelling the horse to stand for a while 
on the crust and laminae, has been resorted to. The bar shoe and the leathern sole, 
and occasional dressing with tar ointment have had their advocates, and it is suffi 
ciently plain that the pumiced foot should have plenty of cover. 

A somewhat similar affection, known by the name of a " Seedy Toe," is thus de- 
scribed by Mr. W. C. Spooner : — " It can scarcely be called a disease, but it is rathei 
a natural defect, wiiich may be considerably increased by labour and bad shoeing. 
It arises from too great dryness of the horn, which renders it brittle, and causes its 
fibres to separate. There is a want of that tough, elastic material which connects 
the longitudinal fibres together, and produces that strong bond of union between them 
and the horny laminae and the sole. There is a hollow space within the foot, which 
sometimes extends upward and around, so as to admit a large probe. Neither the 
bone nor the laminae, however, are exposed, but are still protected by the internal por- 
tion of the crust. The only thing to be done is to anoint the foot occasionally, par- 
ticularly the affected part, with tar and grease. A blister may also be applied to ex- 
cite the developement of a new growth of horn, that which is become dry and brittle 
being occasionally cut away."* 

CONTRACTION. 

The cut, page 295, will give a fair idea of the young healthy foot, approaching 
nearly tcf a circle, and of which the quarters form the widest part, and the inner quar- 
ter (this is the near foot) rather wider than the outer. This shape is not long pre- 
served in many horses, but the foot increases in length, and narrows in the quarters, 
and particularly at the heel, and the frog is diminished in width, and the sole be- 
comes more concave, and the heels higher, and lameness, or at least a shortened and 
feeling action, ensues. 

It must be premised that there is a great deal more horror of contracted heels than 
there is occasion for. Many persons reject a horse at once if the quarters are wiring 
in ; but the fact is, that although this is an unnatural form of the hoof, it is slow of 
growth, and nature kindly makes that provision for the slowly altered form of the 
hoof wliich she does in similar cases — she accommodates the parts to tne change of 
form. As the hoof draws in, the parts beneath, and particularly the coifin-bone, and 
especially the heels of that bone, diminish ; or, after all, it is more a change of form 
than of capacity. As the foot lengthens in proportion as it narrows, so does the cof- 
fin-bone, and it is as perfectly adjusted as before to the box in which it is placed, 
ts laminae are in as intimate and perfect union with those of the crust as before 
tlie hoof had begun to change. On this account it is that many horses, with very 
contracted feet, are perfectly sound, and no horse should be rejected merely be- 
cause he has contraction. He should undoubtedly be examined more carefully, and 
with considerable suspicion ; but if he has good action, and is otheiwise unexcep- 
tionable, there is no reason that the purchase should not be made. A horse with 
contracted feet, if he goes sound, is better than another with open but weak heels. 

The opinion is perfectly erroneous that contraction is the necessary consequence 
of shoeino-. There can be no doubt that an inflexible iron ring being nailed to 



♦ Spooner on the Foot of the Horse. 
9,6* 3o 



30G THE FOOT. 

Uie foot prevents, to a very considerable degree, the descent of the sole and the 
expansion of the heels below; and it is likewise probable, that when the expansion 
of the heels is prevented they often begin to contract. But here again nature, cut 
off from o^.^ resource, finds others. If one of the jugular veins is lost, the blood 
pursues its course by other channels, and the horse does not appear to suffer in the 
sli'i^htest deo-ree. Thus also if the expansion of the heels below is diminished, 
that of the cartilages above is made more use of. If the coffin-bone has not so much 
descent downward, it probably a(;quires one backward, and the functions of the foot 
are usefully if not perfectly performed. The plain proof of this is, that although 
there are many horses that are injured or ruined by bad shoeing, there are others, 
and they are a numerous class, who suffer not at all from good shoeing, and scarcely 
even from bad. Except it be from accident, how seldom is the farmer's horse lame ! 
and it mio-ht even be farther asked, how seldom is his foot much contracted '? Some 
gentlemen who are careful of their horses have driven them twenty years, and 
principally over the rough pavement of towns, without a day's lameness. Shoe- 
ing may be a necessary evil, but it is not the evil which some speculative persona 
have supposed it to be ; and the undoubted fact is, that when the horse is put to real 
hard work, and when the injury produced by shoeing in destroying the expansibility 
of the foot would most of all show itself, the foot lasts a great deal longer than the 
leg ; nay, horsemen tell us that one pair of good feet is worth two pairs of legs. 

Havino- thus premised that contraction is not inevitably accompanied by lameness, 
and that "shoeing, with all its evils, does not necessarily injure the foot, those cases 
of contraction, too numerous, which are the consequence of our stable management, 
and which do cripple and ruin the horse, may be considered. There is nothing in the 
appearance of the feet which would enable us to decide when contraction is or is not 
destructive to the usefulness of the animal ; his manner of going, and his capability 
for work, must be our guides. Lameness usually accompanies the beginning of con- 
traction ; it is the invariable attendant on rapid contraction, but it does not always 
exist when the wiring in is slow or of long standing. 

A very excellent writer, particularly when treating of the foot of the horse, Mr. 
Blaine, has given us a long and correct list of the causes of injurious contraction, and 
most of them are, fortunately, under the control of the owner of the animal. He 
places at the head of them, neglect of paring. The hoof is continually growing, the 
crust is lengthening, and the sole is thickening. This is a provision for the wear 
and tear of the foot in an unshod state ; but when it is protected by a shoe, ^nd none 
of the horn can be worn away by coming in contact with the ground, and the growth 
of horn continues, the hoof grows high, and the sole gets thick, and, in consequence 
of this, the descent of the sole and the expansion of the heels are prevented, and con- 
traction is the result. The smith might lessen, if not prevent the evil, by caiefully 
thinning the sole and lowering the heels at each shoeing; but the first of these is a 
matter of considerable labour, and the second could not be done effectually without 
being accompanied by the first, and therefore they are both neglected. The prejudice 
of many owners of horses assists in increasing the evil ; they imagine that a great 
deal of mischief is done by cutting away the foot. Mischief may be the result of 
injudicious cutting, when the bars are destroyed and the frog is elevated from the 
ground ; but more evil results from the unyielding thickness of horn impairing the 
elastic and expansive principle of the foot. If gentlemen would accasionally stand 
by, and see that the sole is properly thinned, and the heels lowered, they would be 
amply repaid in the comfort and usefulness of the horse. 

Ill-judged economy is another source of this disease. If the shoes of one smith will, 
with ordinary work, last a little more than three weeks, while another contrives to 
make his last six weeks, he is supposed to be the better workman and the more 
honest man, and he gets the greater part of the custom. His shoe is suffered to 
remain on durino- the whole time, to the manifest injury of the feet, and that injury is 
materially increased by the greater thickness and weight of these shoes, and the 
tightness with which they are fastened on, the nails being necessarily placed nearer 
to the quarters, and possibly an additional nail or two used in the fastening, and these 
also applied at the quarters. There is no rule which admits of so little exception, as 
that, once in about every three weeks, the growth of horn which the natural wear of 
the foot cannot "et rid of, should be pared away — the toe should be shortened in most 
ieet the sole should be thinned, and the heels lowered. Every one who has carefully 



CONTRACTION. ^01 

observed the shape of the horse's foot, must have seen that in proportion to 'ts height 
or neglected growth, it contracts and closes round the coronet. A low-heeled horse 
might have other serious defects, of which it will be our duty to speak, but he has 
seldom a contracted foot. 

Another source of contraction is the want of natural moisture. The unshod colt has 
seldom contracted feet, nor does the horse at grass acquire them, because the hoof is 
kept cool and damp by occasional rain, and by the regular dev/. It is thus rendered 
su])ple, and its elasticity is preserved, and the expansive power of the foot is uninjured. 
'I'he hoof of the stabled horse sometimes has not one drop of moisture on it for several 
days. The effect of this, in the contraction of the horn, is sufficiently evident. Hence 
the propriety of stopping the feet where there is the least tendency, to contraction. 
The intelligent and careful groom will not omit it a single night. Cow-duno-, with a 
small portion of clay to give it consistence, is a common and very good stoppino-. A 
better one is a piece of thick felt cut to the shape of the sole and soaked in water. 
The common stopping of tar and grease is peculiarly objectionable, for it closes the 
pores of the feet, and ultimately increases the dryness and brittleness which it was 
designed to remedy. 

The usual management of the farmer's horse that is often turned out after his daily 
task is exacted, or whose work is generally performed where the feet are exposed to 
moisture, is an excellent preventive against contraction. 

Some persons have complained much of the influence of litter. If the horse stands 
many hours in the day with his feet embedded in straw, it is supposed that the hoof 
must be unnaturally heated ; and it is said that the horn will contract under the 
influence of heat. It is seldom, however, that the foot is so surrounded by the littei 
that its heat will be sufficiently increased to produce this effect. It will be difficult 
to produce the case in which contraction, or thrush, or tenderness, has been produced 
by the horse standing on dry litter. There are thousands of horses that stand upon 
straw twenty hours out of the twenty-four, without receiving the slightest injury from 
It. The author of this work is not one of those who would, during the day, remove 
all litter from under the horse. It gives a naked and uncomfortable appearance to the 
stable. There is a considerable difference in our own feelings whether we stand for 
an hour or two on the hard stones, or a soft carpet, and especially whether we beat 
our feet upon the one or the other. Humanity and a proper care of the foot of the 
horse should induce the owner to keep some litter under the animal during the day ; 
but his feet need not sink so deeply in it that their temperature becomes much affected. 
If the straw is suffered to remain until it is wet, hot, and rotten, the effluvia proceeding 
from it may produce cough, or inflammation of the eyes, or thrushes in the feet; but 
a light bed of straw, with tolerable attention to cleanliness, can never do harm. 
" There are horses," says Professor Stewart, " that, in the habit of pawing and 
stamping, slip about and sometimes lame themselves on the bare stones; many die- 
posed to He down during the day, will not, or ought not, to do it, with a slight portion 
of litter under them. It is a frequent observation with regard to road horses, and 
many others, that the more a horse lies the better he works. Lame or tender-footed 
horses cannot lie too much, and a great deal of standing ruins the best legs and feet. 
Some horses, indeed, do not need this day-bedding, but many are the better for it, 
and none are the worse."* 

Thrushes are much oftener the consequence than the cause of contraction. The 
horny frog, yielding to the pressure of the contracted quarters, is diminished in size, 
and the lower portion of the fleshy frog becomes imprisoned, irritated, and inflamed, 
and pus or matter is discharged at the cleft; yet there are many heels in the last 
stage of coritraction that are not thrushy. On the other hand, thrush never long 
existed, accompanied by much discharge, without producing a disposition to con- 
traction ; therefore, thrush may be considered as both the cause and consequence of 
contraction. 

The removal of the bars takes away a main impediment to contraction. Their use 
in assisting the expansion of the foot has been already stated, and should a disposition 
to contraction be produced by any other cause, the cutting away of the bars would 
hasten and aggravate the evil ; but the loss of the bar would not of itself produce 
contraction. 



* Stewart's Stable (Economy, p. 139. 



308 DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 

The contraction, however, that is connected with permanent lameness, although 
increased hy the circumstances which we have mentioned, usually derives its origiri 
from a different source, and from one that acts violently and suddenly. Inflammation 
of the little plates covering the coffin-bone is the most usual cause ; and a degree of 
inflammation not sufficiently intense to be characterised as acute founder, hut quickly 
leading to sad results, may and does spring from causes almost unsuspected. There 
is one fact to which we have alluded, and that cannot be doubted, that contraction is 
exceedingly rare in the agricultural horse, but frequently occurs in tlie stable of the 
gentleman and the coach-proprietor. It is rare where the horse is seemingly neglected 
and badly shod ; and frequent where every care is taken of the animal, and the shoes 
are unexceptionable and skilfully applied. Something may depend upon the breed. 
Blood horses are particularly liable to contraction. Not only is the foot naturally 
email, but it is disposed to become narrower at the heels. On the other hand, the 
broad, flat foot of the cart-horse is subject to diseases enough, but contraction is sel- 
dom one of the number.* In horses of equal blood, not a little seems to depend upsn 
the colour, and the dark chestnut is proverbially prone to contraction. 

Whatever is the cause of that rapid contraction or narrowing of the heels which is 
accompanied by severe lameness, the symptoms may be easily distinguished. While 
standing in the stable the horse will point with, or place forward, the contracted foot, 
or, if both feet are affected, he will alternately place one before the other. When he 
is taken out of the stable, he will not, perhaps, exhibit the decided lameness which 
characterises sprain of the flexor tendon, or some diseases of the foot; but his step 
will be peculiarly short and quick, and the feet will be placed gently and tenderly on 
the ground, or scarcely lifted from it in the walk or the trot. It would seem as if the 
slightest irregularity of surface would throw the animal down, and so it threatens to 
do, for he is constantly tripping and stumbling. If the fore-feet are carefully observed, 
one cr both of them will be narrowed across the quarters and towards the heels. In a 
few cases the whole of the foot appears to be contracted and shrunk ; but in the majo- 
rity of instances, while the heels are narrower, the foot is longer. The contraction 
appears sometimes in both heels : at other times in the inner heel only ; or, if both are 
affected, the inner one is wired in the most, either from the coronet to the base of the 
foot, or only or principally at the coronet — oftener near the base of the foot — but in 
most cases the hollow being greatest about mid-way between the coronet and the hot 
torn of the foot. This irregularity of contraction, and uncertainty as to the place of 
it, prove that it is some internal disorganization, the seat of which varies with the 
portion of the attachment between the hoof and the foot that was principally strained 
or injured. In every recent case the contracted part will be hotter than the rest of 
the foot, and the sole will, in the majority of cases, be unnaturally concave. 

Of the treatment of contraction attended with lameness little can be said that will 
be satisfactory. Numberless have been the mechanical contrivances to o])pose the 
progress of contraction, or to force back the foot to its original shape, and many of 
them have enjoyed considerable but short-lived reputation. A clip was placed at the 
inside of each heel, which, resting on the bars, was intended to afford an insur- 
mountable obstacle to the further wiring in of the foot, while the heels of the shoe 
were bevelled outward in order to give the foot a tendency to expand. The foot, 
however, continued to contract, until the clip was embedded in the horn, and worse 
lameness was produced. 

A shoe jointed at the toe, and with a screw adapted to the heels, was contrived, by 
which, when softened by poulticing, or immersion in warm water, the quarters were 
to be irresistibly widened. They were widened by the daily and cautious use of the 
.screw until the foot seemed to assume its natural form, and the inventor began to 
exult in having discovered a cure for contraction : but, no sooner was the common 

* A valued correspondent suggests, that the difference between these two kinds of horses 
may perhaps throw some light on the subject. The long-continued and heavy pressure on 
the frog in the cart-horse produces ossification of the cartilages, from which the blood-horse 
is free. In the quickness of the action of the blood-horse, the expansion of the frog is not 
sufficiently continued to produce this effect ; but the concussion is severe, and the frog and the 
shorter lamina towards the heel are the first to suffer, and contraction ensues. We do not find 
contraction in the hind feet, where there is little contraction, nor ossificajion, because the 
pressure is chietly on the toe. Quick draught-horses have it both ways, but chiefly in con- 
traction. 

The reader will form his own opinion on this subject. 



NAVICULAR-JOINT DISKaSL. 300 

Bnoe airain applied, and the horse had returned to his work, than the heels hegan to 
narrow, and the foot became as contracted as ever. Common sense w-)uld have 
foretold that such must have been the result of this expansive process; for the heels 
could have been only thus forced asunder at the expense of partial or total separation 
from the interior portions of the foot with which they were in contact. 

The contracted heel can rarely or never permanently expand, for this plain reason, 
that although we may have power over the crust, we cannot renew the lamin<e, or 
estore the portion of the frog that has been absorbed. 

If the action of the horse is not materially impaired, it is better to let the contrac- 
tion alone, be it as great as it will. If the contraction has evidently produced consi- 
derable lameness, the owner of the horse will liave to calculate between his value f 
cured, the expense of the cure, and the probability of failure. 

The medical treatment should alone be undertaken by a skilful veterinary surgeon, 
and it will principally consist in abating any inflammation that i::ay exist, bylocal 
bleeding and physic, paring the sole to the utmost extent that it will bear; rasping 
the quarters as deeply as can be, without their being too much weakened, or the 
coronary ring (see i, p. 272) injured; rasping deeply likewise at the toe, and perhaps 
scoring at the toe. The horse is afterwards made to stand during the day in wet 
clay, placed in one of the stalls. He is at night moved into another stall, and his 
feet bound up thickly in wet cloths ; or he is turned out into wet pasturage, with tips, 
or, if possible, without them, and his feet are frequently pared out, and the quarters 
lightly rasped. In five or six months the horn will generally have grown down, 
when he may be taken up, and shod with shoes unattached by nails on the inner side 
of the foot, and put to gentle work. The foot will be found very considerably enlarged, 
and the owner will, perhaps, think that the cure is accomplished. The horse may, 
possibly, for a time stand very gentle work, and the inner side of the foot being left 
at liberty, its natural expansive process may be resumed : the internal part of the foot, 
however, has not been healthily filled up with the expansion of the crust. If that 
expansion has been effected forward on the quarters, the crust will no longer be in 
contact with the lengthened and narrowed heels of the coffin-bone. There will not be 
the natural adhesion and strength, and a very slight cause, or even the very habit of 
contraction, will, in spite of all care and the freedom of the inner quarter, in very 
many instances, cause the foot to wire in again as badly as before. 

THE NAVICULAR-JOINT DISEASE. 

Many horses with well-formed and open feet become sadly and permanently lame, 
and veterinary surgeons have been puzzled to discover the cause. The farrier has had 
his convenient explanation "the shoulder;" but the scientific practitioner may not 
tiave been able to discover an ostensible cause of lameness in the whole limb. There 
is no one accustomed to horses who does not recollect an instance of this. 

By reference to the cut, e, page 272, it will be seen that, behind and beneath the 
lower pastern-bone, and behind and above the heel of the coffin-bone, is a small bone 
called the navicular or shuttle bone. It is so placed as to strengthen the union between 
the lower pastern and the coflin-bone, and to enable the flexor tendon, which passes 
over it in order to be inserted into the bottom of the coffin-bone, to act with more 
advantage. It forms a kind of joint with that tendon. There is a great deal of weigh* 
thrown on the navicular-bone, and from the navicular-bone on the tendon ; and there 
is a great deal of motion or play between them in the bending and extension of the 
pasterns. It is very easy to conceive that, from sudden concussion, or from rapid and 
overstrained motion, and that, perhaps, after the animal has been sometime at rest, 
and the parts have not adapted themselves for motion, there may be too much play 
between the bone and the tendon — the delicate membrane which covers the bone, or 
the cartilage of the bone, may be bruised, and inflamed, and destroyed ; that all the 
painful effects of an inflamed and opened joint may ensue, and the horse be irreco- 
verably lame. Numerous dissections have shown that this joint, formed by the tendon 
and the bone, has been the frequent, and the almost invariable, seat of these obscure 
amenesses. The membrane covering the cartilage of the bone has been found 'x\ an 
ulcerated state ; the cartilage has been ulcerated and eaten away ; the bone nas become 
carious or decayed, and bony adhesions have taken place between the navicular arui 
the pastern and the coffin-bones, and this part of the foot has often become completely 
(iJR'trgamsod and useless. This joint is probably the seat of lameness, not only in 



31t DISEASES OF 1 HE FOOT. 

well-formed and perfect feet, but in those which become lame cjler contraction; foi 
m proportion us the inner frog is compressed by the contraction of the heels, and is 
(ibsorbed by that pressure, and the sole is become concave, and the horny frog, and 
Jhe coffin-bone too, thereby elevated, there will be less room for the action of thia 
joint, and more danger of the tendon and the delicate membrane of the navicular-bone 
being crushed between that bone and the horny frog. 

Stable management lias little to do with the production of this disease, any farther 
tlian if a horse stands idle in the stable several days, and the structure of the foot, and 
all the apparatus connected with motion, become unused to exertion, and indisposed 
for it, and he is then suddenly and violently exercised, this membrane is very liable 
to be bruised and injured. This, amongst other evils, will be lessened by a loose 
box, in which a horse will always take some exercise.* 

The cure of navicular disease is difficult and uncertain. Tlie first and all-important 
point is the removal of the inflammation in this very susceptible membrane. Local 
bleeding, poulticing, and physic will be our principal resources. If there is contrac- 
tion, this must, if possible, be removed by the m^eans already pointed out. If there is 
no contraction, it will nevertheless be prudent to get rid of all surrounding pressure, 
and to unfetter, as much as possible, the inside heel of the coffin-bone, by paring the 
sole and rasping ihe quarters, and using the shoe without nails on the inner quarter, 
and applying cold poultices to the coronet and the whole of the foot. This is a case, 
however, which must be turned over to the veterinary surgeon, for he alone, from his 
knowledge of the anatomy of the foot, and the precise seat of the disease, is competent 
to treat it. If attacked on its earliest appearance, and before ulceration of the mem- 
brane of the joint has taken place, it may be radically cured : but ulceration of the 
membrane will be with difficulty healed, and caries of the bone will for ever remain. 

Blistering the coronet will often assist in promoting a cure by diverting the inflam- 
mation to another part, and it Avill materially quicken the growth of the horn. A seton 
passed through the frog by a skilful operator, and approaching as nearly as possible 
to the seat of disease, has been serviceable. 

In cases of old contraction, attended by a short and feelins; step, nevrotomy, or the 
excision of a portion of the nerve (for an explanation of the nature and effects of 
which see page 113), may be resorted to with decided advantage. Not only will the 
lameness be removed, but, by the foot being again brought fully and firmly upon the 
ground, the inner side of the shoe being unfettered by nails, a portion of the contrac- 
tion may be removed by the sole being allowed to descend and the foot to expand at 
each contact with the ground. 

Even when the navicular-joint is particularly suspected, if there is no apparent 
inflammation (and that would be readily detected by the heat of the foot), neurotomy 
may be practised with the hope of alleviating the sufferings of the animal, and thus 



* To Mr. James Turner the veterinary profession is indebted for a knowledge of the seat 
and cause of this lameness. In the year 1816, he first alluded to it, and the truth and import- 
ance of his discovery is now universally allowed. 

Accordinc; to Mr. Turner, 'contraction of the hoof is more or less apparent in the majority 
of horses that have been accustomed to be shod. This is often long before they have 
attained the highest value for work, and not unfreqiiently before they are five years old. Thw 
contraction is not, however, necessarily connected with lameness — a large proportion of horses, 
in the very midst of labour, are perfectly free from lameness. 

The next deviation from nature is the passive state to vi^hich the foot is submitted at 
least twenty-two or twenty-three hours out of the tweniy-four, and sometimes for several 
consecutive days. Let this be compared with the few hours during which the feet of a horse 
at pasture are in a quiescent state, and there will be no cause of surprise in the change of form 
and position, and character, and the state of contraction — which takes place in the foot deprived 
of its natural pressure and motion. 

The first consequence of contraction is the gradual displacement of the navicular and coffin- 
Donts. They ascend within the hoof An unnatural arch is formed by the ascent of the frog, 
and the delicate synovial membrane lining the joint is crushed and bruised by the very materia? 
which nature has bestowed as a defence. This bruise of the synovial membrane lining the 
joint is the veritable source of this complaint, the actual cause of the whole not consisting in 
the wear and fear of the part, but having its origin in rest. It is engendered in the stable, but 
it becomes permanently established by sudden violence out of it. General contraction of this 
foot of the horse may take place to a great extent with comparative impunity, but it is a paj 
rial contraction or pressure which is the root of the evil. — Turner oa the Navicular Disease 
Vettrtnariart, vol. li, p. 53. 



SAND-CRACK. -JH 

removing a portion of the lameness ; but if the lameness is extreme, either with o? 
without contraction, and especially if there is heat about the foot, the operation is dan- 
gerous. There i:>, probably, ulceration of the membrane — possibly, decay of the bone ; 
and the additional friction to which the parts would be subjected, by the freer action 
of the horse, the sense of pain being removed, would cause that ulceration or decay to 
proceed more rapidly until the foot would be completely disorganised, or the tendon 
would be gradually worn through by rubbing against the roughened surface of the 
bone. 

SAND-CRACK. 

This, as its name imports, is a crack or division of the hoof from above downward, 
and into which saiid and dirt are too apt to ir.sinuate themselves. It is so called, 
because it most frequently occurs in sandy districts, the heat of the sand applied to 
the feet giving them a disposition to crack. It occurs both in the fore and the hind 
feet. In the fore feet it is usually found in the inner quarter (see g, page 278), but 
occasionally in the outer quarter, because there is the principal stress or eflbrt towards 
expansion in the foot, and the inner quarter is weaker than the outer. In the hind 
feet the crack is almost invariably found in the front, because in the dio-o-ino- of the 
toe into the ground in the act of drawing, the principal stress is in front. 

This is a most serious defect. It indicates a brittleness of the crust, sometimes 
natural, but oftener the consequence of mismanagement or disease, which, in spite of 
every means adopted, will probably be the source of future annoyance. On a hoof 
that has once been thus divided, no dependence can be placed, unless, by great care, 
the natural suppleness of the horn has been restored and is retained. 

Sand-crack may happen in an instant, from a false step or over-exertion, and there- 
tore a horse, although he may spring a sand-crack within an hour after the purchase, 
cannot be returned on that account. 

It is always necessary to examine the inner quarter of the foot at the time of pur- 
chase ; for it has more than once occurred that, by low dealers, and particularly at 
fairs, a sand-crack has been neatly covered with pitch, and then, the whole of the 
hoof having been oiled, the injury was so adroitly concealed, that an incautious per- 
son might be easily deceived. 

The crack sometimes does not penetrate through the horn. It then causes no lame- 
ness ; nevertheless, it must not be neglected. It shows that there is brittleness, 
which should induce the purchaser to pause; and, if proper means are not taken, it 
will jjenerally soon penetrate to the quick. It should be pared or rasped fairly out; 
and if the paring or rasping has been deep, the foot should be strengthened by a coat- 
ing of pitch, with coarse tape bound over it, and a second coating of pitch covering 
this. Every crack should be pared or rasped, to ascertain its depth. If it penetrates 
through the crust, even althouiTh no lameness exists, a firing-iron, red-hot, should be 
passed somewhat deeply above and below it, in order to prevent its lengthening — the 
edges should be thinned, to remove any painful or injurious pressure, and the foot 
should be bound up in the manner directed, care being taken that the shoe does not 
press upon the crust immediately under the sand-crack. 

If the crack has penetrated through the crust, and lameness has ensued, the case is 
more serious. It must be carefully examined, in order to ascertain that no dirt or 
sand has got into it; the edges must be more considerably thinned, and if any fungus 
is beginnuig to protrude through the crack, and is imprisoned there, it must be 
destroyed by the application of the butyr (chloride) of antimony. This is preferable 
to the cautery, because the edges of the horn will not be thickened or roughened, and 
thus become a source of after-irritation. The iron must then be run deeply across, 
above, and below the crack, as in the other case ; a pledget of dry tow being placed 
in the crack, ia and over it, and the whole bound down as tightly as possible. On 
the third day the part should be examined, and the caustic again applied, if necessary : 
but if the crack is dry, and defended by a hard horny crust, the sooner the pitch plaster 
is put on the better. • j- -i j rpi. 

The most serious case is, when, from tread or neglect, the coronet is divided. The 
growth of horn proceeds from the coronary ligament, and unless this ligament is 
sound, the horn will grow down disunited. The method to be here adopted, is to run 
the back of ttie firing-iron over the coronet where it is divided. Some inflammation 
will ensue ; and when the scab produced by the cautery peels off, as it will in a few 



312 DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 

"lays, the division v.'ill be obliterated, and sound and united horn will ^^tow down. 
When there is sufficient horn above the crack, a horizontal line should be drawn with 
a firing-iron between the sound horn and the crack. Tlie connexion between the sound 
part and the crack will thus be prevented, and the new horn will gradually and safely 
descend, but the horse should not be used until sufficient horn has grown down fairly 
to isolate the crack. In this case, as in almost every one of sand-crack, the horse 
should be kept as quiet as possible. It is not in the power of the surgeon to effect a 
perfect cure, if the owner will continue to use the animal. When the horn is divided 
at the coronet, it will be five or six months before it will grow fairly down, and not 
before that, should the animal be used even for ordinary work. When, however, the 
horn is grown an. inch from the coronet, the horse may be turned out — the foot being 
well defended by the pitch plaster, and that renewed as often as it becomes loose — a 
bar-shoe being worn, chambered so as not to jiress upon the hoof immediately under 
the crack, and that shoe being taken off, the sole pared out, and any bulbous projec- 
tion of nev/ horn being removed once in every three weeks. 

To remedy tlie undue brittleness of the hoof, there is no better application than that 
recommended in page 303, the sole being covered at the same time with the common 
cow-dung, or felt stopping. 

TREAD AND OVER-REACH. 

Under these terms are comprised bruises and wounds of the coronet, inflicted by the 
other feet. 

A TREAD is said to have taken place, when the inside of the coronet of one hind 
fcot is struck by the calkin of the shoe of the other, and a bruised or contused wound 
:s inflicted. The coronary ring is highly vascular externally, and within it is cartila- 
ginous; the blow, therefore, often produces much pain and hemorrhage, and contusion 
and destruction of the parts. The wound may appear to be simple, but it is often of 
a sadly complicated nature, and much time and care will need to be expended in 
repairing the mischief. Mr. Percivall very accurately states that "the wound has, 
in the first place, to cast off a slough, consisting of the bruised, separated, and 
deadened parts ; then the chasm thereby exposed has to granulate ; and finally, the 
sore has to cicatrize, and form new horn."* 

A tread, or wound of the coronet, must never be neglected, lest gravel should 
insinuate itself into the wound, and form deep ulcerations, called si7iuses or pipes, and 
which constitute quiltor. Although some mildly stimulating escharotic may be occa- 
sionally required, the caustic, too frequently used by farriers, should be carefully 
avoided, not only lest quittor should be formed, but lest the coronary ligament should 
be so injured as to be afterwards incapable of secreting perfect horn. When pro- 
perly treated, a tread is seldom productive of much injury. If the dirt is well washed 
out of it, and a pledget of tow, dipped in Friar's balsam, bound over the wound, it 
will, in the majority of cases, speedily heal. Should the bruise be extensive, or the 
wound deep, a poultice may be applied for one or two daj's, and then the Friar's bal- 
sam, or digestive ointment. Sometimes a soft tumour v.ill form on the part, which 
will be quickly brought to suppuration by a poultice; and when the matter has run 
out, the ulcer will heal by the application of the Friar's balsam, or a weak solution 
of blue vitriol. 

An ovER-HEACH is a tread upon the heel of the coronet of the fore foot by the shon 
of the corresponding hind foot, and either inflicted by the toe, or by the inner edge of 
the inside of the shoe. Tlie preventive treatment is the bevelling, or rounding oflT, of 
the inside edge or rim of the hind shoes. The cure is, the cutting away of the loose 
parts, the application of Friar's balsam, and protection from the dirt. 

There is a singular species of over-reaching, termed forging or clicking. The 
horse, ir the act of trotting, strikes the toes of the hind shoes against the fore ones. 
This noise of the clicking is unpleasant, and the trick or habit is not altogether free 
from danger. It is most frequent in young horses, and is attributable to too greai 
activity, or length of stride in the hind legs. The rider may do something by keep- 
ing the head of the horse well up; but the smith may eflject more by making the hind 
shoes of clicking horses short in the toe, and having the web broad. When they aie 



* Percivall's Hippopathology, vol. i. p. 243. 



FALSE QUARTER -QUITTOR. 313 

100 long, thej are apt to be torn off — when too iiarrow, the hind foot Ui.iy bruise the 
6ole of the fore one, or may be locked fast between the branches of the fore shoe.* 

FALSE QUARTER. 

If the coronary ligament, by which the horn of the crust is secreted, is divided by 
some cut or bruise, or eaten through by any caustic, there will occasionally be a divi- 
sion in the horn as it grows down, either in the form of a permanent sand-crack, or 
one portion of the horn overlapping the other. It occcasionally follows neglected 
sand-crack, or it may be the consequence of quittor. This is exteriorly an evident 
fissure in the horn, and extending from the coronet to the sole, but not always pene- 
trating to the lamina;. It is a very serious defect, and exceedingly ditficult to remedy; 
for occasionally, if the horse is over-weighted or hurried on his journey, the fissure 
will open and bleed, and very serious inconvenience and lameness may ensue. Grit 
and dirt may insinuate itself into the aperture, and penetrate to the sensible lamina;. 
Inflammation will almost of necessity be produced ; and much mischief will be 
effected. While the energies of the animal are not severely taxed, he may not expe- 
rience much inconvenience or pain ; but the slightest exertion will cause the fissure 
to expand, and painful lameness to follow. 

This is not only a very serious defect, but one exceedingly difficult to remedy. 
The coronary ligament must be restored to its perfect state, or at least to the dis- 
charge of its perfect function. Much danger would attend the application of the 
caustic in order to effect this. A blister is rarely sufficiently active : but the applica* 
tion, not too severely, of a heated flat or rounded iron to the coronet at the injured part 
affords the best chance of success — the edges of the horn on either side of the crack 
being thinned, the hoof supported — and the separated parts held together by a firm 
encasement of pitch, as described when speaking of the treatment of sand-crack. 
The coronet must be examined at least once in every fortnight, in order to ascertain 
whether the desired union has taken place ; and, as a palliative during the treatment 
of the case, or if the treatment should be unsuccessful, a bar-shoe may be used, and 
care taken that there be no bearing at or immediately under the separation of the horn. 
This will be best effected, when the crust is thick and the quarters strong, by paring 
off a little of the bottom of the crust at the part, so that it will not touch the shoe ; 
but if the foot is weak, an indentation or I oUow should be made in the shoe. Strain 
or concussion on the immediate part will 'bus be avoided, and, in sudden or violent 
exertion, the crack will not be so likely U extend upward to the coronet, when whole 
and sound horn has begun to be formed there.f 

In some cases false quarter assumes a less serious- character. The horn grows 
down whole, but the ligament is unable to secrete that which is perfectly healthy, 
and, therefore, a narrow strip of horn of a different and lighter colour is produced. 
This is sometimes the best result that can be procured when the surgeon has been 
able to obliterate the absolute crack or separation. It is, however, to be regarded as 
a defect, not sufficient to condemn the horse, but indicating that he has had sand- 
crack, and that a disposition to sand-crack may possibly remain. There will also, in 
the generality of cases, be some degree of tenderness in that quarter, which may pro- 
duce slight lameness when unusual exertion is required from the horse, or the shoe is 
suffered long to press on the part. 

QUITTOR. 

This has been described as being the result of neglected or bad tread or over-reach; 
but it may be the consequence of any wound in the foot, and in any part of the foot. In 
the natural process of ulceration, matter is thrown out from the wound. It precedes the 
actual healing of the part. The matter which is secreted in wounds of the foot is 
usually pent up there, and, increasing in quantity, and urging its way in every direc- 

* Stewart's Stable fficonomy, p. 393. 

t James Clark, whose works have not been valued as they deserve, expresses in a few 
words the real state of the case, and the course (hat should be pursued : — 

" We may so far paUiate the complaint as to render the horse something useful by using a 
(shoe of such a construction as will support the lifnb without resting or pressing too much 
upon the weakened quarter." A proper stopping should also cover the sole, on which some 
coarse tow may be placed, and a piece of leather over that; the whole being conhned f>v S 
broad web-shoe. 

27 2p 



314 DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 

tion, it forces the little fleshy plates of the coffin-bone, from the horny ones of the 
crust, or the horny sole from the fleshy sole, or even eats deeply into the internal 
parts of the foot. These pipes or sinuses run in every direction, and constitute the 
essence of quilior. 

If it arises from a wound at the bottom of the foot, the purulent matter which is 
rapidly formed is pent up there, and the nail of the shoe or the stub remains in the 
wound, or the small aperture which was made is immediately closed again. This 
matter, however, continues to be secreted, and separates the horny sole from tha 
fleshy one to a considerable extent, and at length forces its way upwards, and appears 
at the coronet, and usually at the quarter, and there slowly oozes out, while the aper- 
ture and the quantity discharged are so small that the inexperienced person would 
have no suspicion of the extent of the mischief within, and the difficulty of repairing 
it. The opening may scarcely admit a probe into it, yet over the greater part of the 
quarter and the sole the horn may have separated from the foot, and the matter may 
have penetrated under the cartilages and ligaments, and into the coffin joint. Not 
only so, but two mischievous results may have been produced, — the pressure of the 
matter wherever it has gone has formed ulcerations that are indisposed to heal, and 
that require the application of strong and painful stimulants to induce them to heal ; 
and, worse than this, the horn, once separated from the sensible parts beneath, will 
never again unite w ith them. Quitter may occur in both the fore and the hind feet. 

It will be sufficiently plain that the aid of a skilful practitioner is here requisite, 
and also the full exercise of patience in the proprietor of the horse. It may be neces- 
sary to remove much of the horny sole, which will be speedily reproduced when the 
fleshy surface beneath can be brought to a health}^ condition ; but if much of the horn 
at the quarters must be taken away, five or six months may probably elapse before it 
will be sufficiently grown down again to render the horse useful. 

Measures of considerable severity are indispensable. The application of some 
caustic will alone produce a healthy action on the ulcerated surfaces ; but on the 
ground of interest and of humanity we protest against that brutal practice, or at leasi 
the extent to which it is carried, and is pursued by many ignorant smiths, of coring 
out, or deeply destroying the healthy as well as the diseased parts — and parts which 
no process will again restore. The unhealthy surface must be removed ; but the car 
tilages and ligaments, and even portions of the bone, need not to be sacrificed. 

The experienced veterinary surgeon will alone be able to counsel the proprietor of 
the horse when, in cases of confirmed quittor, there is reasonable hope of permanent 
cure. A knowledge of the anatomy of the foot is necessary to enable him to decide 
what parts, indispensable to the action of the animal, may have been irreparably 
injured or destroyed, or to save these parts from the destructive eff'ect of torturing 
caustics. When any portion of the bone can be felt by the probe, the chances of 
success are diminished, and the owner and the operator should pause. When the 
joints are exposed, the case is hopeless, although, in a great many instances, the 
bones and the joints are exposed by the remedy and not by the disease. One hint 
may not be necessary to the practitioner, but it may guide the determination and 
hopes of the owner; if, when a probe is introduced into the fistulous orifice on the 
coronet, the direction of the sinuses or pipes is backward, there is much probability 
that a perfect cure may be eff'ected ; but if the direction of the sinuses is forward, the 
cure is at best doubtful. In the first instance, there is neither bone nor joint to be 
injured ; in the other, the more important parts of the foot are in danger, and the prin- 
cipal action and concussion are found. 

Neglected bruises of the sole sometimes lay the foundation for quittor. When the 
foot is flat, it is very liable to be bruised if the horse is ridden fast over a rough and 
stony road ; or, a small stone, insinuating itself between the shoe and the sole, oi 
confined by the curvature of the shoe, will frequently lame the horse. The heat ana 
tenderness of the part, the occasional redness of the horn, and the absence of punc 
ture, will clearly mark the bruise. The sole must then be thinned, and particularly 
over the bruised part, and, in neglected cases, it must be pared even to the quick, ir 
order to ascertain whether the inflammation has run on to suppuration. Bleeding at 
the toe will be clearly indicated ; and poultices, and such other means as have either 
oeen drscribea under " Inflammation of the Feet," or will be pointed out under the 
next head. The principal causes of bruises of the foot are leaving the sole too much 
exposed by means of a narrow-webbed shoe, or the smith paring out the "lole too 



PRICK OR WOUND IN THE SOLE OR CRUST. 315 

closely, or the pressure of the shoe on the sole, or the introduction of gravel or stones 
between the shoe and the sole. 

The author subjoins the mode of cure in this disease, as it has been practised by 
two veterinary surgeons. They are both excellent, and, so far as can well be the 
case, satisfactory. 

Mr. Pcrcivall says :— " The ordinary mode of cure consists in the introduction of 

caustic into the sinus; and so long as the cartilage preserves its integrity by which 

1 mean, is free from caries— this is perhaps the most prompt and etlectual mode of 
proceeding. The farrier's practice is to mix about half a drachm of corrosive sub- 
limate in powder with twice or thrice the quantity of flour, and make them into a 
paste with water. This he takes up by little at a time with the point of his probe, 
and works it about into the sinus until the paste appears rising in the orifice above 
After this is done he commonly has the horse walked about for an hour or two, or 
even sent to slow work again, which produces a still more effectual solution of the 
caustic, at the same time that it tends greatly to its uniform and thorough diffusion 
into every recess and winding of the sinus. The consequence of this sharp caustic 
dressing is a general slough from the sinus. Every part of its interior surface is 
destroyed, and the dead particles become agglutinated, and cast off along with the 
discharges in the form of a dark, firm curdled mass, which the farrier calls the 
core ; and so it commonly proves, for granulations follow close behind it, and fill up 
the sinus."* 

The other mode of treatment is that of Mr. Newport, a surgeon of long standing: 
— " After the shoe has been removed, thin the sole until it will yield to the pressure 
of the thumb ; then cut the under parts of the wall in an oblique direction from the 
heel to the anterior part, immediately under the seat of complaint, and only as far as 
it extends, and rasp the side of the wall thin enough to give way to the pressure of 
the over-distended parts, and put on a bar shoe rather elevated from the frocr. As- 
certain with a probe the direction of the sinuses, and introduce into them a saturated 
solution of sulphate of zinc, by means of a small syringe. Place over this dressing 
the common cataplasm, or the turpentine ointment, and renew the application every 
twenty-four hours. I have frequently found three or four such applications complete 
a cure. I should recommend that when the probe is introduced, in order to ascer- 
tain the progress of cure, that it be gently and carefully used, otherwise it may break 
down the new-formed lymph. I have found the solution very valuable, where the 
synovial fluid has escaped, but not to be used if the inflammation of the parts is 
great. "I 

PRICK OR WOUND IN THE SOLE OR CRUST. 

This is the most frequent cause of quitter. It is evident that the sole is very liable 
to he wounded by nails, pieces of glass, or even sharp flints. Every part of the 
foot is subject to injuries of this description. The usual place at which these wounds 
are found is in the hollow between the bars and the frog, or in the frog itself. In 
the fore feet the injury will be generally recognized on the inner quarter, and on the 
hind feet near the toe. In fact these are the thinnest parts of the fore and hind feet. 
Much more frequently the lamina; are wounded by the nail in shoeing; or if the nail 
does not penetrate through the internal surface of the crust, it is driven so close to it 
that it presses upon the fleshy parts beneath, and causes irritation and inflammation, 
and at length ulceration. When a horse becomes suddenly lame, after the legs have 
been carefully examined, and no cause of lameness appears in them, the shoe should 
he taken off. In many cases the offending substance will be immediately detected, 
or the additional heat "felt in some part of the foot will point out the seat of injury; 
or, if the crust is rapped with the hammer all round, the flinching of the horse will 
discover it ; or pressure with the pincers will render it evident. 

When the shoe is removed for this examination the smith should never be permits 
ted to wrench it off, but each nail should be drawn separately, and examined as it is 
drawn, when some moisture appearing upon it will not unfrequently reveal the spo', 
at which matter has been thrown out. 

Sudden lameness occurring within two or three days after the horse has oecn shoii 



* Percivall's Hippopathology, vol. i. p. 248. 
t The Veterinarian vol. i. p. 329. 



316 DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 

will lead to the suspicion that the smith has been in fault; yet no one who considers 
the thinness of the crust, and the difficulty of shoeing many feet, will blame him for 
sometimes pricking the animal. His fault will consist in concealing or denying that 
of which he will almost always be aware at the time of shoeing, from the flinchinu- 
of the horse, or the dead sound, or the peculiar resistance that may be noticed in the 
driving of the nail. We would plead the cause of the honest portion of an humble 
class of men, who discharge this mechanical part of their business with a skill and 
good fortune scarcely credible ; but we resign those to the reproaches and the punish- 
ment of the owner of the horse who too often, and with bad policy, deny that which 
accident, or possibly momentary carelessness, might have occasioned, and the neglect 
of which is fraught with danger, although the mischief resulting from it might at the 
time have been easily remedied. 

When the seat of mischief is ascertained, the sole should be thinned round it, ana 
at the nail-hole, or the puncture, it should be pared to the quick. The escape of 
some matter will now probably tell the nature of the injury, and remove its conse 
quences. If it be puncture of the sole effected by some nail, or any similar body, 
picked up on the road, all that will be necessary is a little to enlarge the opening 
and then to place on it a pledget of tow dipped in Friar's balsam, and over that a 
little common stopping. If there is much heat and lameness, a poultice should be 
applied. 

The part of the sole that is wounded and the depth of the wound should be taken 
into consideration. It will be seen, by reference to the cut in page 272, that a deep 
puncture towards the back part of the sole, and penetrating even into the sensible frog, 
may not be productive of serious consequence. There is no great motion in the part, 
and there are no tendons or bones in danger. A puncture near the toe may not be 
followed by much injury. There is little motion in that part of the foot, and the 
internal sole covering the coffin-bone will soon heal. A puncture, however, about the 
centre of the sole may wound the flexor tendon where it is inserted into the coffin-bone, 
or may even penetrate the joint which unites the navicular-bone with the coffin-bone, 
or pierce through the tendon into the joint which it forms with the navicular-bone, 
and a degree of inflammation may ensue, that, if neglected, may be fatal. Many 
horses have been lost by the smallest puncture of the sole in these dangerous points. 
All the anatomical skill of the veterinarian should be called into requisition, when he 
is examining the most trifling wound of the foot. 

If the foot has been wounded by the wrong direction of a nail in shoeing, and the 
sole is well-pared out over the part on the first appearance of lameness, little more 
will be necessary to be done. The opening should be somewhat enlarged, the Friar's 
balsam applied, and the shoe tacked on, with or without a poultice, according to the 
degree of lameness or heat, and on the following day all will often be well. It may, 
however, be prudent to keep the foot stopped for a few days. If the accident has 
been neglected, and matter begins to be formed, and to be pent up, and to press on the 
neighbouring parts, and the horse evidently suffers extrru e pain, and is sometimes 
scarcely able to put his foot to the ground, and much nuMter is poured out when the 
opening is enlarged, further precautions must be adopted. The fact must be recol- 
lected that the living and dead horn will never unite, and every portion of ihe horny 
sole that has separated from ihe fleshy sole above must be removed. The separalion 
must he fol/oioed as f(tr as it reaches. Much of the success of the treatment depends 
on this. No small strip or edge of separated horn must be suflTered to press upon any 
part of the wound. Tlie exposed fleshy sole must then be touched, but not too 
severely, with the butyr (chloride) of antimony, some soft and dry tow being spread 
on the part, the foot stopped, and a poultice placed over all if the inflammation seems 
to require it. On the following day a thin pellicle of horn will frequently be found 
over a part or the whole of the wound. This should be, yet very lightly, again 
touched with the caustic ; but if there is an appearance of fungus sprouting from the 
exposed surface, the application of the butyr must be more severe, the tow being 
again placed over it, so as to aff'ord considerable yet uniform pressure. Many days do 
not often elapse before the new horn covers the whole of the wound. In these exten- 
sive openings the Friar's balsam v/iU not always be successful, but the cure must b^ 
eflfected by the judicious and never-too-severe use of the caustic. Bleeding at the 
toe, and physic, will be resorted to as useful auxilaries when much inflarnmaticr 
ttrises. 



CORNS. 317 

In searching the foot in order to ascertain the existence of prick, there is often 
something very censurable in the carelessness with which the horn is cut away 
between the bottom of the crust and the sole, so as to leave little or no hold for the 
nails, although some months must elapse before the horn will grow down sufficiently 
far for the shoe to be securely fastened. 

When a free opening has been made below, and matter has not broken out at the 
coronet, it will rarely he necessary to remove any portion of the horn at the quarters, 
although we may be able to ascertain by the use of the probe that the separation of 
fhe crust extends for a considerable space above the sole. 

CORNS. 

In the angle between the bars (c, p. 297) and the quarters, the horn of the sole has 
sometimes a red appearance, and is more spongy and softer than at any other part. 
The horse flinches vvhen this portion of the horn is pressed upon, and occasional or 
permanent lameness is produced. This disease of the foot is termed corns : bearing 
chis resemblance to the corn of the human being, that it is produced by pressure, and 
IS a cause of lameness. When corns are neglected, so much inflammation is pro- 
duced in that part of the sensible sole, that suppuration follows, and to that, quitter 
succeeds, and the matter either undermines the horny sole, or is discharged at the 
coronet. 

The pressure hereby produced manifests itself in various ways. When the foot 
becomes contracted, the part of the sole inclosed between the external crust that is 
wiring in, and the bars that are opposing that contraction (see cut, p. 297), is placed 
in a kind of vice, and becomes inflamed ; hence it is rare to see a contracted foot with- 
out corns. When the shoe is suffered to remain on too long, it becomes embedded in 
the heel of the foot : the external crust grows down on the outside of it, and the bear- 
ing is thrown on this angular portion of the sole. No part of the sole can bear con- 
tinued pressure, and inflammation and corns are the result. From the length of wear 
the shoe sometimes becomes loosened at the heels, and gravel insinuates itself 
between the shoe and the crust, and accumulates in this angle, and sometimes seriously 
wounds it. 

The bars are too frequently cut away, and then the heel of the shoe must be bevelled 
inward, in order to answer to this absurd and injurious shaping of the foot. By this 
slanting direction of the heel of the shoe inward, an unnatural disposition to contrac- 
tion is given, and the sole must suffer in two ways, — in being pressed upon by the 
shoe, and squeezed between the outer crust and the external portion of the bar. The 
shce is often made unnecessarily narrow at the heels, by which this angle, seemingly 
less disposed to bear pressure than any other part of the foot, is exposed to accidental 
bruises. If, in the paring out of the foot, the smith should leave the bars prominent, 
he too frequently neglects to pare away the horn in the angle between the bars and 
the external crust; or if he cuts away the bars, he scarcely touches the horn at this 
point; and thus, before the horse has been shod a fortnight, the shoe rests on this 
angle, and produces corns. The use of a shoe for the fore feet, thickened at the heels 
is, and especially in weak feet, a source of corns, from the undue bearing there is on 
die heels, and the concussion to which they are subject. 

The unshod colt rarely has corns. The heels have their natural power of expan- 
sion, and the sensible sole at this part can scarcely be imprisoned, while the projec- 
tion of the heel of the crust and the bar is a sufficient defence from external injury. 
Corns seem to be the almost inevitable consequence of shoeing, which, by limiting, 
or in a manner destroying, the expansibility of the foot, must, when the sole attempts 
to descend, or the coffin-bone has a backward and downward direction (see cut, p. 
272), imprison and injure this portion of the sole. This evil consequence is increased 
when the shoe is badly formed, or kept on too long, or when the paring is omitted or 
injudiciously extended to the bars. By this unnatural pressure of the sole, blood is 
thrown out, and enters into the pores of the soft and diseased horn which is then 
secreted ; therefore the existence and the extent of the corn is judged of by the colout 
and softness of the horn at this place. 

Corns are most frequent and serious in horses with thin horn and flat soles, and low 
weak heels. They do not often occur in the outside heel. It is of a stronger con- 
struction than the inside one. The method adopted by shoeing-smiths to ascertain 
the existence of corn by the pain evinced when they pinch the bar and crust with 
27 » 



318 DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 

their irons, is very fallacious. If the horn is naturally thin, the horse will shrinli 
under no great pressure although he has no corn, and occasionally the bars are so 
strong as not to i:ive way under any pressure. 

The cure of old corns is difficult; for as all shoeing has some tendency to produce 
pressure here, the habit of throwing out this diseased horn is difficult to get rid of 
when once contracted ; recent corns, however, will yield to good shoeing. 

The first thing to be done is well to pare out the angle between the crust and the 
liars. Two objects are answered by this : the extent of the disease will be ascertained, 
•md one cause of it removed. A very small drawing-knife must be used for this pur- 
pose. The corn must be pared out to the very bottom, taking care not to wound the 
sole. It may then be discovered whether there is any effusion of blood or matter 
underneath. U this is suspected, an opening must be made through the horn, the 
matter evacuated, the separated horn taken away, the course and extent of the sinuses 
explored, and the treatment recommended for quitter adopted. Should there be no 
collection of fluid, the butyr of antimony should be applied over the whole extent of 
the corn, after the horn has been thinned as closely as possible. The object of this 
is to stimulate the sole to throw out more healthy horn. In bad cases a bar-shoe may 
be put on, so chambered, that there shall be no pressure on the diseased part. This 
may be worn for one or iwo shoeings, but not constantly, for there are few frogs that 
would bear the constant pressure of the bar-shoe ; and the want of pressure on the 
heel, generally occasioned by their use, would produce a softened and bulbous state 
of the heels, that would of itself be an inevitable source of lameness. 

Mr. Turner is in the habit of using a shoe that promises to lessen to a very material 
degree the sufferings of the horse. The ground surface of the shoe is so bevelled off, 
that it does not come into contact with the ground, and thus much concussion is saved 
to the horse. A slight space, however, should be left between the heel of the foot, 
and that of the shoe ; and which cannot be better occupied than by the leather sole, 
preventing the insinuation of foreign bodies, and yet preserving the heel from con- 
cussion. 

In unusually troublesome cases of corns, recourse should be had to the bar-shoe. 

Mr. Spooner, of Southampton, very properly states, that the corns occasionally 
fester, and the purulent matter which is secreted, having no dependent orifice, ascends, 
torturing the animal to a dreadful extent, and breaks out at the coronet. These cases 
are very troublesome. Sinuses are formed, and the evil may end in quittor. A large 
and free dependent orifice must then be made, and a poultice applied ; to which should 
succeed a solution of sulphate of zinc, with the application of the compound tar 
ointment. 

The cause of corn is a most important subject of inquiry, and which a careful 
examination of the foot and the shoe will easily discover. The cause being ascer- 
tained, the effect may, to a great extent, be afterwards removed. Turning out to 
grass, after the horn is a little grown, first with a bar-shoe, and afterwards with the 
shoe fettered on one side, or with tips, will often be serviceable. A horse that hasi 
once had corns to any considerable extent should, at every shoeing, have the seat of 
corn well pared out, and the butyr of antimony applied. The seated shoe (hereafter 
to be described) should be used, with a web sufficiently thick to cover the place of 
corn, and extending as far back as it can be made to do without injury to the frog. 

Low weak heels should be rarely touched with the knife, or anything more be done 
to them than lightly to rasp them, in order to give them a level surface. The inner 
heel should be particularly spared. Corns are seldom found in the hind feet, because 
the heels are stronger, and the feet are not exposed to so much concussion ; and when 
they are found there, they are rarely or never productive of lameness. There is nothing! 
perhaps in which the improvement in the veterinary art has relieved the horse from so 
much suffering as shoeing. Where corns now exist of any consequence, they are a 
disgrace to the smith, the groom, and even to the owner. 

THRUSH. 

This is a discharge of offensive matter from the cleft of the frog. It is inflamma- 
lion of the lower surface of the sensible frog, and during which pus is secreted toge- 
ther with, or instead of horn. When the frog is in its sound state, the cleft sinks but 
a little way into if; but when it becomes contracted or otherwise diseased, it extenJ* 
in length, and penetrates even to the sensible horn within, and through this unnatn 



THRUSH. 319 

tally deepened fissure the thnishy discharge proceeds. A plethoric state of the oodv 
may be a predisposing cause of thrush, but the immediate and granJ cause is mois- 
ture. This should never be forgotten, for it will lead a great way towards tht r^roper 
treatment of the disease. If the feet are habitually covered with any moist applica- 
tion—his standing so much on his own dung is a fair example — thrush will inevitably 
appear. It is caused by anything that interferes with the healthy structure and action 
of the frog. We find it in the liinder feet oftener and worse than in the fore, because 
in our stable management tiie hinder feet are too much exposed to the pernicious 
effects of the dung and the urine, moistening, or as it were macerating, and at the 
same time irritating them. The distance of the hind feet from the centre°of circulation 
would also, as in the case of grease, more expose them to accumulations of fluid and 
discharges of this kind. In the fore feet thrushes are usually connected with contrac- 
tion. We have stated that they are both the cause and the effect of contraction. The 
pressure on the frog from the wiring in of the heels will produce pain and inflamma- 
tion ; and the inflammation, by the increased heat and suspended function of the part, 
will dispose to contraction. Horses of all ages, and in almost all situations, are sub- 
ject to thrush. The unshod colt is frequently thus diseased. 

Thrushes are not always accompanied by lameness. In a great many cases the 
appearance of the foot is scarcely, or not at all altered, and the disease can only be 
detected by close examination, or the peculiar smell of the discharge. The froo- may 
not appear to be rendered in the slightest degree tender by it, and therefore the^horse 
may not be considered by many as unsound. Every disease, however, should be con- 
sidered as legal unsoundness, and especially a disease which, although not attended 
with present detriment, must not be neglectad, for it will eventually injure and lame 
the horse. All other things being ri^ht, a horse should not be rejected because he 
has a slight thrush, for if the shape of the hoof is not altered, experience tells us that 
the thrush is easily removed; but if this is not soon done, the shape of the foot and 
the action of the horse will be altered, and manifest unsoundness will result. 

The progress of a neglected thrush, although sometimes slow, is sure. The froff 
Degins to contract in size — it becomes rough, ragged, brittle, tender — the discharo-e is 
more copious and more offensive — the horn gradually disappears — a mass of hardened 
mucus usurps its place — this easily peels off, and the sensible frog remains exposed 

— the horse cannot bear it to be touched — fungous granulations spring from it they 

spread around — the sole becomes under-run, and canker steals over the greater part 
of the foot. 

There are few errors more commoner more dangerous than this, that the existence 
of thrush is a matter of little consequence, or even, as some suppose, a benefit to the 
horse — a discharge for superabundant humours — and that it should not be dried up too 
quickly, and in some cases not dried up at all. If a young colt, fat and full of blood, 
has a bad thrush, with much discharge, it will be prudent to accompany the attempt 
at cure by a dose of physic or a course of diuretics. A few diuretics may not be inju- 
rious when we are endeavouring to dry up thrush in older horses : but the disease can 
scarcely be attacked too soon, or subdued too rapidly, and especially when it steals 
on so insidiously, and has such fatal consequences in its train. If the heels once 
begin to contract through the baneful effect of thrush, it will, with difficulty, or not 
at all, be afterwards removed. 

There are many recipes to stop a running thrush. Almost every application of 
an astringent, but not of too caustic nature, will have the effect. The common 
^gyptiacum (vinegar boiled with honey and verdigrease) is a good liniment; but 
the most effectual and the safest — drying up the discharge speedily, but not suddenly 
— is a paste composed of blue vitriol, tar, and lard, in proportions according to the 
virulence of the canker. A pledget of tow, covered with it, should be introduced as 
deeply as possible, yet without force, into the cleft of the frog every night, and 
removed in the morning before the horse goes to work. Attention should at the same 
time, as in other dise'ises of the foot, be paid to the apparent cause of the complaint, 
and that cause should be carefully obviated or removed. Before the application of 
the paste, the frog should be examined, and every loose part of the horn or hardened 
discharge removed ; and if much of the frog is then exposed, a larger and wider piec« 
of tow, covered with the paste, may be placed over it, in addition to the pledget intro- 
duced into the cleft of the frog. It will be necessary to preserve the frog moist while 
•he cure is in progress, and this may be done by filling the feet with tow, covered by 



320 DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 

common « /pping, or using the felt pad, likewise covered with it. Turning ouV 
would be prejudicial rather than of benefit to thrushy feet, except the dressing is ecu- 
linued, and the feet defended from moisture. 

CANKER 

Is a separation of the horn from the sensible part of the fool^ and the sprouting of 
fungous matter instead of it, occupying a portion or even the whole of the sole and 
frog. It is tlie occasional consequence of bruise, puncture, corn, quittor, and thrush, 
and is exceedingly difficult to cure. It is more frequently the consequence of 
neglected thrush than of any other disease of the foot, or rather it is thrush involving 
the frog, the bars, and the sole, and making the foot in one mass of rank putre- 
faction. 

It is oftenest found in, and is almost peculiar to, the heavy breed of cart horses, and 
partly resulting from constitutional predisposition. Horses with white legs and thick 
skins, and much hair upon their legs — the very character of many dray horses — are 
subject to canker, especially if they have had an attack of grease, or their heels are 
habitually thick and greasy. The disposition to canker is certainly hereditary. The 
dray horse has likewise this advantage, that in order to give him fooi-hold, it is some- 
times necessary to raise the heels of the hinder feet so high, that all pressure on the 
frog is taken away ; its functions are destroyed, and it is rendered liable to disease. 
Canker, however, arises mostly from the peculiar injury to which the feet of these 
horses are subject from the enormous shoes with which they are covered — the bulk 
of the nails with which these shoes are fastened to the foot, the strain of the foot in 
the violent, although short exertion of moving heavy weights ; but, most of all, 
neglect of the feet, and the filthiness of the stable in these establishments. 

Although canker is a disease most difficult to remove, it is easily prevented. 
Attention to the punctures to which these heavy horses, with their clubbed feet and 
brittle hoofs, are more than any others subject in shoeing, and to the bruises and 
•reads on the coronet, to which, from their awkwardness and weight, they are so 
liable, and the greasy heels which a very slight degree of negligence will produce in 
them, and the stopping of the thrushes, which are so apt in them to run on to the 
Reparation of the horn from the sensible frog, will most materially lessen the number 
of cankered feet. Where this disease often occurs, the owner of the team may be 
well assured that there is gross mismanagement either in himself or his horse-keeper, 
or the smith, or the surgeon, and it will rarely be a difficult matter to detect the pre- 
cise nature of that mismanagement. 

The cure of canker is the business of the veterinary surgeon, and a most painful 
and tedious business it is. The principles on which he proceeds are, first of all, to 
remove the extraneous fungous growth ; and for this purpose he will need the aid of 
the knife and the caustic, or the cautery, fof he should cut away every portion of horn 
which is in the slightest degree separated from the sensible parts beneath. He will 
have to discourage the gi'owth of fresh fungus, and to bring the foot into that state in 
which it will again secrete healthy horn. Here he will remember that he has to do 
with the surface of the foot; that this is a disease of the surface only, and that there 
will be no necessity for those deeply-corroding and torturing caustics which penetrate 
to the very bone. A slight and daily application of the chloride of antimony, and 
that not where the new horn is forming, but on the surface which continues to be dis- 
eased, and accompanied by as firm but equal pressure as can be made — the careful 
avoidance of the slightest degree of moisture — the horse being exercised or worked 
m the mill, or wherever the foot will not be .exposed to wet, and that exercise adopted 
as early as possible, and even from the neginning, if the malady is confined to the sole 
and frog — these means will succeed, if the disease is capable of cure. Humanity, 
perhaps, will dictate that, considering the long process of cure in a cankered foot, and 
the daily torture of the caustic, and the suffering which would otherwise result from 
so large or exposed a surface, the nerves of the leg should be divided, in order to take 
away the sense of pain ; but then, especial care must be taken that the horse is placed 
in such a situation, and exposed to such work, that, being insensible to pain, he may 
not injuriously batter and bruise the diseased parts. 

Medicine is not of much avail in the cure of canker. It is a mere local disease ; 
or the only cause of fear is, that so great a determination of blood to the extremities 
baring existed during the long progress of cure, it may in some degree continue, and 



OSSIFICATION OF THE CARTILAGES, &c. 321 

produce injury in another form. Grease has occasionally followed canker. They have 
been known to alternate. It may, therefore, be prudent, when the cure of a cankered 
foot is nearly effected, to subject the horse to a course of alteratives or diuretics. 

OSSIFICATION OF THfi CARTILAGES 

^Mention has been made of the side cartilages of the foot, occupying (see cut, pao-e 
276) a considerable portion of the external side and back part of the foot. They are 
designed to preserve the expansion of the upper part of the foot, and especially when 
that of the lower part is limited or destroyed by careless shoeing. These cartilages 
are subject to inflammation, and the result of tliat inflammation is, that the cartilages 
axe absorbed, and bone substituted in their stead. This ossification of the cartilages 
frequently accompanies ringbone, hut it may exist without any alfection of the pastern 
joint. It is oftenest found in horses of heavy draught. It arises not so much from 
concussion, as from sprain, for the pace of the horse is slow. The cause, indeed, is 
not well understood ; but of the effect, there are too numerous instances. Very few 
heavy draught-horses arrive at old age without this change of structure; and particu- 
larly if they are much employed in the paved streets. The change connnences some- 
times at the anterior part of the cartilage, but much oftener at the posterior and inferior 
part. " From the combined operation of great weight and high action, the feet, and 
particularly the heels, come with great force on the ground. The cartilages, being 
embedded in the heels of the feet, are, therefore, the parts that receive the greatest 
degree of concussion, the consequence of which is, that subacute inflammation is set 
up, and the secreting vessels deposit ossific instead of cartilaginous matter, in the 
room of that which is absorbed in the usual process of nature."* 

No evident inflammation of the foot, or great, or perhaps even perceptible lame- 
ness, accompanies this change ; a mere slight degree of stiffness may have been ob- 
served, which, in a horse of more rapid pace, would have been lameness. Even 
when the change is completed, there is not in many cases anything more than a slight 
increase of stiffness, little or not at all interfering with the usefulness of the horse. 
When this altered structure appears in the lighter horse, the lameness is more deci- 
ded, and means should be taken to arrest tlie progress of the change. These are 
blisters or firing; but, after the parts have become bony, no operation will restore the 
cartilage. Some benefit, however, will be derived from the use of leather soles. 
Advantage has resulted from bar-shoes in conjunction with leather. 

Connected with ringbone the lameness may be very great. This has been spoker 
of in page 277. 

WEAKNESS OF THE FOOT. 

This is more accurately a bad formation, than a disease ; often, indeed, the result 
of disease, but in many instances the natural construction of the foot. The term 
weak foot is familiar to every horseman, and the consequence is too severely felt by 
all who have to do with horses. In the slanting of the crust from the coronet to the 
toe, a less angle is almost invariably formed, amounting probably to not more than 
forty instead of forty-five degrees ; and, after the horse has been worked for one or 
two years the line is not straight, but a little indented or hollow, midway between 
the coronet and the toe. This has been described as the accompaniment of pumiced 
feet, but it is often seen in weak feet, that, although they might become pumiced by 
severity of work, do not otherwise have the sole convex. The crust is not only less 
oblique than it ought to be, but it has not the smooth, even appearance of the good 
"oot. The surface is sometimes irregularly roughened, but it is much oftener rough- 
ned in circles or rings. The form of the crust likewise presents too much tlie 
appearance of a cone; the bottom of the foot is unnaturally wide in proportion to 
the coronet ; and the whole of the foot is generally, but not always, larger than it 
should be. 

"When the foot is lifted, it will often present a round and circular appearance, with 
a fullness of frog, that would mislead the inexperienced, and indeed be considered 
as almost the perfection of structure ; but, being examined more closely, many glar 
ing defects will be seen. The sole is flat, and the smith finds that it will bear little 
oi°no paring. The bars are small in size. They are not cut away by the smith, but 

* W. C. Soooner on the Foot of the Horse, page 249. 
2<J 



322 FRACTURES. 

they can be scarcely said to have any existence. The heels are low. so low that the 
very coronet seems almost to touc'- tlie ground ; and the crust, if examined, appeaia 
scarcely thick enough to hold the nails. 

Horses with these feet can never stand much work. They will be subject to corns, 
ro bruises of the sole, to convexity of the sole, to punctures in nailing, to breaking 
away of the crust, to inflammation of the foot, and to sprain and injury of thp pastern, 
md the fetlock, and the flexor tendon. 

These feet admit of little improvement. Shoeing as seldom as may be, and with 
a litrht yet wide concave web ; little or no paring at the time of shoeing, and as little 
violent work as possible, and especially on rough roads, may protract for a long pe- 
riod the evil day, but he who buys a horse with these feet will sooner or later have 
cause to repent his bargain. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

FRACTURES. 

Accidents of this description are not of frequent occurrence, but when they do 
happen it is not always that the mischief can be repaired : occasionally, however, 
and much more frequently than is generally imagined, the life of a valuable animal 
might be saved if the owner, or the veterinary surgeon, would take a little trouble, 
and the patient is fairly tractable, and that, in the majority of cases, he will soon 
become. The number of valuable animals is far too great that are destroyed under 
a confused notion of the difliculties of controlling the patient, or the incurable char- 
acter of the accident. Messrs. Blaine and Percivall have given a valuable record 
of the usual cases and treatment of fracture which occur in the practice of the Eng- 
lish veterinary surgeon, and the splendid work of Hurtrel d'Arboval contains a re- 
cord of all that has been attempted or effected on the Continent. The author of this 
volume must confine himself to a rapid survey of that which they have described, 
adding a few cases that have been brought under his own observation, or communi- 
cated to him by others. 

With the exception of accidents that occur in casting the animal for certain opera- 
tions, and his struggles during the operation, the causes of Fracture are usually 
blows, kicks, or falls, and the lesion may be considered as simple, confined to one 
bone, and not protruding through the skin — or compound, the bone or bones protrud 
ing through the skin — or complicated, where the bone is broken or splintered in more 
than one direction. The duty of the veterinary surgeon resolves itself into the re- 
placing of the displaced bones in their natural position, the keeping of them in that 
position, the healing of the integument, and the taking of such measures as will pre- 
vent any untoward circumstances from afterwards occurring. 

In the greater number of cases of fracture, it will be necessary to place the horst 
under considerable restraint, or even to suspend or sling him. 

The cut in the next page contains a view of the suspensory apparatus used by 
Mr. Percivall. A broad piece of sail-cloth, furnished with two breechings, and twG 
breast-girths, is placed under tbe animal's belhs and, by means of ropes and pulleys 
attached to a cross beam above, he is elevated or lowered as circumstances may tiv 
quire. It will seldom be necessary to lift the patient quite off the ground, and the 
horse will be quif^test, and most at his ease, when his feet are suflcred just to touch 
it. The head is confined by two collar ropes, and the head-stall well padded. Many 
horses may plunge about and be difficult to manage at first, but generally speakmg, 
it is not long ere they become perfectly passive. 

The use of the different buckles and straps which are attached to the sail-cloth will 
be evident on inspection. If the horse exhibits more than usual uneasiness, other 
ropes may be attached to the corners of the sail-cloth. This will afford considerable 
reiie t^ the patient, as well as add to the security of the bandages. 



FRACTURES. 



333 




In many cases the fracture, although a simple one, may he visible on the slig-htes! 
inspection ; in others, there may be merely a suspicion of its existence. Here will 
be exhibited the skill and the humanity of the educated surgeon, or the recklessness 
and brutality of the empiric. The former will carefully place his patient in the posi- 
tion at once the least |iainful to the sufferer, and the n'ost commodious for himself. 
He will ])rocced with gentleness, ])atience, and management — no rough handling or 
motion of the parts, inflicting torture on the animal, an.d adding to the injury already 
received. It is interesting to observe how soon the horse comprehonds all this, and 
submits to the necessary inspection ; and how complete and satisfoctory the exami- 
nation terminates under the superintendence of the humane and cautious practitioner, 
while the brute in human shape fails in comprehending the real state of the case. 

Heat, swelling, tenderness, fearfulness of the slightest motion, crepitus, and espe- 
cially change of the natural position of the limb, are the most frequent indications of 
fracture. 

The probability of reunion of the parts depends upon the depth of the wo\md con- 
nected with the fracture — the contusion of the soft parts in the immediate neighbour- 
hood of it — the blood-vessels, arterial or venous, that have been wounded — the pro- 
pinquity of some large joint to whicli the inflammation may be communicated — 
dislocation of the extremities of the fractured joint — injuries of the periosteum — the 
existence of sinuses, caries, or necrosis, or the fracture being compound, or broken 
into numerous spiculas or splinters. 

In a horse that is full of flesh, the cure of fracture is difiicult; likewise in an old 
or worn-out horse — or when the part is inaccessible to the hand or to instruments — or 
when separation has taken place between the parts that were beginning to unite — or 
where the surrounding tissues have been or are losing their vitality — or when the 
patient is already afflicted with any old or permanent disease. 

It may be useful briefly to review the various seats of fracture. 

Fracture of the skull.— The skull of the horse is so securely defended by the 
yielding resistance of the temporal muscle, that fracture rarely occurs except at the 
occipital ridge; and should a depression of bone be there effected, it will produce 
complete coma, and bid defiance to all surgical skill. Fracture of the skull is gene- 
rally accompanied by stupidity, convulsive motions of the head or limbs, laborious 
breathing, and a staggering walk. The eyes are almost or quite closed, the head i« 



rf24 FRACTURES. 

carried low, and the lower lip hangs down. Blows on the cranium, \vi;ich the bra- 
taliiy of man too often inflicts, as well as many accidents, are very sc ritus matters, 
and require considerable attention, for, although it may have been ascertained that the 
cranium is uninjured, there may be considera!)le concussion of the brain. 

It having been known that a horse had received a violent blow on the head, the 
strictest examination of the part should take place. An artillery horse broke loose 
from his groom, and, after galloping about, dashed into his own stall with such force 
as sadly to cut his face under the forelock. The farrier on duty sewed up the wound, 
proper dressings were applied, and in a little more than a fortnight the wound was 
healed and the horse dismissed, apparently well. Four days afterwards the patient 
moved stiffly ; the jaws could not be separated more than a couple of inches, and there 
was evident locked jaw. The horse was cast, and the place where the wound had 
been was most carefully examined. On cutting to the bottom of It, a fracture was 
discovered, and a piece of bone three-fourths of an inch long was found on the centre 
of the parietal suture. This was removed — the wound was properly dressed, and a 
strong aloetic drink was given with great difficulty. The aloetic drink was repeated 
— the bowels became loosened — the tetanic symptoms diminished, and in less than 
three weeks the horse was perfectly cured.* 

This is a very interesting case. There was some carelessness in intrusting the 
treatment of the wound to the farrier : but the surgeon afterwards repaired the error 
as well as he could, and no one was better pleased than he was at the result. A 
violent blow being received on the forehead, the part should always be most carefully 
examined. 

Hurtrel D'Arboval relates three cases of fracture of the skull. One occurred in a 
mare that ran violently against a carriage. The skull was depressed, and a portion 
of bone was removed, but it was four months ere complete re-union of the edges was 
effected. Another horse received a violent kick on the forehead. The union of the 
depressed bones was effected after the external wound was healed, but there was 
always a depression, an inch in length. An aged mare met with the same accident. 
A depression here remained as large as a finger. 

Fracture of the arch of the orbit of the eyb. — A very interesting account of 
this, followed by perfect cure, is related at p. 136. 

Fracture of the nasal bones. — This will sometimes occur from falling, or be 
produced by a kick from another horse, or the brutality of the attendant or the rider 
We have seen a passionate man strike a horse about the head with a heavy hunting 
whip. The danger of punishment of this kind is obvious ; and so would be the pro 
priety of using the whip for another purpose. A fracture of this kind is generally 
accompanied by a laceration of the membrane of the nose, and considerable hasmor 
rhage, which, however, may generally be arrested by the application of cold water 
The fractured portion of bone is usually depressed, and, the space for breathing being 
diminished, difficulty of respiration occurs. The author had a case of fracture of both 
nasal bones. He was enabled to elevate the depressed parts, but the inflammation 
and swelling were so great, that the animal was threatened with suffocation. The 
operation of tracheotomy was resorted to, and the animal did well. 

If there is fracture of the nasal bones, with depression, and only a little way from 
the central arch and the section between the nostrils, a slightly curved steel rod may 
be cautiously introduced into the passage, and the depressed portions carefully raised 
If this cannot be effected, the trephine must be applied a little above or below the 
fracture, and the elevator, or steel rod, be introduced through the aperture. If the 
fracture is in any other part of the bone, it will be impossible to reach it with the 
elevator, for the turbinated bones are in the way. The trephine must then be resorted 
to in the first instance. The wound, if there is any, must be covered, and a compress 
kept on it. 

A writer in a French journal, relates a case in which a horse was violently kicked, 
and there was a contused wound, with depression of bone. The trephine was applied. 
Fifteen splinters were extracted, and the case terminated well. It, nevertheless, too 
often happens that, in these injuries of the nasal membrane, the inflammation wi., 
obstinately continue, in despite of all that the surgeon can do, and the natural termina 

* Veterinarian, vol. vii., p. 142. 



FRACTURES. 335 

tion of every injury of the membrane of the nose, and, in fact, of every chronic ois- 
ease of the frame, will appear — glanders. 

If, however, glanders do not appear, some portion of bone may remain depressed, 
or the membrane may be tliickened by inflammation. The nasal passage will then 
be obstructed, and a difficulty of breathing, resembling roaring, will ensue. 

Thk superior maxillary, or upper jaw-bone, wiiroccasionallybe fractured. Mr. 
Cartwright had a case in which it was fractured by a kick at the situation where il 
unites with the lachrymal and malar bones. He applied the trephine, and removed 
many small pieces of bone. The wound was then covered by adhesive plaster, and 
n a month the parts were healed. 

Mr. Clayu'orth speaks of a mare who, being ridden almost at speed, fell and frac- 
tured the upper jaw, three inches above the corner incisors. The front teeth and jaw 
were turned like a hook, completely within the lower ones. Siie was cast, a balling 
iron put into her mouth, and the surgeon, exerting considerable force, pulled the teeth 
outward into their former and proper situation. She was then tied up, so that she 
could not rub her muzzle aorainst anything, and was well fed with bean-meal, and 
linseed tea. Much inflammation ensued, but it gradually subsided, and, at the expira- 
tion of the sixth week, the mouth was quite healed, and scarcely a vestige of the frac- 
ture remained. 

A very extraordinary and almost incredible account of a fracture of the superior 
maxillary bone is given in the records of the Royal and Central Society of Agricul- 
ture in France. A horse was kicked by a comjjanion. There was fracture of the 
upper part of the superior maxillary, and zygomatic bones, and the eye was almost 
forced out of the socket. Few men would have dared to undertake a fracture like 
this, but M. Revel shrank not from his duty. He removed several small splinters of 
bone — replaced the larger bones — returned the eye to its socket — confined the parts by 
means of sufficient sutures — slung the horse, and rendered it impossible for the animal 
to rub his head against aaything. In six weeks, the cure was complete. 

The maxillary bone, or lov/er jaw, is more subject to fracture, and particularly 
in its branches between the tushes and the lower teeth, and at the symphysis between 
the two brandies of the jaw. Its position, its length, and the small quantity of muscle 
that covers it, especially anteriorl)'', are among the causes of its fracture, and the same 
circumstances combine to render a reunion of the divided parts more easy to be 
accomplished. Mr. Blaine relates that, in a fracture of the lower jaw, he succeeded 
by making a strong leather frame that exactly encased the whole jaw. The author 
3f this volume has effected the same object bjr similar means. 

M. H. Boulay attended a horse, fracture of whose lower maxillary had taken place 
at the neck of that bone, between the tushes and the corner incisor teeth. The whole 
of the interior part of the maxillary bono in which the incisor teeth were planted, was 
completely detached from the other portion of the bone, and the parts were merely 
held together by the membrane of the mouth. 

The horse was cast — the corner tooth on the left side extracted — the wound tho- 
roughly cleansed — the fractured bones brought into contact — some holes were drilled 
between the tushes and the s^eeond incisor teeth, above and below, through which 
some pieces of brass wire were passed, and thus the jaws were apparently fixed 
immovably together. The neck of the maxillary bone was surrounded by a suffi- 
cient compress of tow, and a ligature tied around it, with its bearing place on the 
tushes, and all motion thus prevented. 

The horse was naturally an untractable animal, and in his efforts to open his jaws, 
the wires yielded to his repeated struggles, and were to a certain degree separated. 
The bandage of tow was, however, tightened, and was sufficient to retain the fractured 
edges in apposition. 

Tiie mouth now began to exhale an infectious and gangrenous odour ; the animal 
was dispirited, and would not take any food; gangrene was evidently approaching, 
and Mr. Boulay determined to amputate the inferior portion of the maxillary bone, 
the union of which seemed to be impossible. The sphacelated portion of the maxil- 
Jary was entirely removed ; every fragment of bone that had an oblique direction was 
sawn away, and the rough and uneven portions which the saw couid not reach, were 
rasped off. . , i-e 

Before nio-ht, the horse had recovered his natural spirits, and was searching tor 
Komething to eat. On the following day, a few oats were given to him, and he aui 
28" 



326 FRACTURES. 

them willi so much appetite and ease, that no one looking at him would think that he 
had been deprived of his lower incisor teeth. On the following day, some hay was 
given to hun, which he ate without difficulty, and in a fortnight was dismissed, the 
wounds being nearly healed.* 

In the majority of these cases of simple fracture, a cure might be effected, or should, 
at least, be attempted, by means of well-adapted bandages around the muzzle, confined 
by straps. It will always be prudent to call in veterinary aid, and it is absolutely 
necessary in case of compound fracture cf the lower jaw. 

Fracture of the Spine. — This accident, fortunately for the horse, is not of frequent 
occurrence, but it has been uniformly fatal. It sometimes happens in the act of falling, 
as in leaping a wide ditch ; but it oftener occurs while a horse is struggling during a 
painful operation. It is generally sufficiently evident while the horse is on the ground. 
Kither a snap is heard, indicative of the fracture, or the struggles of the hind-limbs 
suddenly and altogether cease. In a few cases, the animal has been able to get up 
;'nd walk to his stable ; in others, the existence of the fracture has not been apparent 
for several hours: showing that the vertebrae, although fi-actured, may remain intheir 
place for a certain period of time. The bone that is broken, is usually one of the pos- 
terior dorsal or anterior lumbar vertebrss. There is no satisfactory case on leeord of 
reunion of the fractured parts. 

In the human being, the depressed portion of the spinal aich, and of the fractured 
vertebra?, have been removed by a dextrous operation, and sensibility and the power 
of voluntary motion have, in cases few and far between, been restored ; but in the 
horse, this has rarely or never been effected. We should consider him a bold operator, 
but we should not very much dislike him, who made one trial, at least, how far sur- 
gical skill might be available here. 

IMr. W. C Spooner relates an interesting case, and many such have probably oc- 
curred. A horse had been clipped about three weeks, and was afterwards galloped 
sharply on rough ground, and pulled up suddenly and repeatedly, for the purpose of 
sweating him. After that he did not go so well as before, and would not canter 
readily, although he had previously been much used to that pace. Two days before 
he was destroyed, the groom was riding him at a slow pace, when he suddenly 
nave way behind and was carried home, and could not afterwards stand. He had, 
doubtless, fractured the spine slightl}", when pulled up suddenly, but without dis- 
placing the bones."!" 

M. Dupuy was consulted respecting a mare apparently palsied. She had an uncer- 
tain and staggering walk, accompanied by evident pain. After various means of re- 
lief had in vain been tried during five-and-twcnty days, she was destroyed. A frac- 
ture of the last dorsal vertebra was discovered. It had never been quite complete, 
and ossific union was beginning to take place. 

Fracture of the ribs. — Tiiese fractures are not always easily recognised. Those 
(hat are covered by the sciipula may exist for a long time without being detected, and 
those that are situated posteriorly are so thickly covered by muscles as to render the 
detection of the injury almost impossible. A man was trying to catch a mare in a 
field. She leaped at the gate, but failing to clear it, she fell on her back on the oppo- 
site side. She lay there a short time, and then got up, and trotted to the stable. She 
was saddled, and her master, a heavy man, cantered her more than three miles. She 
then became unusually dull and sluggish, and was left on the road. She was bled ; 
and on tlie following morning an attempt was made to lead her home. She was not, 
however, able to travel more than a mile. On the following morning she was evi- 
dently in great pain, and a veterinary surgeon, discovering a slight depression of the 
spinous processes of the eleventh and twelfth dorsal vertebrae and detecting a certain 
crepitus, ordered her to be destroyed. On post-mor(cm examination, t!ie twelfth dorsal 
vertebra was found fractured, and the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth ribs on tin* 
near side were all fractured about two inches from their articulation with the verte- 

Ilurtrel d'Arboval says that " the two ribs behind the elbow are the most subject 
to fidcture, and the false ribs, from the yielding motion which they possess, are leas* 
I'aWe." The ordinary causes of fracture are kicks and blows, or falls on the chest, an® 

* Rec. de Med Vet. Nov. 183S. 1 VeteiLnarian^ >qI. xi. p. 207. 

1 Veterimarian. vol. iii. p. 6S1. 



FRACTURES. 327 

especially in leaping. The fractures are generally about their middle, and, in the true 
ribs, commonly oblique. They are occasionally broken into splinters, and if those 
splinters are directed inward, they may seriously wound the pleura or lungs. In ordei 
most certainly to detect the situation and extent of these fractures, it may be neces- 
sary to trace the rib through its whole extent, and, should there be any irregularity, 
to press firmly upon it above and below in order to ascertain the nature and extent of 
I he injury. 

If fracture is detected, it is not often that much essential good can be done. If 
there is little or no displacement, a broad roller should be tightly drawn round the 
chest, in order to prevent as much as possible the motion of the ribs in the act of 
breathing, and to throw the labour on the diaphragm and the abdominal muscles until 
tlie fractured parts are united. If the fractured parts protrude outwards, a firm com- 
press must be placed upon them. If they are depressed, it will always be advisable 
to place a firm bandage over the seat of fracture, although, perhaps, there may be 
scarcely the possibility of elevating them to any considerable degree. Should much 
irritation be the consequence of the nature or direction of the fracture, proper means 
must he adopted to allay the constitutional disturbance that may be produced. Gen- 
eral or local bleedings will be most serviceable.* 

Fracture of the pelvis. — This is not of frequent occurrence, on account of the 
thickness of the soft parts which surround the pelvis, and protect it from injury, but 
it is of a most serious character when it does take place, on account of the violence 
which must have been necessary to produce it. The usual cases are falls from a con- 
siderable height, or heavy blows on the pelvis. The injury may have reference to 
the internal or external portion of the pelvis. In the first case, the danger may not 
he discovered until irreparable mischief is produced. When it is chiefly external, the 
altered appearance of the hip speaks for itself. It is rarely in our power to afford any 
assistance in cases like this, except when there are fractured portions of the bone that 
may be partially or entirely removed, or the projecting spine of the ilium is only par- 
tially fractured. 

M. Levrat gives an interesting account of a case of fracture of the right side of 
the pelvis, near the acetabulum, in leaping a wide ditch when hunting. "The lame- 
ness which it occasioned," says he, " was such that the toe of the foot was scarcely 
permitted to touch the ground while the motion was at all rapid. When the motion 
was slow, the foot was placed flat on the ground, but with great difficulty moved for- 
ward. On applying my right hand to the fractured part, which did not exhibit any 
heat, and seizing with my left hand the point of the thigh, I felt a movement of the 
ischium, which easily enabled me to judge of the fracture and its seat, and to dis- 
cover that none of the fractured parts were displaced. I ordered her to be kept quiet 
for three weeks, and then permitted to wander about the stable. At the end of two 
months she was mounted and exercised at a foot pace, and in another month she was 
enabled to sustain the longest day's work without lameness. In the following year 
she was placed in the stud of the Baron de Stael, where she produced some good 
foals.f 

The Annals of the school at Alfort contain the case of an old mare with fracture 
of the pelvis and of the left ischium, and in whom union of the bones was effected 
so promptly, that on the thirtieth day very little lameness remained, and she shortly 
returned to her usual work. She soon afterwards died from some other cause, and 
the state of the osseous parts was thoroughly examined. These cases, however, stand 
almost alone, and post-mortem examination discovers fractures of the ischium and 
the pelvis, and each bone divided into many pieces, so that it is impossible for the 
hind quarters of the animal to be supported — also fractures of the external angle of 
the ilium, which rarely is again consolidated, and roughness of the bony fragments, 
which produce sad laceration of the soft parts. Fracture of the ischium presents 
dlmost insuperable diflficulties — that of the ilium is uniformly fatal. :{; 

* Cases of anchylosis of the vertebraj of the horse are too frequent, from the heavy weights 
and sudden and violent concussion which are too frequently thrown on these parts. Com- 
olete anchylosis of all the dorsal and lumbar vertebras have been produced, extending event** 
'he haunch. — Sandifort's Mus. Anat. vol. ii. p. 38 to 44, and iii. p. 243. 

t Rec. de Med. Vet., Nov. 1831, and Veterinarian, vol. vi. p. 390. 

. Diet. Vet. Mar. Hurtrel d'Arboval, vol. ii. p. 586. 



328 FRACTURES. 

Fracture of the tail. — This accident is not of frequent occurrence, except from 
accidental entanglement, or the application of brute force. The fracture is easily 
recognised, frequently by the eye and always by the fingers. If the tail is not ampu- 
tated, a cord passed over a pulley, and with a small weight attached to it, will bring 
the separated bones again into apposition, and in about a month the natural cartilage 
Ox" the part will be sufficiently re-instated. 

Fractures of the limbs. — These, fortunately, are of rare occurrence in the horse, 
for although their divided edges might be easily brought again into apposition, it 
would be almost impossible to retain them in it, for the slightest motion would dis- 
place them. A rapid survey of each may not, however, be altogether useless. 

Fracture of the shoulder. — The author is not aware of the successful treatment 
of this accident by any English veterinary surgeon. Mr. Fuller attempted it, but from 
the difficulty of keeping the divided edges of the bone in apposition with each other, 
and the natural untractableness of the animal, and symptoms of tetanus beginning to 
appear, the patient was destroyed. The fracture was a little above the neck of the 
scapula, and the muscles were dreadfully lacerated.* 

It is not at all times easy to discover the existence and precise situation of fracture 
of the humerus. The lameness is very great — the animal will not bear at all upon 
the broken limb — he will drag it along the ground — he will move slowly and with, 
difficulty, and his progression will consist of a succession of short leaps. The lifting 
of the foot will give very great pain. If he is roughly handled, he will sometimes 
rear, or ttirow himself suddenly down. By careful application of the hand a crepitus 
will more or less distinctly be heard. The chances are almost materially against the 
anion of a fracture of the humerus. The patient must be kept constantly suspended, 
and splints and bandages carefully applied. M. Delaguette attended an entire draught- 
horse, whose humerus had been fractured by the kick of a mare. The fracture 
extended longitudinally through two-thirds of the length of the bone, and the parts 
were separated from each other. They were brought again into apposition, and kept 
so by means of pitch plasters and splints. The horse was put into slings; the pave- 
ment of the stable was taken up ; a hollow dug under the fractured limb, and this 
depression filled with straw, in order to afford a soft support for the foot. He was 
bled, gruel alone given as food, and injections daily administered. 

On the 25th day the rollers were removed and replaced. On the 40th day he began 
to rest on the fractured limb. On the 60th day the bandages were removed — the frac- 
ture had been well consolidated, and the horse rested his weight upon it. It is 
reluctantly added that he was afterwards destroyed, on account of some disease of 
the loins.f 

Fracture of the arm. — This accident is not of unfrequent occurrence. It com- 
monly takes an oblique direction, and is usually first discovered by the displacement 
of the limb. Mr. Gloag, of the 10th Hussars, gives an interesting account of a case 
that occurred in his practice. " An entire black cart-horse was grazing in a field, into 
which some mares were accidentally turned. One of them kicked him severely a 
little above the knee. He, however, contrived to get home, and, being carefully 
examined, there was found a simple fracture of the radius, about an inch and a half 
above the knee. The ends of the fractured bone could be heard distinctly grating 
against each other, both in advancing the leg and turning it sideway from the body. 
He was immediatelyr placed in a sling not completely elevated from the ground, but 
in which he could occasionally relieve himself by standing. The leg was well bathed 
with warm water, and the ends of the bone brought as true to their position as possible. 
Some thin slips of green wood were then immersed in boiling water until they would 
readily bend to the shape of the knee, and they were tied round the joint, reaching 
about nine inches above and six below the knee, the ends of them being tied round 
with tow. 

A fortnight afterwards he became very troublesome, knocking his foot on the ground, 
and when, at the expiration of the sixth week, he was taken from the slings, there 
was a considerable bonv deposit above the knee. This, however, gradually subsided 
US the horse regained his strength, and, with the exception of turning the leg a little 
outwards, he is as useful as ever for common purposes.":}: 

Fracture of the elbow. — ^This is far more exposed to danger than the two last 

• Vetennarian, vol. viii., p. 143. t Journal Pratique, Dec. 1834. t Veterinarian, vol. iv, p. 425? 



F II A C T U R E S , 329 

boncSy and is oftener fractured. The fracture is generally an oblique ^ne, and abou 
two-thirds from the summit of the limb. It is immediately detected by the altered 
action, and ditferent appearance of the limb. It is not so difficult of reduction ais 
either the humerus or the scapula, when the fracture is towards the middle of th« 
bone. A ^-eat quantity of tow saturated with pitch must be placed around the elbow, 
and confined with firm adhesive plasters, the ground being hollowed away in the fron* 
of the injured leg, so that no pressure shall be made by that foot. 
■ Fracture of the femur. — Considering the masses of muscle that surround thib 
bone, and the immense weight whicli it supports, it would naturally be deemed im • 
possible to reduce a real fracture of the femur. If the divided bones are ever united, 
it is a consequence of the simple repose of the parts, and their tendency to unite 
Professor Dick, however, relates a very singular and interesting account of the cure 
of fracture of the femur. He was requested to attend a bay mare that had met with 
an accident in leaping a sunken fence. He found a wound in the stifle of the hind 
leg running transversely across the anterior of the articulation, about an inch and a 
half in length, and in it was a portion of bone that had been fractured, and that had 
escaped from its situation towards the inside of the stifle, where it was held by a por- 
tion of ligament. The isolated nature of the fractured portion, the difliculty, or rather 
impossibility of replacing it in its situation, and the few vessels which the connecting 
medium possessed, rendered it impossible tliat union v/ould be effected ; he therefore 
determined to remove it. 

Having enlarged the wound, and divided the portion of capsular ligament which 
retained it in its place, he extracted the bone, and found it to be the upper part of the 
inner anterior condyle of the femur, measuring three inches in length, one inch and a 
half in breadth, and about an inch in thickness, and being in shape nearly similar to 
the longitudinal section of a hen's egg. 

After the removal of the bone, the animal seemed very much relieved ; the wound 
was firmly sewed up, adhesive strapping applied over it, and the part kept wet with 
cold water. 

Two days afterwards considerable swelling had taken place ; she seemed to sufFei 
much, and there was some oozing from the wound. Fomentations were again applied, 
and she was slung. 

She now began rapidly to improve, and, although one of the largest articulations in 
the body had been laid open and a part of the articular portion of the bone removed, 
the wound healed so ra])idly that in three weeks she walked with little lameness to a 
loose box. At the expiration of another three weeks the Professor again visited her. 
On being led out she trotted several times along the stable yard, apparently sound, 
with the exception of moving the limb in a slight degree wider than usual, and so 
completely was the part recovered that, had it not been for a small scar that remained, 
a stranger could not have known tliat such an accident had taken place.* 

Fracture of the patella. — Tliis does occasionally, though very seldom occur. 
It is usually the consequence of violent kicks, or blows, and if this singular bone is 
once disunited, no power can bring the divided portions of the bone together again. 

Fracture of the tibia. — This affection is of more frequent occurrence, and of 
more serious consequence than we were accustomed to imagine it to be. Mr. Trump, 
twelve years ago, first called the attention of the profession to some singular circum- 
stances connected with the tibia. A large draught-horse belonging to the Dowlais 
Iron Company, at Merthyr Tydvil, came in from his labour very lame in the near 
hind leg, but with no visible sign of any severe injury being received. The foot was 
searched, but nothing farther was done. He stood in the stable several days, and 
then was turned into a field, and was discovered one morning with the limb depend 
ent, and a fracture of the .tibia just above the hock. 

Fourteen or sixteen months after that, another horse came home from a journey of 
seven miles, lame, with a slight mark on the inside of the thigh — a mere scratch, and 
very little tumefaction. There was nothing to account for such severe lameness: but, 
a few mornings afterwards, the tibia was seen to be fractured. The front of the bone 
was splintered as from a blow. 

Two months after that, another horse had been observed to be lame seven or eight 
days. A slight scratch was observed on the inside of the thigh, with a little swell 



* Veterinarian, vol. ii. p. 140. 
«8 ■ 2r 



330 FRACTURES. 

inaf, and increased heat and tenderness just above the hock. Mr. Trump had exam- 
ined the foot during the time that the horse stood in the stable, not being' satished tliaJ 
the apparently slight injury on the thigh could account for tiie lameness. He wai* 
turned to grass, and three days afterwards the tibia was found broken at the part men- 
tioned, and evidently from a blow. Were there not positive proof of the circumstance, 
t would have been deemed impossible that a fracture, and of such a bone, could havfi 
existed so long without detection.* 

Mr. J. 8. Mayer gives an interesting account of the successful treatment of a case 
of fracture of the tibia. The simplicity of the process will, we trust, encourage many 
another veterinary surgeon to follow his example. 

"A horse received a blow on the tibia of the near leg, but little notice was 'taken 
of it for two or three days. When, however, we were called in to examine him, we 
found the tibia to be obliquely fractured about midway between the hock and the 
stifle, and a small wound existing on the inside of the leg. It was set in the follow- 
ing manner: — The leg from the stifle down to the hock was well covered with an 
adhesive compound; it was then wrapped round with fine tow, upon which another 
layer of the same adliesive mixture was laid, the whole being well splinted and ban- 
daged up, so as to render what was a slightly compound fracture a simple one. The 
local inflammation and s)'mpathetic fever that supervened were kept down by anti- 
phlogistic measures. At the end of six weeks the bandages and splints were removed, 
and readjusted in a similar way as before, and at the termination of three months from 
the time of the accident he was discharged, cured, the splints being wholly taken off, 
and merely an adhesive stay kept on the leg. The horse is now at work and quite 
sound, there being merely a little thickening, where the callus is formed. ""[■ 

Fracture of the hock. — This is not of frequent occurrence, but very difficult to 
treat, from the almost impossibility of finding means to retain the bone in its situa- 
tion. A case, however, somewhat simple in its nature occurred in the practice ot 
Mr. Cartwright. A colt, leaping at some rails, got his leg between them, and, una- 
ble to extricate himself, hung over on the other side. After being liberated it appeared 
on examination, that there was a simple horizontal fracture of the whole of the os 
calcis about the middle. A splint was contrived so as to reach from the middle of 
the tibia to that of the cannon bone, and this was applied to the front of the leg, keep- 
ing the hock from its usual motion, and relaxing the muscles inserted into the os calcis. 
Underneath this splint a charge was applied about the part, in order to form a level 
surface for the splint to rest upon. The whole was bound together by proper adhe- 
sive bandages, and he was ordered to be kept quiet in the stable, but not to be slung. 
In about two months the hock was fired and became perfectly sound. :t^ 

Fracture of the cannon or shank bone. — This is of more frequent occurrence 
than that of any other bone, on account of the length of the leg, and the danger to 
which it is exposed. There is rarely any difficulty in detecting its situation, but there 
is sometimes a great deal in bringing the divided edges of the bone again into appo- 
sition. A kind of windlass, or a power equal to it, is occasionally necessary to pro- 
duce suffTicient extension in order to effect the desired purpose : but the divided edges 
being brought into apposition are retained there by the force of the muscles above. 
,^'plints reaching from the foot to above the knee should then be applied. The horse 
should be racked up during a fortnight, after which, if the case is going on well, the 
animal may often be turned out. 

In cases of compound fracture the wounds should be carefully attended to: but 
Mr. Percivall says that he knows one or two old practitioners, who are in the habit 
of treating these cases in a very summary and generally successful manner. They 
employ such common support, with splints and tow and bandages, as the case seems 
to require, and then the animal with his leg bound up is turned out, if the season per- 
mits ; otherwise he is placed in a yard or box, where there is not much straw to 
incommode his movements. The animal will take care not to impose too much 
weight on his fractured limb ; and, provided the parts are well secured, nature will 
Qenerally perform the rest.§ 



* Veterinarian, vol. iii. p. 394. 

+ The Transactions of the Vet. Med. Association. Some other cases of the successful treat 
inent of fractures are related in this work. 

f Veterinarian, vol. in. p. 69. ^ Pcrcivw-ll's Hippopatho v>;^) <roI. i. p 9.69. 



J 



FRACTURES. 331 

FRACxaRE OF THE SESAMOID BONES. — There are but two instances of this on record 
The lirst is related by Mr. Fuller of March. He was galloping steadily and not 
rapidly a horse of his own, when the animal suddenly fell as if^'he had been shot. 
He was broken down in both fore legs. The owner very humanely ordered him to 
be immediately destroyed. Uoth the perforans and perforatus tendons of the near fore 
leg were completely ruptured, just where they pass over the sesamoid bone, which 
was fractured in a transverse direction. Tlie sesamoid bone of the off leg was frac- 
tured in the same direction, but the tendons were entire.* 

The second case is one described by Mr. Harris of Preston. A strong coachlike 
animal was galloped rapidly. He had not gone more than a hundred yards before he 
suddenly fell, and it was with great difficulty that he could be led home, a distance 

of about two miles. There was soon considerable swelling in the off fore leg oreat 

pain on the animal's attempting to walk, and his fetlock nearly touched the'^gro^und. 
Some slight crepitus could be detected, but the exact seat of it could not be ascer- 
tained. Mr. Harris considered the case as hopeless, but the owner would have some 
means tried to save the animal. He was accordingly bled and physicked, and cold 
lotions and bandages were applied to the foot. Two days afterwards some bony 
spicule began to protrude through the skin, and, the case being now perfectly hope- 
less, the animal was destroyed. The inner sesamoid bone was shivered to atoms. | 

Fracture of the upper pastern. — Thick and strong, and movable as this bone 
seems to be, it is occasionally fractured. This has been the consequence of a violent 
effort by the horse to save himself from falling, when he has stumbled, — it has hap- 
pened when he has been incautiously permitted to run down a steep descent — and has 
occurred when a horse has been travelling on the best road, and at no great pace. 

The existence of fracture in this bone is, generally speaking, easily detected. The 
injured foot is as lightly as possible permitted to come in contact with the ground. As 
little weight as may be is thrown on it, or, if the animal is compelled to use it, the 
fetlock is bent down nearly to the ground, and the toe is turned upward. If the foot 
is rotated, a crepitus is generally heard. 

This, however, is not always the case. M. Levrat was requested to examine a 
horse that had suddenly become lame. The near hind leg was retracted, and the 
foot was kept from touching the ground. He carefully examined the foot, and dis- 
covered that much pain was expressed when the pastern was handled. He suspected 
fracture of the bone, but he could not detect it. He bled the animal, ordered cooling 
applications to the part, and gave a dose of physic. Three days afterwards he again 
saw his patient, and readily detected a fracture, taking a direction obliquely across 
the paslern.:f: 

The probability of success in the treatment of this fracture, depends on its being 
a simple or compound one. If it runs laterally across the bone, it may be readily 
and successfully treated — if it extends to the joints above and below, it will proba- 
bly terminate in anchylosis, and if tlie bone is shivered, as it too frequently is, into 
various parts, there would scarcely seem the possibility of a successful treatment of 
the (^ase. The instances, however, are numerous in which the case terminates suc- 
cessfully. Hurtrel d'Arboval recommends that a bandage steeped in some adhesive 
matter should be applied from the coronet to the middle of the leg. On this some 
wet pasteboard is to be moulded, enveloped afterwards in a linen bandage. A small 
splint is now to be applied before and behind and on each side and the hollow places 
are filled with tow, in order to give them an equal bearing. If this does not appear 
to be sufficiently secure, other splints, thicker and broader, are placed over those ex- 
tending to the knee or the hock. 

The case related by M. Levrat was treated in this way. It will be comparatively 
seldom that it will be necessary to suspend the patient. The animal, under the treat- 
ment of M. Levrat, kept his foot in the air for nearly three weeks. At the end of 
that period he now and then tried to rest his toe on the litter. Six weeks after the 
accident, he began to throw some weight on the foot; and a few days afterwards he 
was able to go to a pond, about fifty paces from his stable, and where, of his own 
accord, he took a foot-bath for nearly an hour at a time. At the expiration of anoiheT 

* Veterinarian, vol. iii. p. 393. t Veterinarian, vol. v. p. 37.T 

T Ret. de Med. Vet., Nov. 1S31. 



332 FRACTURES. 

month he was mounted, and went very well at a walking-pace; he was, '.owevei, 
still lame when he was trotted. 

Another horse, treated by the same surgeon, was soon able to rest on the bad leg, 
in order to change his position — he was allowed three weeks after tha', and then 
commenced his former daily work — the drawing of a heavy cart. He limped a little 
when he was trotted ; but did as much slow work as he was ever accustomed to do. 

Fracture of the lower pastern. — Although this bone is much shorter than the 
upper pastern, there are several instances of fracture of it. The fractures of this 
bone are commonly longitudinal, and often present a lesion of continuity extending 
from the larger pastern to the coffin-bone. It is frequently splintered, the splinters 
takino- this longitudinal direction. Hurtrel d'Arboval relates three cases of this, and 
in one of them the bone was splintered into four pieces. In several instances, how- 
ever, this bone has been separated into eight or ten distinct pieces. When the frac- 
ture of the bone is neither compound nor complicated, it may be perfectly reduced by 
proper bandaging, and, in fact, there have been cases, in which union has taken place 
with slight assistance from art beyond the application of a few bandages. 

M. Gazot relates a very satisfactory termination of fracture of this bone in a car- 
riage-horse. The animal fell, and was totally unable to rise again. He was placed 
on some hurdles, and drawn home. J^ veterinary surgeon being consulted, recognised 
fracture of the lower pastern in both feet, and advised that the animal should be de- 
stroyed. It was a favourite horse, between five and six years old, and the owner de- 
termined to give it a chance of recovery. 

M. Gazot was consulted. He plainly recognised a transverse fracture in the lower 
pastern of the right leg, and a longitudinal one in tlie left pastern. They were both 
of them simple fractures. The horse was manageable, and seemed to comprehend 
the whole affair. He was a favourite of the groom as well as the master, and it 
was determined to give him a chance of recovery. He had plenty of good litter 
under him, which was changed twice in the day. The first object that was attempt- 
ed to be accomplished was the healing of the excoriations that had taken place 
in drawing him home, and abating the inflammation that was appearing about the 
pasterns. 

At the termination of the first week all these were healed, the horse fed well, and 
was perfectly quiet, except that when he was tired of lying on one side he contrived 
to get on his knees and then to raise himself on his haunches, and, having voided his 
urine and his dung, he turned himself upon the other side, without the bandages 
round his pasterns being in the slightest degree interfered with. 

At the expiration of the second week, he seemed to wish to get up. The groom 
had orders to assist him, and a sling was passed under him. Some oats were placed 
in the manger, and he seemed to enjoy the change for a little while. Soon after- 
wards he began to be uneasy, and a copious perspiration appeared on every part. 
He was immediately lowered, when, with evident delight, he stretched out his head 
and his legs, and lay almost without motion during several hours. On the follow- 
ing day he was again placed in the sling, and again lowered as soon as he appeared 
to be fatigued. 

At the expiration of a month from the time of the accident he could get up without 
assistance, and would continue standing two or three hours, when he would lay down 
again, but with a degree of precaution that was truly admirable. The bandages 
around the pasterns had been continued until this period, and had been kept wet with 
a spirituous embrocation. The horse was encouraged to walk a little, some corn be 
ing offered to him in a sieve. He was sadly lame, and the lameness was considera- 
bl}' greater in the left than in the right foot. A calculous enlargement corld also be 
felt in the direction of the fracture on each pastern; but it was greatest in ihe left 
fetlock, and there was reason to fear the existence of anchylosis, between tlie pastern 
bones of the left leg. That foot was surrounded with emollient cataplasms, and. two 
days afterwards, was pared out, and the cautery applied over both pasterns, the spirit- 
uous embrocation being continued. 

A fortnight afterwards the eflect of the cautery was very satisfactory. The action 
of the part was more free, and there was no longer any fear of anchylosis. It was, 
however, deemed prudent to apply the cautery over the riglit pastern. Walking ex- 
ercise was now recommended, and in the course of another month the lameness was 



ON SHOEING. 333 

[iiuch diminished. It was most on the left side, which, however, had resumed ite 
former degree of inclination. 

At the expiration of four months, the horse was sent to work. His master, how- 
ever, doulning the stability of the cure, sold him, for which he ought to have had his 
own legs broken, and he fell into bad hands. He was worked hardly, and half 
starved ; nevertheless, the calculus continued to diminish, and the lameness alto- 
gether disappeared. He soon, however, passed into better hands. He was bought 
by a farmer at Chalons, in whose service he long remained, in good condition, and 
totally free from lameness. His last owner gave him the name of Old Broken Leg.* 

FuACTL'RE OF THE COFFIN-BONE. — This Is an accidcut of very rare occurrence, and 
difficult to distinguish from other causes of lameness. The animal halts very con- 
siderably — the foot is hot and tender — the pain seems to be exceedingly great, and 
none of the ordinary causes of lameness are perceived. According to Hurtrel D'Ar 
boval, it is not so serious an accident as lias been represented. The fractured portions 
cannot be displaced, and in a vascular bone like this, the union of the divided parts 
will be readily effected. 

Mr. Percivall very properly remarks, that, "buried as the coffin and navicular 
bones are within the hoof, and out of the way of all external injury as well as of mus- 
cular force, fracture of them cannot proceed from ordinary causes. It is, perhaps, 
thus produced : — in the healthy foot, in consequence of the elasticity of their connec- 
tions, these bones yield or spring under the impression they receive from the bones 
above, and thus are enabled to bear great weights, and sustain violent shocks withou) 
injury; but, disease in the foot is often found to destroy this elasticity, by changino 
the cartilage into bone, which cannot receive the same weight and concussion without 
risk of fracture. I Horses that have undergone the operation of neurotomy more fre- 
quently meet with this accident than others, because they batter their senseless feet 
with a force which, under similar circumstances, pain v/ould forbid the others from 
doing."-)- 

Fracture of the navicular bone has been sufficiently considered under the article 
" Navicular Joint Disease," p. 309. 

Mr. Mayer sums up his account of the treatment of fractures in a way that reflects 
much credit on him and the profession of which he is a member. " Let your reme- 
dies," says he, " be governed by those principles of science, those dictates of humanity, 
and that sound discretion, which, while they raise the moral and intellectual supe 
riority of man, distinguish the master of his profession from the bungling empiric.":); 



CHAPTER XVII. 
ON SHOEING. 



The period when the shoe began to be nailed to the foot of the horse is uncertain. 
William the Norman introduced it into our country. 

We have seen, in the progress of our inquiry, that, while it affords to the foot of the 
horse that defence which seems now to be necessary against the destructive effects 
of our artificial and flinty roads, it has entailed on the animal some evils. It has 
limited or destroyed the beautiful expansibility of the lower part of the foot — it has 
led to contraction, although that contraction has not always been accompanied by 
lameness — in the most careful fixing of the best shoe, and in the careless manufac- 
ture and setting on of the bad one, irreparable injury has occasionally been done to 
the horse. 

We will first attend to the preparation of the foot for the shoe, for more than is 
generally imagined, of its comfort to the horse and its safety to the rider, depends on 
5iis. If the master would occasionally accompany the horse to the forge, more 
expense to himself and punishment to the horse would be spared than, perhaps, he 

* Recueil de Med. Vet. 1834, p. 7. No apology is offered for the introduction of cases like 
this. The cause of science and of humanity is equally served. 
t Peroivall's Hippopathology, vol. i., p. 272. X Vet. Trans, vol. i., p. 245. 



334 ON SHOEING. 

would Uiink possible, provided lie will take the pains to understand the matter him 
self, otherwise he had better not interfere. 

The old shoe must be first taken off. We have something to observe even here 
The shoe was retained on the foot by the ends of the nails beins^ twisted off, turned 
down, and clenched. These clenches should be first raised, which the smith seldom 
takes the trouble ihorouorhly to do ; but after looking carelessly round the crust and 
loosening one or two of the clenches, he takes hold first of one heel of the shoe, and 
then of the other, and by a violent wrench separates them from the foot : then, by 
means of a third wrench, applied to the middle of the shoe, he tears it off. By these 
means lie must enlarge every nail-hole, and weaken the future and steady hold of the 
shoe, and sometimes tear off portions of the crust, and otherwise injure the foot. The 
horse generally shows by his flinching that he suffers from the violence witli which 
this preliminary operation too often is performed. The clenches should always be 
raised or filed off; and, where the foot is tender, or the horse is to be examined foi 
lameness, each nail should be partly punched out. According to the common system 
of procedure, many a stub is left in the crust, the source of future annoyance. 

The shoe having been removed, the smith proceeds to rasp the edges of the crust. 
Let not the stander-by object to the apparent violence which he uses, or fear that the 
foot will suffer. It is the only means that he lias to detect whether any stubs remain 
in the nail-holes ; and it is the most convenient method of removing that portion of 
the crust into which dirt and gravel have insinuated themselves. 

Next comes the important process of paring out, with regard to vv^-ich it is almost 
impossible to lay down any specific rules. This, however, is undoubted, that far 
more injury has been done by the neglect of paring, than by carrying it to too great 
an extent. The act of paring is a work of much more labour than the proprietor of 
the horse often imagines. The smith, except he is overlooked, will frequently give 
himself as little trouble about it as he can; and that portion of horn wliich, in the 
unshod foot, would be worn away by contact with the ground, is suffered to accumu- 
late month after month, until the elasticity of the sole is destroyed, and it can no 
longer descend, and its other lunctions are impeded, and foundation is laid for corn, 
and contraction, and navicular disease, and inflammation. That portion of horn 
should be left on the foot, which will defend the internal parts from being bruised, 
and yet suffer the external sole to descend. How is this to be ascertained 1 The 
strong pressure of the thumb of the smith will be the best guide. The buttress, that 
most destructive of all instruments, being, excepton very particular occasions, banished 
from every respectable forge, the smitli sets to work with his drawing-knife, and 
removes the growth of horn, until the sole will yield, although in the slightest possible 
degree, to the strong pressure of his thumb. The proper thickness of horn will then 
remain. 

If the foot has been previously neglected, and the horn is become very hard, the 
owner must not oliject if the smith resorts to some other means to soften it a little, 
and takes one of his flat irons, and having heated it, draws it over the sole, and keeps 
it, a little while, in contact with the foot. "When the sole is really thick, this rude 
and apparently barbarous method can do no harm, but it should never be permitted 
with the sole that is regularly pared out. 

The quantity of horn to be removed, in order to leave the proper degree of thick- 
ness, will vary with different feet. From the strong foot, a great deal must be taken. 
From the concave foot, the horn may be removed until the sole will yield to a mode- 
rate pressure. From the flat foot, little needs be pared ; while the pumiced foot sliould 
be deprived of nothing but the ragged parts. 

The paring being nearly completed, the knife and the rasp of the smith must be a 
little watched, or he will reduce the crust to a level with the sole, and thus endanger 
the bruising of it by its pressure on the edge of the seating. The crust should be 
reduced to a perfect level all around, but left a little higher than the sole. 

The heels will require considerable attention. From the stress which is thrown on 
the inner heel, and from the weakness of the quarter there, the horn usually wears 
away considerably faster than it would on the outer one, and if an equal portion of 
horn were pared from it, it would be left lower than the outer heel. The smith 
should, therefore, accommodate his paring to the comparative wear of the heels, and 
be exceedingly careful to leave them precisely level. 

If the reader will recollect what has been said of the intention and action of thf 



PUTTING ON THE SHOE. 3^5 

Ddrs, he will readily perceive that the smith should be checked in his almost iiniversa! 
fondness for opening the heels, or, more truly, removing that which is the main impedi- 
ment to contraction. The portion of the lieels between the inflexion of the bar and the 
frog should scarcely be touched — at least, the ragged and detached parts alone should 
be cut away. The foot may not look so fair and open, but it will last longer without 
contraction. 

The bar, likewise, should be left fully prominent, not only at its first inflexion, hut 
as it runs down the side of the frog. The heel of the shoe is designed to rest partly 
on the heel of the foot and partly on the bar, for reasons that have been already stated. 
If the bar is weak, the growth of it should be encouraged ; and it should be scarcely 
touched when the horse is shod, unless it has attained a level with the crust. The 
reader will recollect the observation which has been already made, that the destruction 
of the bars not only leads to contraction, by removing the grand impediment to it, but 
by adding a still more powerful cause in the slanting direction which is given t-/ the 
bearing of the heels, when the bar does not contribute to the support of the weight. 

It will also be apparent, that the horn between the crust and the bar should be 
carefully pared out. Every horseman has observed the relief which is given to the 
animal lame with corns, when this angle is well thinned. This relief, however, is 
often but temporary ; for when the horn grows again, and the shoe presses upon it, 
the torture of the horse is renewed. 

The degree of paring to which the frog must be subjected, will depend on its promi- 
nence, an'' on the shape of the foot. The principle has already been stated, that it 
must be left so far projecting and prominent, that it shall be just within and above the 
lower surface of the shoe; it will then descend with the sole sufficiently lo discharge 
the functions that have been attributed to it. If it is lower, it will be bruised and 
injured; if it is higher, it cannot come in contact with the ground, and thus be enabled 
to do its duty. The ragged parts must be removed, and especially those occasioned 
by thrush, but the degree of paring must depend entirely on the principle just stated. 

It appears, then, that the office of the smith requires some skill and judgment, in 
order to be properly discharged ; and the proprietor of horses will find it his interest 
occasionally to visit the forge, and complain of the careless, or idle, or obstinate 
fellow, while he rewards, by some trifling gratuity, the expert and diligent workman. 
He should likewise remember that a great deal more depends on the paring out of the 
foot, than on the construction of the shoe ; that few shoes, except they press upon the 
sole, or are made outrageously bad, will lame the horse ; but that he may be very 
easily lamed from ignorant and improper paring out of the foot. 

THE PUTTING ON THE SHOE. 

The foot being thus prepared, the smith looks about for a shoe. He slx-uld select 
rne that as nearly as possible fits the foot, or may be easily altered to the foot. He 
*vill sometimes, and especially if he is an idle and reckless fellow, care little about 
this, for he can easily alter the foot to the shoe. The toe-knife is a very convenient 
instrument for him, and plenty of horn can be struck off with it, or removed by the 
rasp, in order to make the foot as small as the shoe; while he cares little, although 
by this destructive method the crust is materially thinned where it should receive the 
nail, and the danger of puncture, and of pressure upon the sole, is increased ; and a 
foot so artificially diminished in size, will soon grow over the shoe, to the hazard of 
considerable or permanent lameness. 

While the horse is travelling, dirt and gravel are apt to insinuate themselves 
between the web of the foot and the sole. If the shoe were flat, they would be per- 
manently retained there, and would bruise the sole, and be productive of injury ; but 
when the shoe is properly bevelled off, it is scarcely possible for them to remain. 
They must be shaken out almost every time that the foot comes in contact with the 
ground. 

The web of the shoe is likewise of that thickness, that when the foot is properly 
pared, the prominent part of the frog shall lie just within and above its ground sur- 
face, so that in the descent of the sole, the frog shall come sufficiently on the ground 
to enable it to act as a wedge, and to expand the quarters, while it is defended from 
the wear and injury it would receive, if it came on the ground with the first and full 
shock of the weight. 

The nail-holes are, on the ground side, placed as near the outer edge of the shoe as 



33G ON SHOEING. 

they can safely be, and brouglit out near the inner edge of the seating. The nails 
thus take a direction inwards, resembling that of the crust itself, and have firmer 
tiold, while the strain upon them in the common shoe is altogether prevented, and the 
weioht of the horse being thrown on a fiat surface, contraction is not so likely to be 
produced. 

The smith sometimes objects to the use of this shoe, on account of its not being so 
easily formed as one composed of a bar of iron, either flat or a little bevelled. Il 
likewise occupies more time in the forging; but these objections would vanish, when 
the owner of the horse declared tliat he would have him shod elsewhere, or when he 

consented as, in justice, he should — to pay somewhat more for a shoe that required 

better workmanship, and a longer time in the construction. 

It is expedient not only that the foot and ground surface of the shoe should be most 
accurately level, but that the crust should be exactly smoothed and fitted to the shoe. 
Much skill and time are necessary to do this perfectly with the drawing-knife. The 
smith has adopted a method of more quickly, and more accurately adapting the shoe 
to the foot. He pares the crust as level as he can, and then he brings the shoe to a 
heat somewhat below a red heat, and applies it to the foot, and detects any little 
elevations by the deeper colour of the burned horn. This practice has been much 
inveiohed against ; but it is the abuse, and not the use of the thing which is to be 
condemned. If the shoe is not too hot, nor held too long on the foot, an accuracy of 
adjustment is thus obtained, which the knife would be long in producing, or would 
not produce at all. If, however, the shoe is ma(^ to burn its way to its seat, with 
little or no previous preparation of the foot, the heat must be injurious both to the 
sensiole and insensible parts of the foot. 

The heels of the shoe should be examined as to their proper width. Whatever is 
the custom of shoeing the horses of dealers, and the too prevalent practice in the 
metropolis of giving the foot an open appearance, although the posterior part of it is 
thereby exposed to injury, nothing is mere certain than that, in the horse destined for 
road-work, the heels, and particularly the seat of corn, can scarcely be too well 
covered. Part of the shoe projecting externally can be of no possible good, but will 
prove an occasional source of mischief, and especially in a heavy country. A shoe, 
the web of Avhich projects inward as far it can without touching the frog, affords pro- 
tection to the angle between the bars and the crust. 

Of the manner of attaching the shoe to the foot the owner can scarcely be a compe- 
tent judge; he can only take care that the shoe itself shall not be heavier than the 
woik requires — that, for work a little hard tlie shoe shall still be light, with a bit of 
steel welded into the toe — that the nails shall be as small, and as few, and as far from 
the heels as may be consistent with the security of the shoe; and that, for light work 
at least, the shoe shall not be driven on so closely and firmly as is often done, nor the 
pomts of the nails be brought out so high up as is generally practised. 

CALKINS. 

There are few cases in which the use of calkins (a turning up or elevation of the 
heel) can be admissible in the fore-feet, except in frosty weather, when it may in 
some denree prevent i\npleasant or dangerous slipping. If, however, calkins are 
used, they should be placed on both sides. If the cuter heel only is raised with the 
calkin, as is too often the case, the weight cannot be thrown evenly en the foot, and 
undue straining and injury of some part of the foot or of the leg must be the necessary 
consequence. Few things deserve more the attention of the horseman than this most 
absurd and injurious of all the practices of the forge. One quarter of an hour's walk 
ing, with one side of the shoe or boot raised considerably above the other, will pain- 
fully convince us of what the horse must suffer from this too common method of 
shoeino". It cannot be excused even in the hunting shoe. If the horse is ridden far 
to cover, or galloped over much hard and flinty ground, he will inevitably suffer from 
this unequal distribution of the weight. If the calkin is put on the outer heel, in order 
to prevent the horse from slipping, either the horn of that heel should be lowered to 
a c( Tresponding degree, or the other heel of the shoe should be raised to the same 
level by a gradual thickening. Of the use of calkins in the hinder foot we shall 
presently speak. 



CLIPS-THE HINDER SHOE, &.c. 337 

CLIPS. 

These are portions of the upper edge of the shoe, hammered out, and turned up so 
as to embrace the lower part of the crust, and vvhi('h is usually pared out a little, ia 
order to receive the clip. They are very useful, as more securely attaching the shoe 
to tlie foot, and relieving the crust from that stress upon the nails which would other- 
wise be injurious. A clip at the toe is almost necessary in every draught-horse, and 
absolutely so in the horse of heavy draught, in order to prevent the shoe from beinnr 
loosened or torn off by the pressure which is thrown upon the toe in the act of draw" 
ing. A clip on the outside of each shoe, at the beginning of the quarters, will give 
security to it. Clips are likewise necessary on the shoes of all heavy horses, and of 
all others who are disposed to stamp, or violently paw with their feet, and thus incur 
the danger of displacing the shoe ; but they are evils, inasmuch as they press upon 
the crust as it grows down, and they should only be used when circumstances abso- 
lutely require them. In the hunter's shoe they are not required at the sides. One at 
the toe is sufficient. 

THE HINDER SHOE. 

In forming the hinder shoes it should be remembered that the hind limbs are the 
principal instruments in progression, and that in every act of progression, except the 
walk, the toe is the point on which the whole frame of the animal turns, and from 
which it is propelled. This part, then, should be strengthened as much as possible ; 
and, therefore, the hinder shoes are made broader at the toe than the fore ones. An- 
other good effect is produced by this, that, the hinder foot being shortened, there is 
less danger of overreaching or forging, and especially if the shoe is wider on the fool 
surface than on the ground one. The shoe is thus made to slope inward, and is a 
little within the toe of the crust. 

The shape of the hinder foot is somewhat different from that of the fore foot. It is 
straighter in the quarters, and the shoe must have the same form. For carriage and 
draught-horses generally, calkins may be put on the heels, because the animal will be 
thus enabled to dig his toe more firmly into the ground, and urge himself forward, 
and throw his weight into the collar with greater advantage : but the calkins must 
not be too high, and they must be of an equal height on each heel, otherwise, as has 
been stated with regard to the fore feet, the weight will not be fairly distributed over 
the foot, and some part of the foot or the leg will materially suffer. The nails in the 
hinder shoe may be placed nearer to the heel than in the fore shoe, because, from the 
comparatively little weight and concussion thrown on the hinder feet, there is not so 
much danger of contraction. 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF SHOES. 

The shoe must vary in substance and weight with the kind of foot, and ihe naturo 
of the work. A weak foot should never wear a heavy shoe, nor any foot a shoe tha; 
will last longer than a month. Here, perhaps, we may be permitted to ctiution tho 
horse-proprietor against having his cattle shod by contract, unless he binds down his 
farrier or veterinary surgeon to remove the shoes once at least in every month ; for if 
the contractor, by a heavy shoe, and a little steel, can cause five or six weeks to intei- 
vene between the shoeings, he will do so, although the feet of the horse must neces- 
sarily suffer. The shoe should never be heavier than the work requires, for an ounce 
or two in the weight of the shoe will sadly tell at the end of a hard day's work. This 
is acknowledged in the hunting shoe, which is narrower and lighter than that of the 
hackney, although the foot of the hackney is smaller than that of the hunter. It is 
more decidedly acknowledged in the racer, who wears a shoe only sufficiently thick 
to prevent it from bending when it is used. 

THE CONCAVE-SEATED SHOE. 

The proper form and construction of the shoe is a subject deserving of very serious 
inquiry, for it is most important to ascertain, if possible, the kind of shoe that will do 
the least mischief to the feet. A cut is subjoined of that which is useful and valuable 
for general purposes. It is employed in many of our best forges, and promises 
gradually to supersede the flat and the simple concave shoe, although it must, in many 
respects, yield to the unilateral shoe. 

29 2s 



538 



ON SHOEING. 



It presents a perfectly flat surface to the f^round, in order to give as many points ol 
hearing as possible, except that, on the outer edge, there is a groove ov fuller, in which 
the nail-holes are punched, so that, sinking into the fuller, their heads project but a 
little way, and are soon worn down level with the shoe. The ground surface of the 
.'.oinmon shoe used in the country is somewhat convex, and the inner rim of the shoe 
romes first on the ground : the consequence of this is, that the weight, instead of 
'•eipg borne fairly on the crust, is supported by the nails and clenches, which must 
■v; injurious to the foot, and often chip and break it. 




The web of this shoe is of the same thickness throughout, from the toe to the heel ; 
and it is sufficiently wide to guard the sole from bruises, and, as much so as the frog 
will permit, to cover the seat of corn. 

On the foot side it is seated. The outer part of it is accurately flat, and of the width 
of the crust, and designed to support the crust, for by it the whole weight of the hoi so 
<s sustained. 

Towards the heel this flattened part is wider and occupies the whole breadth of the 
web, in order to support the heel of the crust and its reflected part — the bar; thus, 
while it defends the horn included within this angle from injury, it gives that equal 
pressure from the bar and the crust, which is the best preventive against corns, and 
a powerful obstacle to contraction. 

It is fastened to the foot by nine nails — five on the outside, and four on the inner 
side of the shoe; those on the outside extending a little farther down towards the 
heel, because the outside heel is thicker and stronger, and there is more nail-hold ; 
the last nail on the inner quarter being farther from the heel on account of the weak- 
ness of that quarter. For feet not too large, and where moderate work only is re- 
quired from the horse, four nails on the outside, and three on the inside, will be sufii- 
cient ; and the last nail being far from the heels, will allow more expansion there. 

The inside part of the web is bevelled off", or rendered concave, that it may not 
press upon the sole. Notwithstanding our iron fetter, the sole does, although to a 
very inconsiderable extent, descend when the foot of the horse is put on the ground 
It is unable to bear constant or even occasional pressure, and if it came in contact 
with the shoe, the sensible sole between it and the coffin-bone would be bruised, and 
lameness would ensue. Many of our horses, from too early and undue work, have 
the natural concave sole flattened, and the disposition to descend and the degree of 
descent are thereby increased. The concave shoe prevents, even in this case, the pos- 
sibility of much injury, because the sole can never descend in the degree in which 



THE UNILATERAL SHOE. 



339 



the shoe is or may be bevelled, 
the projecting or pumiced foot. 



A shoe bevelled still farther is necessary to protect 



THE UNILATERAL, OR ONE SIDE NAILED SHOE. 

For a material improvement in the art of shoeing, we are indebted to Mr. Turne* 
of Regent Street. What was the state of the foot of the horse a few years ago 1 An 
unyielding iron hoof was attached to it by four nails in each quarter, and the conse- 
quence was, that in nine cases out of ten the foot underwent a very considerable alter 
alion in its form and in its usefulness. Before it had attained its full development — 
before the animal wa,s five years old, there was, in a great many cases, an evident 
contraction of the hoof. There was an alteration in the manner of going. The step 
was shortened, the sole was hollowed, the frog was diseased, the general elasticity 
of the foot was destroyed — there was a disorganization of the whole horny cavity, 
and the value of the horse was materially diminished. What was the grand cause 
of this ■? It was the restraint of the shoe. The firm attachment of it to the foot by 
nails in each quarter, and the consequent strain to which the quarters and every part 
of the foot were exposed, produced a necessary tendency to contraction, from which 
sprang almost all the maladies to which the foot of the horse is subject. 

The unilateral shoe has this great advantage: it is identified with the grand prin- 
ciple of the expansibility of the horse's foot, and of removing or preventing the 
worst ailments to which the foot of the horse is liable. It can be truly stated of this 
shoe, that while it affords to the whole organ an iron defence equal to the common 
shoe, it permits, what the common shoe never did or can do, the perfect liberty of the 
foot. 

We are enalbled to present our readers with the last improvement of the unilateraL 
slioe. 




The above cut gives a view of the outer side of the off or right unilateral shoe. 
The respective situations of the five nails will be observed ; the distance of the last 
from the heel, and the proper situations at which they emerge from the crusi. The 
two clips will likewise be seen — one in the front of the foot, and the other on the side 
Between the last and second nail. 

The second cut gives a view of the inner side of the unilateral shoe. The two 
nails near the toe are in the situation in which Mr. Turner directs that they should be 
placed, and behind them is no other attachment, between the shoe and the crust. The 
portion of the crust which is rasped oflf froni the inner surface of the shoe is now, we 
believe, not often removed from the side of the foot; it has an unpleasant appearance, 
ana the rasping is somewhat unnecessary. The heel of this shoe exhibits the method 
which Mr. Turner has adopted, and with considerable success, for the cure of coriis ; 
he cuts away a portion of the ground surface at the heel, and injurious compression 
or concussion is rendered in a manner impossible. 



340 



ON SHOEING. 




There can be no doubt that this one-sided nailing has been exceedingly useful. It 
has, in many a case that threatened a serious termination, restored the elasticity of 
the foot, and enabled it to discharge its natural functions. It has also restored to the 
foot, even in bad cases, a great deal of its natural formation, and enabled the horse to 
discharge his duty with more ease and pleasure to himself, and greater security to his 
rider. 

It is difficult to tell what was the character of " the old English shoe." It certainly 
was larger than there was any occasion for it to be, and nearly covered the lower sur- 
face of the foot. The nail-holes were also far more numerous than they are at present. 
The ground side was usually somewhat convex. "The effect of this," says Mr. W. 
C. Spooner, "was to place the foot in a kind of hollow dish, which effectually pre- 
vented its proper expansion, the crust resting on a mere ledge instead of aflat surface; 
and, on the ground side, from the inner rim coming to the ground first, the weight 
was almost supported by the nails and clinches, which were placed, four or five on 
each side, at some distance from the toe, and approaching nearly to the heels."* 

It was an improvement to make the ground surface flat, and to take care that it did 
not press on the sole. At length, however, came the concave-seated shoe of Osmer, 
which was advocated by Mr. Clark, of Edinburgh, improved by Mr. Moorcroft, and 
ultimately became very generally and usefully adopted. 

THE HUNTING SHOE. 

The hunter's shoe is different from that commonly used, in form as well as in 
weight. It is not so much bevelled off as the common concave-seated shoe. Suffi- 
cient space alone is left for the introduction of a picker between the shoe and the sole, 
otherwise, in going over heavy ground, the clay would insinuate itself, and by its 
tenacity loosen, and even tear off the shoe. The heels likewise are somewhat shorter, 
that they may not be torn off by the toe of the hind-feet when galloping fast, and the 
outer heel is frequently but injudiciously turned up to prevent slipping. If calkins 
are necessary both heels should have an equal bearing. 



THE BAR-SHOE. 

A bar-shoe is often exceedingly useful. It is the continuation of the common shoe 
ronnd the heels, and by means of it the pressure may be taken off from some tendei 
part of the foot, and thrown on another which is better able to bear it, or more widely 
and equally diffused over the whole foot. It is principally resorted to in cases of corn 
ihe seat of which it perfectly covers — in pumiced feet, the soles of which may be thus 
rievated above the ground and secured from pressure, — in sand-crack, when the pres- 

* A Treatise on the Foot of the Horse, by Mr. W. C. Spooner, p. 113. 



TIPS. — EXPANDING SHOE. — FELT. 341 

eure may be removed from the fissure, and thrown on either side of it, and in rhrushes, 
vvhen the frog is tender, or is become cankered, and requires to be frequently dressed, 
and tlie dressing can by this means alone be retained. In these cases the bar-shoe is 
an excellent contrivance, if worn only for one or two shoeings, or as long as the dis- 
ease requires it to be worn, but it must be left off as soon as it can be dispensed with. 
If it is used for the protection of a diseased foot, however it may be chambered and 
laid off the frog, it will soon become flattened upon it ; or if the pressure of it is thrown 
on the frog, in order to relieve the sand-crack, or the corn, that frog must be very strong 
and healthy which can long bear the great and continued pressure. More mischief 
is often produced in the frog <,han previously existed in the part that was relieved. It 
will be plain that in the usf of the bar-shoe for corn or sand-crack, the crust and the 
frog should be precisely on a level : the bar also should be the widest part of the shoe, 
in order to afford as extended bearing as possible on the frog, and therefore less likely 
to be injurious. Bar-shoes are evidently not safe in frosty weather. Tiiey are never 
safe when much speed is required from the horse, and they are apt to be wrenched 
off in a heavy, clayey country. 

TIPS. 

Tips are short shoes, reaching only half round the foot, and worn while the horse 
is at grass, in order to prevent tlie crust being torn by the occasional hardness of the 
ground, or the pawing of the animal. The quarters at the same time being free, the 
foot disposed to contract has a chance of expanding and regaining its natural shape 

; 

THE EXPANDING SHOE. 

Our subject would not be complete if we did not describe the supposed expanding 
shoe, although it is mow almost entirely out of use. It is either seated or concave 
like the common shoe, with a joint at the toe, by which the natural expansion of the 
foot is said to be permitted, and the injurious consequences of shoeing prevented- 
There is, however, this radical defect in the jointed shoe, that the nails occupy the 
same situation as in the common shoe, and prevent, as they do, the gradual expansion 
of the sides and quarters, and allow only of a hinge-like motion at the toe. It is a 
most imperfect accommodation of the expansion of the foot to the action of its internal 
parts, and even this accommodation is afforded in the slightest possible degree, if it 
is afforded at all. Either the nails fix the sides and quarters as in the common shoe, 
and then the joint at the toe is useless; or, if that joint merely opens like a hinge, the 
nail-holes near the toe can no longer correspond with those in the quarters, which are 
unequally expanding at every point. There will be more stress on the crust at these 
holes, which will not only enlarge them and destroy the fixed attachment of the shoe 
to the hoof, but often tear away portions of the crust. This shoe, in order to answer 
the Intended purpose, should consist of many joints, running along the sides and quar- 
ters, which would make it too complicated and expensive and frail for general use. 

While tire shoe is to be attached to the foot by nails, we must be content with the 
concave-seated or unilateral one, taking care to p3ace the nail-holes as far from the 
heels, and particularly from the inner heel, as the state of the foot and the nature of 
the work will admit ; and where the country is not too heavy nor tke work too severe- 
omitting all but two on the inner side of the foot. 

FELT OR LEATHER SOLES. 

When the foot is bruised or inflamed, the concussion or shock produced by the haul 
contact of the elastic iron with the ground gives the animal much pain, and aggra- 
vates the injury or disease. A strip of felt or leather is, therefore, sometimes placed 
between the seating of the shoe and the crust, which, from its want of elasticity, 
deadens or materially lessens the vibration or shock, and the horse treads more freely 
and is evidently relieved. This is a good contrivance while the inflammation or ten- 
«^orness of the foot continues, but a very bad practice if constantly adopted. The 
nails cannot be driven so surely or securely when this substance is interposeu between 
the shoe and the foot- The coatractioa and swelling' of the felt or leaiher from th^ 
29* 



342 ON SHOEING. 

effect of moisture or dryness will soon render the attachment of the shoe less finn— . 
there will be too much play upon the nails — the nail-holes will enlarge, and the crus» 
will be broken away. 

After wounds or extensive bruises of the sole, or where the sole is thin and flat 
and tender, it is sometimes covered with a piece cf leather, fitted to the sole, and 
nailed on with the shoe. This may be allowed as a temporary defence of the foot; 
but there is tlie same objection to its permanent use from the insecurity of fastening, 
and the strain on the crust, and the frequent chipping of it. There are also these 
additional inconveniences, that if the hollow between the sole and the leather is filled 
with stopping and tow, it is exceedingly difficult to introduce them so evenly and ac- 
curately as not to produce partial or injurious pressure. A few days' work will almost 
invariably so derange the padding, as to cause unequal pressure. The long contact 
of the sole with stopping of almost every kind will produce, not a health}', elastic 
horn, but that of a scaly, spongy nature — and if the hollow is not thus filled, gravel 
and dirt will insinuate themselves, and eat into and injure the foot. 

The general habit of stopping the feet requires some consideration. It is a very 
good or very bad practice, according to circumstances. When the sole is flat and 
ihin it should be omitted, except on the evening before shoeing, and then the appli- 
cation of a little moisture may render the paring of the foot safer and more easy. 
If it were oftener used it would soften the foot, and not only increase the tendency 
to descent, but the occasional occurrence of lameness from pebbles or irregularities 
of the road. 

Professor Stewart gives a valuable account of the proper application of stopping. 
" Farm horses seldom require any stopping. Their feet receive sufficient moisture 
in the fields, or, if they do not get much, they do not need much. Cart-horses used 
in the town should be stopped once a week, or oftener during winter, and every se- 
cond nio-ht in the hot weeks of summer. Groggy horses, and all those with high 
heels, concave shoes, or hot and tender feet, or an exuberance of horn, require stop- 
ping almost every night. When neglected, especially in dry weather, the sole 
becomes hard and rigid, and the horse goes lame, or becomes lame if he were not so 
before."* 

One of two substances, or a mixture of both, is genera.iy used for stopping the feel 
— -clay and cow-dung. The clay used alone is too hard, and dries too rapidly. Many 
horses have been lamed by it. If it is used in the stable, it should always be removed 
before the horse goes to work. It may, perhaps, be applied to the feet of heavy 
draught-horses, for it will work out before much mischief is done. 

Cow-dung is softer than the clay, and it has this good property, that it rarely oi 
never becomes too hard cr dry. For ordinary work, a mixture of equal parts of clay 
and cow-duno" will be the best application ; either of them, however, must be applied 
with a great deal of caution, where there is anj' disposition to thrush. Tow used 
alone, or with a small quantity of tar, will often be serviceable. 

In the better kind of stables, a felt pad is frequently used. It was first introduced 
by Veterinary Surgeon-General Cherry. It keeps the foot cool and moist, and is very 
useful, when the sole has a tendency to become flat. For the concave sole, tow would 
be preferable. 

The shoe is sometimes displaced when the horse is going at an ordinary pace, and 
more frequently during hunting; and no person who is a sportsman needs to be told 
in what a vexatious predicament every one feels himself who happens to lose a shoe 
in the middle of a chase, or just as the hounds are getting clear away with their fox 
over the open country. 

Mr. Perctvall has invented a sandal which occupies a very small space in the pocket, 
can be buckled on the foot in less than two m.inutes, and will serve as a perfect sub- 
stitute for the lost one, on the road, or in the field ; or may be used for the race-horse 
when travelling from one course to another; or may be truly serviceable in eases of 
diseased feet that may require at the same time exercise and daily dressing. Th« 
following is a short sketch of the horse sandal. 

* Stewart's Stable (Economy, p. 127. 



THE SANDAL. 



MX 



Toe- Clasp 

Hinge 



Toe- Clasp 




Middle Bar 
Side Bar 

Heel Clip 



Middle Bar 
Side Bar 

Heel Clip 



Rings 

From an inspection of the above cut, it will be seen that the shoe, or iron part of 
the sandal, consists of three principal parts, to which the others are appendage3 ; 
which are, the tip, so called from its resemblance to the horse-shoe of that name ; the 
iliiddle bar, the broad part proceeding backward from the tip ; and the side bars, or 
branches of the middle bar, extending to the heels of the hoof. The appendages are, 
the toe-clasp, the part projecting from the front of the tip, and which moves by a hinge 
vipon the tue-cllp, which toe-clasp is furnished with two iron loops. The heel-clips are 
two clips at the heels of tlie side bars, which correspond to the toe-clip ; the latter 
embracing the toe of the crust, while the former embrace its heels. Through the 
heel-clips run the rings, which move and act like a hinge, and are double, for the pur- 
pose of admitting both the straps. In the plate, the right ring only is represented ; 
the left being omitted, the better to show the heel-clip. The straps, which are com- 
posed of web, consist of a hoof-strap and a heel and coronet-strap. 

The hoof-strap is furnished with a buckle, whose office it is to bind the shoe to the 
;ioof ; for which purpose it is passed through the lower rings, and both loops of the 
shoe, and is made to encircle the hoof twice. 

The heel and coronet-strap is furnished with two pads and two sliding loops ; one, a 
movable pad, reposes on the heel, to defend that part from the pressure and friction 
of the strap ; the other, a pad attached to the strap near the buckle, affords a similar 
defence to the coronet, in front. The heel-strap runs through the upper rings, crosses 
the heel, and encircles the coronet ; and its office is to keep the heels of the shoe 
closely applied to the hoof, and to prevent them from sliding forward. 

In the application of the sandal, the foot is taken up with one hand, and the shoe 
slipped upon it with the other. With the same hand, the shoe is retained in its place, 
while the foot is gradually let down to rest on the grouna. As soon as this is done, 
the straps are drawn as tight as possible, and buckled. 

The following cu represents an accurate delineation of the sandal, when properlv 
fastened on the foot. 

Horses occasionally fall from bad riding, or bad shoeing, or overreaching, or an 
awkward way of setting on the saddle. The head, the neck, the knees, the back,_oi 
the legs, will oftenest suffer. It is often difficult to get the animal on his legs again, 
especially if he is old, or exhausted, or injured by the fall. The principal object is. 
to support the head, and to render it a fixed point from which the muscles may act it» 
supporting the body. 



MA 



OPERATIONS. 




It the horje is in harness, it is seldom that he can rise until he is freed from the 
shafts and traces. The first thing is to secure the head, and to keep it down, that he 
may not beat himself against the ground. Next, the parts of the harness connected 
with the carriage must be unbuckled — the carriage must then be backed a little way, 
so that he may have room to rise. If necessary, the traces must be taken off; and 
after the horse gets up, he must be steadied a little, until he collects himself. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 
OPERATIONS. 



These belong rrore to the veterinary surgeon than to the proprietor of the horse, but 
a short account of the manner of conducting the principal ones should not be omitted. 

It is frequently recessary to bind the human patient, and in no painful or dangerous 
operation should this be omitted. It is more necessary to bind the horse, who is not 
under the contrcl of reason, and whose struggles may not only be injurious to himself, 
but dangerous to the operator. 

The trevis is a machine indispensable in every continental forge ; even the quietest 
horses are there put into it to be shod. 

The side-line is a very simple and useful method of confining the horse, and placing 
him in sufficient subjection, for the operations of docking, nicking, and slight firing. 
The long line of the hobbles, or a common cart-rope, with a noose at the end, is fast- 
ened on the pastern of the hind-leg that is not to be operated on. The rope attached 
to it is then brought over the neck and round the withers, and there tied to the portion 
that comes from the leg. The leg may thus be drawn so far forward that, while the 
horse evidently cannot kick with that leg, he is disarmed of the other ; for he would 
not have sufficient support under him, if he attempted to raise it : neither can he easily 
use his fore-legs ; or, if he attempts it, one of them may be lifted up, and then he 
becomes nearly powerless. If necessary, the aid of the twitch, or the barnacles, may 
ne resorted to. 

For every minor operation, and even for many that are of more importance, this 
mode of restraint is sufficient, especially if the operator has active and determined 
Dssistants ; and we confess that we are no friends to the casting of horses, if it can 
possibly be prevented. "When both legs are included in the hobble, or rope — as m 



BLEEDING. 34b 

another way of using the side-line — the horse may appear to be more secure; biM 
there is greater danger of liis falling in his violent struggles during the operation. 

For castrating and severe firing, the animal must be thrown. The safety of the 
horse, and of the operator, will require the use of the improved hobbles, by which any 
leg may be released from confinement, and returned to it at pleasure ; and, when the 
operation is ended, the whole of the legs may be set at liberty at once, without 
ilanger. The method of putting the legs as closely together as possible before the 
pull — the necessity of the assistants all pulling together — and the power which one 
man standing at the head, and firmly holding the snaffle-bridle, and another at the 
haunch, pushing the horse when he is beginning to fall, have in bringing him on the 
proper side, and on the very spot on which he is intended to lie, need not to be 
described. It will generally be found most convenient to throw the patients on the 
off side, turning them over when it is required. This, however, is a method of 
securing the horse to which we repeat that we are not partial, and to which we should 
not resort, except necessity compelled ; for in the act of falling, and in the struggles 
after falling, many accidents have occurred, both to the horse and the surgeon.* 

Among the minor methods of restraint, but sufficient for many purposes, are the 
twitch and the hnrnaclcs. The former consists of a noose passed through a hole at the 
end of a strong stick, and in which the muzzle is inclosed. The stick being turned 
round, the muzzle is securely retained, while the horse sutfers considerable pain from 
the pressure — sufficiently great, indeed, to render him comparatively inattentive to 
that which is produced by the operation ; at the same time he is afraid to struggle, for 
every motion increases the agony caused by the twitch, or the assistant has power tc 
Increase it by giving an additional turn to the stick. 

The degree of pain produced by the application of the twitch should never be for- 
o-otten or unnecessarily increased. In no case should it be resorted to when milder 
measures would have the desired effect. Grooms and horsekeepers are too much in 
the habit of having recourse to it when they have a somewhat troublesome horse to 
manage. The degree of useless torture which is thus inflicted in large establishments 
is dreadful ; and the temper of many a horse is too frequently completely spoiled. 

The harnacles are the handles of the pincers placed over and inclosing the muzzle, 
and which, being compressed by the assistant, give pain almost equal to that of the 
twitch. These may appear to be barbarous modes of enforcing submission, but thej 
are absolutely indispensable. In a ^ew instances the blindfolding of the horse terri 
fies him into submission ; but this is not to be depended upon. The twitch should bo 
resorted to when the least resistance is offered ; and when that, as it occasionally does, 
renders the horse more violent, recourse must be had to the side-line or the hobbles. 

In the painful examination of the fore-leg or foot while on the ground, the othei 
foot should be held up by an assistant; or, if his aid is required in an operation, tho 
knee may be fully bent, and the pastern tied up to the arm. When the hind-leg i3 
to be examined in the same way, the fore-leg on that side should be held or fastenec" 
up. 

BLEEDING. 

The operation of bleeding has been already described (p. 189), but we would remind 
our readers of the necessity, in every case of acute inflammation, of making a large 
orifice, and abstracting the blood as rapidly as possible, for the constitution will thus 
be the more speedily and beneficially aflTected ; and also of the propriety of nevei 
determining to take a precise quantity of blood, but of keeping the finger on the artery 
until the pulse begins to falter, or the strong beating of fever becomes softer, or the 
animal is faint, or the oppressed pulse of inflammation of the lungs is rounder ana 
fuller. . 

In cases of inflammation, and in the hands of a skilful practitioner, bleeding is the 
sheet-anchor of the veterinarian ; yet few things are more to be reprobated than the 
indiscriminate bleeding of the groom or the farrier. 

The change which takes place in the blood after it is drawn from the vein is dili 
gently noticed by many practitioners, and is certainly deserving of some attention. 

* The safest and best hobbles, are those invented by Mr. Gloag, and improved by Mr. Daws 
&f represented in the Veterinarian, vo' x. p. 108, and vol. xi. p. 163. The humb-screw (fig. 3 
should, however, bo inverted. 

2t 



346 OPERATIONS. 

The blood coagulates soon after it is taken from the vein. The coagtilable part is 
composed of two substances : that which gives colour to the blood, and that in whicn 
the red particles float. These, by degrees, separate from each other, and the red par- 
ticles sink to the bottom. If the coagulation takes place slowly, the red particles 
have more time to sink through the fluid, and there appears on the top a thick, yel- 
lowish, adhesive substance, called the buffy coat. The slowness of the coagulation 
and the thickness of bufly coat are indicative of inflammation, and of the degree of 
inflammation. 

In a healthy state of the system, the coagulation is more rapid, the red particles 
have not time to fall through, and the buff"y coat is thin. These appearances are 
worth observing ; but much more dependence is to be placed on the chara-^ter and 
chano-e of the pulse, and the symptoms generally. "When the horse is exhausted and 
the system nearly broken up, the blood will sometimes not coagulate but oe of one 
uniform black colour and loose texture. When the blood runs down the side of the 
vessel in which it is received, the coagulation will be very imperfect. When it is 
drawn in a full stream, it coagulates slowly, and when procured from a smaller orifice, 
the coagulation is more rapid. Every circumstance afiecting the coaguiation and 
appearance of the blood, the pulse, and the general symptoms, should be most atten- 
tively regarded. 

A great deal of mystery is associated with bleeding in the management of the racer 
and the hunter. The labour of the turf and the field having ceased, there is frequently 
some difficulty in preventing a plethoric state of the constitution — a tendency to 
inflammatory complaints. If the horse is rapidly accumulating flesh, it may be pru- 
dent to abstract blood, dependent in quantity on the age and constitution of the ani- 
mal. Attention to this may prevent many a horse from going wrong; but the custom 
that once prevailed of bleeding every horse a fortnight or more after the racing oi 
hunting season had passed, is decidedly objectionable. 

As preparatory to work, bleeding is far from being so much employed as it used to 
be. As a universal practice, when the horse is first taken from grass, it now scarcely 
exists. It would not always be objected to, if the horse was fat and full of flesh, but, 
otherwise, it is a custom more honoured in the breach than the observance. It cer- 
tainly produces very considerable elfect. More rapidly than any species of diet — 
more rapidly than any sweating or purging ; it reduces the condition of the horse, but, 
we have often thought, at the expense of those essentials to life and health that cannot 
be easily replaced. 

BLISTERING. 

We have spoken of the eff'ect of blisters, when treating of the various diseases to 
which they are applicable. The principle on which they act is, that no two intense 
inflammations can exist in neighbouring parts, or perhaps in the system, at the same 
time. Hence we apply some stimulating acrimonious substance to the skin, in order 
to excite external inflammation, and thus lessen or remove that which exists in some 
deeper seated and, generally, not far distant part. Hence, also, we blister the sides 
in inflammation of the lungs — the abdomen in that of the bowels — the legs in that of 
the cellular substance surrounding the sheaths of the tendons, or the sheaths them- 
selves, and the coronet or the heel in inflammation of the navicular joint. 

Blisters have likewise the property of increasing the activity of the neighbouring 
vessels : thus we blister to bring the tumour of strangles more speedily to a head — tp 
rouse the absorbents generally to more energetic action, and cause the disappearance 
of tumours, and even callous and bony substances. 

The judgment of the practitioner will decide whether the desired effect will be best 
produced by a sudden and violent action, or by the continuance of one of a mildei 
character. Inflammation should be met by active blisters; old enlargements nnc 
swellings will be most certainly removed by milder stimulants — by the process which 
farriers call sweatinc^ down. 

There are few more active or effectual blisters than the Spanish fly, mixed with tho 
proportions of lard and resin that will he hereafter stated. The best liquid or sweat- 
ing blister is an infusion of the fly in spirit of turpentine, and that lowered with neat/s 
foot oil, according to the degree of activity required. 

In preparing the horse for blistering, the hair should be clipped or shaved as closelv 
as possible, and the ointment thoroughly rubbed in. Much fault is often found wiib 



FIRING. 347 

ihe ointment if the blister does not rise, but the failure is generally to be attributed to 

the idleness of the operator. 

The head of the horse should be tied up during the first two days ; except inat, 
when the sides are blistered, the body-clothes may be so contrived as to prevent the 
animal from nibbling and blemishing the part, or blistering his muzzle. At the expi- 
ration of twenty-four hours, a little olive or neat's foot oil should be applied over the 
blister, which will considerably lessen the pain and supple the part, and prevent cracks 
in the skin that may be difficult to heal. The oil should be applied morning and 
night, until the scabs peel off. When they begin to loosen, a lather of soap and watei 
applied with a sponge may hasten their removal, but no violence must be used. 

Every particle of litter should be carefully removed from the stall, for the sharp 
ends of the straw coming in contact with a part rendered so tender and irritable by 
the blister, will cause a very great annoyance to the animal. After the second day 
the horse may be sutfered to lie down ; but the possibility of blemishing himself 
should be prevented by a cradle or wooden necklace, consisting of round strips of 
wood, strung together, reaching from the lower jaw to the chest, and preventing him 
from sufficiently turning or bending his head to get at the blistered part. 

A blister thus treated will rarely produce the slightest blemish. When the scabs 
are all removed, the blister may be repeated, if the case should appear to require it, 
or the horse may be turned out. 

In inflammations which threaten life, a blister can scarcely be too active or exten- 
sive. In inflammation of the lungs it should reach over the whole of the sides, and 
the greater part of the brisket, for, should a portion of the fly be absorbed, and produce 
siranti;v.ry (inflammation, or spasmodic affection of the neck of the bladder,) even this 
new irritation may assist in subJuing the first and more dangerous one. In blistering, 
however, for injuries or diseases of the legs or feet, some caution is necessary. When 
speaking of the treatment of sprain of the back sinews, p. 371, it was stated, that " a 
blister should never be used while any heat or tenderness remained about the part," 
for we should then add to the superficial inflammation, instead of abating the deeper- 
seated one, and enlargements of the limb and extensive ulcerations might follow, 
which would render the horse perfectly unserviceable. When there is a tendency to 
o-rease, a blister is a dangerous thing, and has often aggravated the disease. In winter, 
The inflammation of the skin produced by blistering is apt to degenerate into grease; 
therefore, if it should be necessary to blister the horse during that season, great care 
must be taken that he is not exposed to cold, and, particularly, that a current of cold 
air does not come upon the legs. 

The inhuman practice of blistering all round at the same time, and perhaps high on 
the leo-s, cannot be too strongly reprobated. Many a valuable horse has been lost 
through the excessive general irritation which this has produced, or its violent effect 
on the urinary organs ; and that has been particularly the case, when corrosive subli- 
mate has entered into the composition of the blister. 

If strangury should appear, the horse should lie plentifully supplied with linseed 
tea, whiclws thus best prepared — a gallon of boiling water is thrown on half a pound 
of linseed ; the infusion suffered to stand until nearly cold, and the clean mucilaginous 
fluid then poured off. Three-quarters of a pound of Epsom salts should also be given, 
dissolved in a quart of water, and, after that, a ball every six hours, containing opium, 
and camphor, with linseed meal and treacle. 

Half a pound or a pound of good mustard powder, made into a paste with boiling 
water, and applied hot, will often produce as good a blister as cantharides. _ It is a 
preferable one, when, as in inflammation of the kidneys, the effect of cantharides on 
the urinary organs is feared. Hartshorn is not so effectual. Tincture of croton 
makes an active liquid blister, and so do some of the preparations of iodine. 

FIRING. 

Whatever seeming cruelty may attend this operation, it is in many cases indis- 
pensable. The principle on which we have recourse to it is similar to that which 
justifies the use of a blister— by producing superficial inflammation we maybe enabled 
'o o-et rid of a deeper-seated one. or we may excite the absorbents to rernove an 
unnatural bony or other tumour. It raises more intense external inflammation than 
we can produce by any other means. It may be truly said to be the most powerful 
agent that we have at our disposal. Humanity, however, will dictate, that on account 



3-18 OPERAl iONS. 

of the inflammation which it excites, ari'l \\io pain it inflicts, it should only he had 
recourse to when milder means rarely succcetl. 

The part which is to be submitted to I lie operation should be shaved, or the hair 
cut from it as closely as possible with the dimming scissors. This is necessary in 
order to bring the iron into immediate conl.iri with the skin, and likewise to prevent 
the smoke that will arise from the burned liair obscuring the view of the operator. 
The horse must then be thrown. This is alsnlutely necessary for the safety both of 
the operator and the animal. The side lint^ may be applied in a shorter time, and so 
many hands may not be wanted to cast the horse ; but no person can fire accurately, 
or with the certainty of not penetrating the skin, except the animal is effectually 
secured by the hobbles. Although accidents have occurred in the act of casting, yet 
many more have resulted to the operator, the assistants, or the horse, in a protracted 
operation, when the side-line only has been used. 

The details of the operation belong to the veterinary surgeon. The grand points to 
be attended to are to have the edge of the ii<in round and smooth — the iron itself at, 
or rather below a red heat — to pass it more oi less rapidly over the skin, and with 
slighter or greater pressure, according to the degree of heat — to burn into the skin 
until the line produced by the iron is of a hr<»\vn colour, rather light than dark, and, 
oy all means, in common cases, to avoid penituiiinrr the skin. Leaving out of the 
4uestion the additional cruelty of deep firing, w hen not absolutely required, we may 
depend on it that if the skin is burned thicnioh, inflammation, and ulceration, and 
sloughing will ensue, that will be with much dilliculty combated — that will unavoida- 
bly leave unnecessary blemish, and that has di^stioyed many valuable horses. Itmay 
happen, nevertheless, that by a sudden plung(^ df the animal the skin will be una- 
voidably cut through. The act of firing rcquiies much skill and tact, and the practi- 
tioner cannot be always on his guard against llie struggles of the tortured beast. 
It will, also, and not unfrequently, occur that the skin, partially divided, will separate 
in two or three days after the operation. This must not be attributed to any 
neglect or unskilfulness of the surgeon, and the ulceration thus produced will be 
slight and easily treated, compared with that caused by actually burning through ihe 
skin. 

A very considerable change has taken place in the breed of many of the varieties 
of the horse, and the labour exacted from him. As illustrations of this we refer to 
the altered character and pace of the modern hunter and the additional increase of 
speed requited from the coach and the post horse ; the exertion being limited only by 
the degree to which every muscle and every nerve can be extended, while the calcu- 
lation between the utmost exaction of cruelty and the expenditure of vital power, is 
reduced to the merest fraction. The consequence of this is, that the horse is subjected 
to severer injuries than he used to be, and severer measures are and must be employed 
to remedy the evil. Hence the horrible applications of the actual cautery to the horse 
that have disgraced the present day. Lesions — gashes have been made on either side 
of the tendon of the leg, which it took no fewer than seven months to heal. Was 
there nothing short of this lengthened torture tliat could have been done to relieve the 
victim] Could he not have been more lightly fired for the road or for the purposes 
of breeding 1 Was there no pasture on which he had earned a right to graze ? — or 
could he not have been destroyed ] These sad lesions will occasionally come before 
the practitioner and the owner. It will be for the first, to advocate that, which, on a 
careful view of the case, mercy prompts ; and the latter, except there is a reasonable 
prospect of ultimate enjoyment, as well as usefulness, should never urge a continua- 
tion of suffering. 

Supposing, however, that prospect to exist, the surgeon must discharge his duty. 
These gashes, after a while, begin to close, and then commences the beautiful process 
•Df granulation. Little portions of the integument form on the centre of the wound, 
find the sides of the wound creep closer together, and the skin steals over the surface, 
until the chasm is perfectly closed. In order to insure the continuance of this, a ridge 
of contracted integument as hard as any cartilage, but without its elasticity, runs from 
one end of the lesion to the other, tighter, and harder, and more eff'pctual every week 
rtnd month, and year, and lasting during the life of the animal. Therefore, the vete- 
rinary surgeon is not to be too severely censured, if, after due consideration, he is 
•nduced to undertake one of these fearful operations : but let him do it ^rj seldom as 
lie can, and only when everj' circumstance promises a favourable result. 



SETONS. 349 

Some practitioners blister immediately after firing. As a general usage it is highly 
to be reprobated. It is wanton and useless cruelty. It may be required in bony 
tumours of considerable extent, and long standing, and interfering materially with the 
action of the neighbouring joint. Spavin accompanied by much lameness, and ring- 
bone spreading round the coronet and involving the side cartilages or the pastern 
joint, may justify it. The inflammation is rendered more intense, and of considera- 
bly longer duration. In old affections of the round bone it may be admitted, but nc- 
excuse can be made for it in the slighter cases of sprain or weakness, or staleness. 

On the day after the operation, it will be prudent gently to rub some neat's foot oil, 
or lard over thewsund. This will soften the skin, and render it less likely to sepa- 
rate or ulcerate. A bandage would add to the irritation of the part. Any cracks of 
the skin or ulceration that may ensue, must be treated with the calamine ointment. 

It will be evident that there is an advantage derived from firing to which a blister 
can have no pretension. The skin, partially destrayed by the iron, is reinstated and 
healed, not merely by the formation of some new matter filling up the vacuity, but by 
the gradual drawing together and closing of the separated edges. The skin, there- 
fore, is lessened in surface. It is tightened over the part, and it acts as just described, 
as a salutary and permanent bandage. Of the effect of pressure in removing en- 
largements of every kind, as well as giving strength to the part to which it is ap- 
plied, we have repeatedly spoken ; and it is far from being the least valuable effect 
of the operation of firing, that, by contracting the skin, it affords a salutary, equable, 
and permanent pressure. It was on this principle, but the practice cannot be de- 
fended, that colts which were not very strong on the legs, used to be fired round 
the fetlock, and along the back sinew, or over the hock, in order to brace and 
strengthen the parts. It is on the same principle that a racer or hunter, that has 
become stale and stiff, is sometimes fired and turned out. For whatever reason the 
horse is fired, he should, if possible, be turned out, or soiled in a loose box, for 
three or four months at least. The full effect intended to result from the external irri- 
tation is not soon produced, and the benefit derived from pressure proceeds still moie 
slowly. In the thickened and tender state of the skin, and the substance beneath, 
a return to hard work, for some weeks after firing, would be likely to excite new 
inflammation, and cause even worse mischief than that which before existed. 

Some weeks pass before the tumefied parts begin to contract, and they only, whc 
have had experience in these cases, can imagine how long, with gentle voluntary 
exercise, the process of "absorption is carried on. He who would expect that much 
good should accrue from the operation of firing, must be content to give up his horse 
for three or four months ; but if he will use him sooner, and a worse lameness should 
follow, let him blame his own impatience, and not the inefiiciency of the means, or 
the want of skill in the surgeon. 

The firing in every case should be either in longitudinal or parallel lines. On the 
back sinews, the fetlock, and the coronet, this is peculiarly requisite, for thus only 
will the skin contract so as to form the greatest and most equable pressure. 

Some practitioners may pride themselves on the accuracy of their diamonds, lozenges 
and feathers, but plain straight lines, about half an inch from each other, will consti- 
tute the most advantageous mode of firing. The destroying of deeply-seated inflam- 
mation, by the exciting of violent inflammation on the skin, is as well obtained; and 
common sense will determine, that in no way can the pressure which results from the 
contraction of the skin be so advantageously employed — to which may be added, that 
it often leaves not the slightest blemish. 

SETONS 

Are pieces of tape or cord, passed, by means of an instrument resembling a large 
needle, either through abscesses, or the base of ulcers with deep sinuses, or between 
the skin and the muscular or other substances beneath. They are retained there by 
the ends being tied together, or by a knot at each end. The tape is moved in the 
wound twice °or thrice in the day, and occasionally wetted with spirit of turpentine, 
or some acrid fluid, in order to increase the inflammation which it produces, or thp 
discharge which is intended to be established. 

In abscesses, such as occur in the withers or the poll, and when passed frcm the 
summit to the very bottom of the swelling, setons are highly useful, by discharging 
tlie purulent fluid and suffering any fresh quantity of it that may be secreted to flow 
30 



350 OPERATIONS. 

cut; and, by the degree of inflammation which they excite on the interior of tho 
lumour, stimulating it to throw out healthy granulations which gradually occupy and 
till the hollow. In deep fistulous wounds they are indispensable, for except some 
channel is made through which the matter may flow from tlie bottom of the wound, 
it will continue to penetrate deeper into the part, and the healing process will never 
be accomplished. On these accounts, a seton passed through the base of the ulcer 
in poll-evil and fistulous withers is of so much benefit. 

Selons are sometimes useful by promoting a discharge in the neighbourhood of an 
inflamed part, and thus diverting and carrying away a portion of the fluids which dis- 
tend or overload the vessels of that part : thus a seton is placed with considerable 
advantage in the cheek, when the eyes are much inflamed. We confess, however 
that we prefer a rowel under the jaw. 

With this view, and to excite a new and different inflammation in the neighbour- 
hood of a part already inflamed, and especially so deeply seated and so difficult to be 
reached as the navicular joint, a seton has occasionally been used with manifest ben- 
efit, but we must peremptorily object to the indiscriminate use of the frog-seton for 
almost every disease of the frog or the foot. 

In inflammations of extensive organs, setons afl"ord only feeble aid. Their action 
is too circumscribed. In inflammation of the chest or the intestines, a rowel is pre- 
ferable to a seton; and a blister is far better than either of them. 

On the principle of exciting the absorbents to action for the removal of tumours, as 
spavin or splent, a blister is quicicer in its action, and far more eff"ectual than any se- 
ton. Firing is still more useful. 

DOCKING. 

The shortening of the tail of the horse is an operation which fashion and the 
convenience of the rider require to be performed on most of these animals. The 
length of the dock, or stump, is a matter of mere caprice. To the close-cropped 
tail of the wagon-horse, however, we decidedly object, from its perfect ugliness, 
and because the animal is deprived of every defence against a thousand tortures. 
The supposition that the blood which would have gone to the nourishment of the 
tail, causes greater development and strength in the quarters, is too absurd to de- 
serve serious refutation. It is the rump of the animal being wholly uncovered, and 
not partly hidden by the intervention of the tail, that gives a false appearance of in- 
creased bulk. 

The operation is simple. That joint is searched for which is the nearest to the 
desired length of tail. The hair is then turned up, and tied round with tape for an 
inch or two above this joint; and that which lies immediately upon the joint is cut 
off. The horse is fettered with the side-line, and then the veterinary surgeon with 
his docking-machine, or the farmer with his carving-knife and mallet, cuts through 
the tail at one stroke. Considerable bleeding ensues, and frightens the timid and 
the ignorant; but if the blood were suffered to flow on until it ceased of its own 
accord, the colt, and especially if he were very young, would rarely be seriously 
injured. As, however, the bleeding would occasionally continue for some hours, 
and a great quantity of blood might be lost, and the animal might be somewhat 
weakened, it is usual to stop the hannorrhage by the application of a red-hot iron 
to the stump. A large hole is made in the centre of the iron, that the bone may not 
be seared, which would exfoliate if it were burned with any severity, or drop off at 
the joint above, and thus shorten the dock. The iron rests on the muscular parts 
round the bone, and is brought into contact with the bleeding vessels, and very 
speedily stops the haemorrhage. Care should be taken that the iron is not too hot, — 
and that it is not held too long or too forcibly on the part, for many more horses would 
be destroyed by severe application of the cautery, than by the bleeding being left to 
its own course. 

Powdered resin sprinkled on the stump, or indeed any other application, is worse 
than useless. It causes unnecessary irritation, and sometimes extensive ulceration; 
but if the simple iron is moderately applied, the horse may go to work immediately 
after the operation, and no dressing will be afterwards required. If a slight bleeding 
«hould occur after the cautery, it is much better to let it alone than to run the risk oi 
inflammation or locked-jaw, by re-applying the iron with greater severity. 

Some fa/mers dock their colts a few days after they are dropped. This is & coni- 



NICKING. 351 

mendable custom on the score of humanity. No colt was ever lost by it ; and neither 
the growth of the hair, nor the beauty of the tail, is in the least impaired. 

NICKING. 

This barbarous operation was once sanctioned by fashion, and the breeder and the 
dealer even now are sometimes tempted to inflict the torture of it in order to obtain a 
ready sale for their colts. It is not, however, practised to the extent that it used to 
be, nor attended by so many circumstances of cruelty. 

We must here introduce a small portion of the anatomy of the horse, which we 
had reserved for this place. The eighteen dorsal vertebrae or bones of the back (see 
d, p. 167), and the hve lumbar vertebrae or bonesof the loins {f, p. 167), have already 
been described. The continuation of the spine consists of the sacrum, composed of 
five bones (A, p. 167), which, although separate in the colt, are in the full-grown 
horse united into one mass. The bones of the ilium, the upper and side portion of 
the haunch, articulate strongly with the sacrum, forming a bony union rather than a 
joint. The spinal marrow and the blood-vessels here generally begin to diminish, 
and numerous branches of nerves are given out, which, joined by some from the ver 
tebrae of the loins, form the nervous apparatus of the hind-legs. 

The bones of the tail (i, p. 167) are a continuation of tho^e of the sacrum. They 
are fifteen in number, gradually diminishing in size, and losing altogether the charac- 
ter of the spinal vertebrae. Prolongations of the spinal marrow run through the whole 
of them, and likewise some arterial vessels, which are a continuation of those which 
supply the sacrum. Much attention is paid by persons who are acquainted with the 
true form of the horse to this continuation of the sacral and tail-bones. From tike 
loins to the setting on of the tail the line should be nearly straight, or inclining only 
a slight degree downward. There is not a surer test of the breed of the horse than 
this straight line from the loins to the tail ; nor, as was shown when the muscles of 
tlie quarters were described, is there any circumstance so much connected with the 
mechanical advantage with which these muscles act. 

The tail seems to be designed to perfect the beauty of the horse's form. There are 
three sets of muscles belonging to the tail — the erector coccygis, situated on the supe- 
rior and lateral part of it, and by the action of which (rf, p. 282) the tail may be both 
elevated and drawn on one side — the depressor coccygis, on the inferior and lateral part 
of it, by the action of which the tail may be both lowered and drawn on one side — 
and the curvalor coccygh, by the action of which the tail may be curved or flexed on 
either side. The depressor and lateral muscles are more powerful than the erector 
ones, and when the horse is undisturbed, the tail is bent down close on the buttocks ; 
but when he is excited, and particularly when he is at speed, the erector muscles are 
called into action, the tail is elevated, and there is an appearance of energy and spirit 
which adds materially to his beauty. To perpetuate this, the operation of nicking 
was contrived. The depressor muscles and part of the lateral ones are cut through, 
and the erector muscles, left without any antagonists, keep the tail in a position more 
or less erect, according to the whim of the operator or the depth to which the incisions 
have been carried. 

The operation is thus performed. The side-line is put on the horse, or some per- 
sons deem it more prudent to cast him, and that precaution we should be disposed to 
recommend. The hair at the end of the tail is securely tied together, for the purpose 
of afterwards attaching a weight to it. Tlie operator then grasps the tail in his hand, 
and, lifting it up, feels for the centre of one of the bones — the prominences at the 
extremities will guide him — from two to four inches from the root of the tail, accord- 
ing to the size of the horse. He then, with a sharp knife, divides the muscles deeply 
from the edge of the tail on one side to the centre, and, continuing the incision across 
the bone of the tail, he makes it as deep on the other side. One continued incision, 
steadily yet rapidly made, will accomplish all this. If it is a blood-horse that is 
operated on, this will be sufllicient. For a hunter, two incisions are usually made, the 
second being about two inches below the first, and likewise as nearly as possible in 
the centre of one of the bones. 

On a hackney, or cocktail, a third incision is made ; for fashion has decided that hi* 



352 OPERATIONS. 

tail shall be still more elevated and curved. Two incisions only are made in the tail 
ot a mare, and the second not very deep. 

When the second incision is made, some fibres of the muscles between the first and 
second will project into the wound, and must be removed by a pair of curved scissors. 
The same must be done with the projecting portions from between the second and 
third incisions. The wounds should then be carefully examined, in order to ascer- 
tain thai the muscles have been equally divided on each side, otherwise the tail will 
be carried awry. 'J'his being done, pledgets of tow must be introduced deeply into 
each incision, and confined, but not too tightly, by a bandage. Avery profuse bleed- 
ing will alone justify any tightness of bandage, and the ill consequences tnat have 
resvilied from nicking are mainly attributable to the unnecessary force that is used in 
confining these pledgets. Even if the bleeding, immediately after the operation, 
should have been very great, the roller must be loosened in two or three hours, other- 
wise swelling and inflammation, and even death, may possibly ensue. Twenty-four 
hours after the operation, the bandage must be quite removed ; and then, all that is 
necessary, so far as the healing of the incisions is concerned, is to keep them clean. 

If, however, the tail were suffered to hang down, the divided edges of the muscles 
would again come in contact with each other, and close ; the natural depression of 
the tail would remain; and the animal would have been punished for no purpose. 
The wounds must remain open, and thai can only be accomplished by forcibly keeping 
the tail curved back during two or three weeks. For this purpose a cord, one or two 
feet in length, is affixed to the end of the hair, which terminates in another divided 
cord, each division going over a pulley on either side of the back of the stall. A 
weight is hung at either extremity sufficient to keep the incisions properly open, and 
regulated by the degree in which this is wished to be accomplished. The animal 
will thus be retained in an uneasy position, although, after the first two or three days, 
probably not one of acute pain. It is barbarous to increase this uneasiness or pain 
by affixing ♦oo great a weight to the cords ; for it should be remembered that the 
proper elcv-ated curve is given to the tail, not by the weight keeping it in a certain 
position for a considerable time, but by the depth of the first incisions, and the degree 
in w^hich the wounds are kept open. By every ounce of weight beyond that which is 
necessary to keep the incisions apart, unnecessary suffering is infiicted. Some prac- 
titioners use only one pulley ; others do not use any, but put on a light girth, and tie 
a cord from the end of the tail to the girth, bending it over the back. The double 
pulley, however, is the least painful to the horse, and more perfectly secures the 
proper elevation and straight direction of the tail. 

The dock should not — for the first three or four days — be brought higher than the 
back. Dangerous irritation and inflammation would probably be produced. It may, 
after that, be gradually raised to an elevation of forty-five degrees. The horse should 
be taken out of the pulleys, and gently exercised once or twice every day ; but the 
pulleys cannot finally be dispensed with until a fortnight after the wounds have 
healed, because the process of contraction, or the approach of the divided parts, goes 
on for some time after the skin is perfect over the incisions, and the tail would thus 
sink below the desired elevation. 

If the tail has not been unnecessarily extended by enormous weights, no bad conse- 
quences will usually follow ; but if considerable inflammation should ensue, the tui] 
must be taken from the pulley and diligently fomented with simple warm water, and 
a dose of physic given. Locked-jaw has in some rare instances followed, under 
which the horse generally perishes. The best means of cure in the early state of this 
disease is to amputate the tail at the joint above the highest incision. In order to 
jjrevent the hair from coming off", it should be unplaited and combed out every fourtli 
or fifth day. 



RESTIVENESS. 353 



CHAPTER XIX. 

THE VICES AND DISAGREEABLE OR DANGEROUS HABITS OF 

THE HORSE. 

The horse has many excellent qualities, but he has likewise defects, and these 
occasionally amounting to vices. Some of them may be attributed to natural temper, 
for the human being scarcely discovers more peculiarities of habit and disposition 
than does the horse. The majority of them, hovi'ever, as perhaps in the human being, 
are the consequences of a faulty education. Their early instructor has been ignorant 
and brutal, and they have become obstinate and vicious. 

RESTIVENESS. 

At the head of all the vices of the horse is restiveness, the most annoying and the 
most dangerous of all. It is the produce of bad temper and vs^orse education; and, 
like all other habits founded on nature and stamped by education, it is inveterate. 
Whether it appears in the form of kicking, or rearing, or plunging, or bolting, or in 
any vray that threatens danger to the rider or the horse, it rarely admits of cure. A 
determined rider may to a certain extent subjugate the animal ; or the horse may have 
his favourites, or form his attachments, and with some particular person he may be 
comparatively or perfectly manageable; but others cannot long depend upon him, and 
even his master is not always sure of him. It is a rule, that admits of very few 
exceptions, that he neither displays his wisdom nor consults his safety, who attempts 
to conquer a restive horse. 

An excellent veterinary surgeon, and a man of great experience in horses, Mr. 
Castley, truly said, in "The Veterinarian," — "From whatever cause the vicious 
habits of horses may originate, whether from some mismanagement or from natural 
badness of temper, or from what is called in Yorkshire a mislech, whenever these 
animals acquire one of them, and it becomes in some degree confirmed, they very 
seldom, if ever, altogether forget it. In reference to driving it is so true, that it 
may be taken as a kind of aphorism, that if a horse kicks once in harness, no 
matter from what cause, he will be liable to kick ever afterwards. A good coach- 
man may drive him, it is true, and may make him go, but he cannot make him 
forget his vice; and so it is in riding. You may conquer a restive horse — you may 
make him go quiet for months, nay, almost for years together ; but I affirm that, under 
other circumstances, and at some future opportunity, he will be sure to return to his 
old tricks." 

Mr. Castley gives two singular and conclusive instances of the truth of this doc- 
trine. " When a very young man," says he, " I remember purchasing a horse at a 
fair in the north of England, that was offered very cheap, on account of his being 
unmanageable. It was said that nobody could ride him. We found that the animal 
objected to have anything placed upon his back, and that, when made to move for- 
ward with nothing more than a saddle on, he instantly threw himself down on his 
side with great violence, and would then endeavour to roll upon his back. 

'* There was at that time in Yorkshire, a famous colt-breaker, known by the name 
of Jumper, who was almost as celebrated in that country for taming vicious horses 
into submission, as the famed Whisperer was in Ireland. W'e put this animal into 
Jumper's hands, who took him away, and in about ten days brought him home again, 
certainly not looking worse in condition, but perfectly subdued, and almost as obedient 
as a dog ; for he would lie down at this man's bidding, and only rise again at his 
command, and carry double or anything. I took to riding him myself, and may say, 
that I was never better carried for six or eight months, during which time he did not 
show the least vice whatever. I then sold him to a Lincolnshire farmer, who said 
that he would give him a summer's run at grass, and show him as a very fine horse 
at the great Horncastle fair, 

"Happening to meet this gentleman in the following year, I naturally encnuh 
inquired after my old friend. ' Oh,' said he, 'that was a bad business — the horse ' 
liimed out a sad rebel. The first time we attempted t .• mount him, after getting him 
3&* 2u 



354 VICES AND DEFECTS OF THE HORSE. 

'.ip from grass, he in an instant threw the man down with the greatest violence, pitch- 
■jig him several yards over his head ; and after that, he threw every one that attempted 
to get on his back. If he could not throw his rider, he luovld throw himself down. 
We could do nothing with him, and I was obliged at last to sell him to go in a stage- 
coach.' " 

In the next story, Jumper's counterpart and superior, the Irish Whisperer, is brought 
on the stage, and although he performed wonders, he could not radically cure a restive 
horse. "At the Spring Meeting of 1804, Mr. Whalley's King Pippin was brought 
on the Curragh of Kildare to run. He was a horse of the most extraordinary savage 
and vicious disposition. His particular propensity was that o{ Jlying at and worry- 
ing any person who came within his reach ; and if he had an opportunity, he would 
get his head round, seize his rider by the leg with his teeth, and drag him down from 
his back. For this reason, he was always ridden with what is called a sword; which 
is a strong flat stick, having one end attached to the cheek of the bridle, and the other 
to the girth of the saddle, a contrivance to prevent a horse of this kind from getting 
at his rider. 

" King Pippin had long been difficult to manage, and dangerous to go near to ; but 
on the occasion in question, he could not be got out to run at all. Nobody could put 
the bridle upon his head. It being Easter Monday, and consequently a great holiday, 
there was a large concourse of people assembled at the Curragh, consisting princi- 
pally of the neighbouring peasantry; and one countryman, more fearless than the 
rest of the lookers-on, forgetting, or perhaps never dreaming that the better part of 
courage is discretion, volunteered his services to bridle the horse. No sooner had he 
committed himself in this operation, than King Pippin seized him somewhere about 
the shoulders and chest, and, says Mr. Watts (Mr. Castley's informant), 'I know of 
nothing I can compare it to, so much as a dog shaking a rat.' Fortunately for the 

foor fellow, his body was very thickly covered with clothes, for on such occasions an 
rishman of this class is fond of displaying his wardrobe; and if he has three coats at 
all in the world, he is sure to put them all on. 

"This circumstance, in all probability, saved the individual who had so gallantly 
volunteered the forlorn hope. His person was so deeply enveloped in extra integu- 
ments, that the horse never got fairly hold of his skin, and I understand that he 
escaped with but little injury, beside the sadly rent and totally ruined state of his 
holyday toggery. 

"The W'hisperer was sent for, who, having arrived, was shut up with the horse all 
night, and in the morning he exhibited this hitherto ferocious animal, following him 
about the course like a dog — lying down at his command — suffering his mouth to be 
opened, and any person's hand to be introduced into it — in short, as quiet almost as a 
sheep. 

" He came out the same meeting, and won his race, and his docility continued 
satisfactory for a considerable time ; but at the end of about three years his vice returned, 
and then he is said to have killed a man, for which he was destroyed." 

It may not be uninteresting, in this connexion, to give some account of this tamer 
of quadruped vice. However strange and magical his power may seem to be, there 
is no doubt of the truth of the account that is given of him. The Rev. Mr. Town- 
send, in his Statistical Survey of Cork, first introduced him to the notice of the public 
generally, althougli his fame had long spread over that part of Ireland. We, how- 
ever, give the following extract from Croker's Fairy Legends and Traditions of ire- 
land. Part II, p. 200, for his performances seem the work of some elfih sprite, rathei 
than of a rude and ignorant horse-breaker. 

" He was an awkward, ignorant rustic of the lowest class, of the name of Sullivan, 
but better known by the appellation of the Whisperer. His occupation was horse- 
oreaking. The nickname he acquired from the vulgar notion of his being able to 
communicate to the animal what he wished by means of a whisper; and the singu- 
larity of his method seemed in some degree to justify the supposition. In his own 
neighbourhood, the notoriety of the fact made it seem less remarkable; but I doubt if 
any instance of similar subjugating talent is to be found on record. As far as the 
sphere of his control extended, the boast of veni, vidi, vici, was more justly claimed 
by Sullivan, than even by Ca5sar himself. 

" How his art was acquired, and in what it consisted, is likely to be for ever 
unknown, as he has lately (about 1810) left the world without divulging it. His eon 



RESTIVENESS. 355 

who follows the same trade, possesses but a small portion of the art, having either 
never learned the true secret, or being incapable of putting it into practice. The 
wonder of his skill consisted in the celerity of the operation, which was performed in 
privacy, without any apparent means of coercion. Every description of horse, or 
everi mule, whether previously broken or unhandled, whatever their peculiar habits 
or vices might have been, submitted without show of resistance to the magical influ- 
ence of his art, and in the short space of half an hour became gentle and° tractable. 
This effect, though instantaneously produced, was generally durable. Though more 
submissive to him than to others, the animals seemed to have acquired a docility 
unknown before. 

" When sent for to tame a vicious beast, for which he was either paid according *-> 
the distance, or generally two or three guineas, he directed the stable, in which he and 
the object of the experiment were, to bf <shut, with orders not to open the door until a 
signal was given. After a tete-d-iete of about half an hour, during which little or no 
bustle was heard, the signal was made, and, upon opening the door, the horse 
appeared lying down, and the man by his side, playing with him like a child with a 
puppy dog. From that time, he was found perfectly willing to submit to any disci- 
pline — however repugnant to his nature before. I once," continues Mr. Croker, 
" saw his skill tried on a horse, which could never before be brought to stand for a 
smith to shoe him. The day after Sullivan's half-hour's lecture, I went, not without 
some incredulity, to the smith's shop, with many other curious spectators, where we 
were eye-witnesses of the complete success of his art. This, too, had been a troop- 
horse, and it was supposed, not without reason, that after regimental discipline had 
failed, no other would be found availing. I observed that the animal appeared terrified 
whenever Sullivan either spoke to, or looked at him ; how that extraordinary ascend- 
ency could have been obtained, is difficult to conjecture. 

" In common cases this mysterious preparation was unnecessary. He seemed to 
possess an instinctive power of inspiring awe, the result, perhaps, of natural intre- 
pidity, in which, 1 believe, a great part of his art consisted; though the circumstance 
of the iele-d-lele shows that, on particular occasions, something more must have been 
added to it. A faculty like this would, in some hands, have made a fortune, and I 
understand that great offers were made to him, for the exercise of his art abroad. But 
hunting was his passion. He lived at home in the style most agreeable to his dispo- 
sition, and nothing could induce him to quit Duhallow and the fox-hounds." 

Mr. Castley witnessed the total failure of the younger Sullivan. He says, " we 
have in the regiment a remarkably nice horse, called Lancer, that has always been 
very difficult to shoe, but seven or eight years ago, when we first got him, he w^as 
downright vicious in that respect. When the regiment was stationed at Cork, the 
farrier-major sought out the present Sullivan, the son of the celebrated Whisperer, 
and brought him up to the barracks in order to try his hand upon Lancer, and make 
him more peaceable to shoe ; but I must say this person did not appear to possess any 
particular controlling power over the animal more than any other man. Lancer 
seemed to pay no attention whatever to his charm, and at last fairly beat him out of 
the forge. Time, however, and a long perseverance in kind and gentle treatment, have 
effected what force could not. The horse is now pretty reasonable to shoe."*' 

* An account, bearing considerable resemblance to the feats of the English horse-tamer, has 
been lately laid before the public. 

Mr. Cathn ha.s published an account, the veracity of which is unimpeached, of his travels 
among the North American Indians. He thus describes the manner in which the Indian 
tames the wild horse. " He coils bis lasso on his arm, and gallops fearlessly into the herd 
of wild horses. He soon gets it over the neck of one of the number, when he instantly 
dismounts, leaving his own horse, and runs as fast as he can, letting the lasso pass out gradu 
ally and carefully through his hands, until the horse falls for want of breath, and lies helpless- 
on the ground. The Indian advances slowly towards the horse's head, keeping the lasso tight 
upon his neck, until he fastens a pair of hobbles on the animal's two fore feet, and also loosens 
the lasso, giving the horse a chance to breathe, and passing a noose round the unaer jaw, by 
which he gels great power over the affrighted animal, that is rearing and plunging when it gets 
breath, and by which, as he advances, hand over hand, towards the horse's nose, he is able to 
hold it down, and prevent it from throwing itself over on its back. By this means he gradu- 
ally advances, until he is able to place his hand on the animal's nose and over its eyes, and 
at length, to breathe into its nostrils, when it soon becomes docile and conquered ; so that he 
lias little else to do than to remove the hobbles from its feet, and lead or ride it to the camp. 



356 VICES AND DEFECTS OF THE HORSE. 

BACKING OR GIBBING. 

One of the first kinds of restiveness, taking them in alphabetical order, is backinj', 
or gibbino-. These are so closely allied that we hardly know how to separate them. 
Some horses have the habit of backing at first starting, and that more from playful- 
ness than desire of mischief. A moderate application of the whip will usually be 
effectual. Others, even after starting, exhibit considerable obstinacy and vicious- 
ness. This is frequently the effect of bad breaking. Either the shoulder of the horse 
had been wrunnf when he was first put to the collar, or he had been foolishly accus- 
tomed to be starteJin the break up-hill, and, therefore, all his work coming upon him 
at once, be gradually acquired this dangerous habit. 

A hasty and passionate breaker will often make a really good-tempered young horse 
an inveterate gibber. Every young horse is at first shy of the collar. If he is too 
quickly forced to throw his weight into it, he will possibly take a dislike to it, that 
will occasionally show itself in the iorm of gibbing as long as he lives. The judi- 
cious horse-breaker will resort to no severity, even if the colt should go out several 
times without even touching collar. The example of his companion will ultimately 
induce him to take to it voluntarily and effectually. 

A larcre and heavy stone should be put behind the wheel before starting, when the 
horse findino- it more difficult to back than to go forward, will gradually forget this 
unpleasant trick. It will likewise be of advantage, as often as it can be managed, so 
to start that the horse shall have to back up-hill. The difficulty of accomplishing this 
will soon make him readily go forward. A little coaxing, or leading, or moderate 
flagellation, will assist in accomplishing the cure. 

When, however, a horse, thinking he has had enough of work, or has been impro- 
perly checked or corrected, or beginning to feel the painful pressure of the collar, 
swerves, and gibs, and backs, it is a more serious matter. Persuasion should first be 

The animal is so completely conquered, that it submhs quietly ever after, and is led or rode 
away with very little difficulty." 

Mr. Ellis, B. A., of Trinity College, Cambridge, happened to read this account, and he 
felt a natural desire to ascertain how far this mode of iiokse-taming might be employed 
among British horses. He soon had the opportunity of putting the veracity of the story to 
the test. His brother-in-law had a filly, not yet a year old, that had been removed from hei 
dam three months before, and since that time had not been taken out of the stable. A great 
amateur in everything relating to horses was present, and at his request it was determined 
that the experiment of the efficacy of breathing into the nostrils should be immediately put to 
the test. The filly was brought, the amateur leading her by the halter. She was quite wild, 
and bolted, and dragged the amateur a considerable distance. He had been using a short 
halter ; he changed it for a longer one, and was then able to lead the little scared thing to the 
front of the house. The experiment was tried under manifest disadvantage, for the filly was 
in the open air, several strangers were about her, and both the owner and the amateur were 
rather seeking amusement from the failure than knowledge from the success of their experi- 
ment. 

The filly was restive and frightened, and with great difficulty the amateur managed to cover 
her eyes. At length he succeeded, and blew into the nostrils. No particular effect seemed 
to follow. He then breathed into her nostrils, and the moment he did so, the filly, who had 
very much resisted having her eyes blindfolded, and had been very restive, stood perfectly 
still and trembled. From that time she became very tractable. Another gentleman also 
breathed into her nostrils, and she evidently enjoyed it, and kept putdng up her nose to receive 
the breath. 

On the following morning she was led out again. She was perfectly tractable, and it seemed 
to be almost impossible to frighten her. 

A circumstance which, in a great measure corroborated the possibility of easily taming the 
most ferocious horses, occurred on the next day. A man, on a neighbouring farm, waa 
attempting to break-in a very restive colt, who foiled him in every possible way. After seve- 
ral mancEuvres the amateur succeeded in breathing into one of the nostrils, and from tha< 
moment all became easy. The horse was completely subdued. He suffered himself to be 
led quietly away with a loose halter, and was perfectly at command. He was led through a 
field in which were four horses that bad been bis companions. They all surrounded him ; he 
took no notice of them, but quietly followed his new master. A surcingle was buckled on 
him. and then a saddle, and he was finally fitted with a bridle. The whole experimer* 
occupied about an hour, and not in a single instance did he rebel. 

On the next day, however, the breaker, a severe and obstinate fellow, took him in hand, 
and, according to his usual custom, began to beat him most cruelly. The horse broke from 
Ixim, and became as unmanageable as ever. The spirit of the animal had been subdued but 
aot broken. 



BITING. 357 

tried ; and, afterwards, reasonable coercion, but no cruelty : for the brutality which 
is often exercised in attempting to compel a gibbing horse to throw himself habitu- 
ally into the collar, never yet accomplished the purpose. The horse may, perhaps, 
be whipped into motion ; but if he has once begun to gib, he will have recourse to it 
again whenev.^r any circumstance displeases or annoys him, and the habit will be so 
rapidly and completely formed, that he will become insensible to all severity. 

It is useless and dangerous to contend with a horse determined to back, unless 
there is plenty of room, and, by tight reining, the driver can make him back in 
the precise direction he wishes, and especially up-hill. Such a horse should be 
immediately sold, or turned over to some other work. In a stage-coach as a 
wheeler, and particularly as the near-wheeler ; or, in the middle of a team at 
agricultural work, he may be serviceable. It will be useless for him to attempt to 
gib there, for he v/ill be dragged along by his companions whether he will or not; 
and, finding the inutility of resistance, ht will soon be induced to work as well as 
any horse in the team. The reformation will last while he is thus employed, but, 
like restiveness generally, it will be delusive when the horse returns to his former 
occupation. The disposition to annoy will very soon follow the power to do it. Some 
instances of complete reformation may have occurred, but they are rare. 

When a horse, not often accustomed to gib, betrays a reluctance to work, or a de- 
termination not to work, common sense and humanity will demand that some consid- 
eration should be taken before measures of severity are resorted to. The horse may 
be taxed beyond his power. He soon discovers whether this is the case, and by re- 
fusing to proceed, tells his driver that it is so. The utmost cruelty will not induce 
many horses to make tlie slightest effort, when they are conscious that their strength 
is inadequate to the task. Sometimes the withers are wrung, and the shoulders sadly 
galled, and the pain, which is intense on level ground and with fair draught, becomes 
insupportable when he tugs up a steep acclivity. These things should be examined 
into, and, if possible, rectified ; for, under such circumstances, cruelty may produce 
obstinacy and vice, but not willing obedience. 

They who are accustomed to horses know what seemingly trivial circumstances 
occasionally produce this vice. A horse, whose shoulders are raw, or have fre- 
quently been so, will not start with a cold collar. When the collar has acquired 
the warmth of the parts on whicli it presses, the animal will go without reluctance. 
Some determined gibbers have been reformed by constantly wearing a false collar, 
or strip of cloth round the shoulders, so that the coldness of the usual collar should 
never be felt; and otliers have been cured of gibbing by keeping the collar on 
night and day, for the animal is not able to lie down completely at full length, 
which the tired horse is always glad to do. When a horse gibs, not at starting, 
but while doing his work, it has sometimes been useful to line the collar with 
cloth instead of leather; the perspiration is readily absorbed, the substance which 
presses on the shoulders is softer, and it may he far more accurately eased off at a 
tender place. 

BITING. 

This is either the consequence of natural ferocity, or a habit acquired from the 
foolish and teasing play of grooms and stable-boys. When a horse is tickled and 
pinched by thoughtless and mischievous youths, he will first pretend to bite his tor- 
mentors ; by degrees he will proceed farther, and actually bite them, and very soon 
after that, he will be the first to challenge to the combat, and, without provocation, 
seize some opportunity to gripe the incautious tormentor. At length, as the love of 
mischief is a propensity too easily acquired, this war, half playful and half in earnest, 
becomes habitual to him, and degenerates into absolute viciousness. 

It is not possible to enter the stall of some horses without danger. The ani- 
mal gives no warning of his intention ; he is seemingly quiet and harmless : but 
if the incautious by-stander comes fairly within his reach, he darts upon him, and 
seldom fails to do some mischief. A stallion addicted to biting is amost formi- 
dable creature. He lifts the intruder — he shakes him— he attacks him with his 
feet — he tramples upon him, and there are many instances in which he effects 
irre -amble mischief. A resolute groom may escape. When he has once got firm 
hold ^<' the head of the horse, he may back him, or rauzz.e liim, or harness him* 



358 VICES AND DEFECTS OF THE HORSE. 

out he must be always on his guard, or in a moment of carelessness he may be sen 
ously injured. 

It is seldom that anything can be done in the way of cure. Kindness will aggra- 
vate the evil, and no degree of severity will correct it. " I have seen," says Professor 
Stewart, "biters punished until they trembled in every joint, and were ready to drop, 
but have never in any case known them cured by this treatment, or by any other. 
The lash is forgotten in an hour, and the horse is as ready and determined to repeat 
the offence as before. He appears unable to resist the temptation, and in its worst 
form biting is a species of insanity."* 

Prevention, however, is in the power of every proprietor of horses. While he 
insists on gentle and humane treatment of his cattle, he should systematically for- 
bid this horse-play. It is that which can never be considered as operating as a re- 
ward, and thereby rendering the horse tractable; nor does it increase the affection 
of the animal for his groom, because he is annoyed and irritated by being thus inces- 
santly teased 

GETTING THE CHEEK OF THE BIT INTO THE MOUTH. 

Some horsds that are disposed to be mischievous try to do this, and are very expert 
at it. They soon find what advantage it gives them over their driver, who by this 
manoeuvre loses almost all command. Harsh treatment is here completely out of the 
question. All that can be done is, by some mechanical contrivance, to render the 
thing difficult or impossible, and this may be managed by fastening a round piece of 
leather on the inside of the cheek of the bit. 

KICKING. 

This, as a vice, is another consequence of the culpable habit of grooms and stable- 
boys of teasing the horse. That wliich is at first an indication of annoyance at 
the pinching and tickling of the groom, and without any design to injure, gradually 
becomes the expression of anger, and the effort to do mischief. The horse likewise 
too soon recognises the least appearance of timidity, and takes advantage of the dis- 
covery. There is no cure for this vice ; and he cannot be justified who keeps a kick- 
ing horse in his stable. 

Some horses acquire, from mere irritability and fidgetiness, a habit of kicking at 
the stall or the bail, and particularly at night. The neighbouring horses are disturbed, 
and the kicker gets swelled hocks, or some more serious ini'^ry. This is also a habit 
very difficult to correct if sulTered to become established. T/. ares are far more subject 
to it than horses. 

Before the habit is inveterately established, a thorn bush or a piece of furze fasten- 
ed against the partition or post will sometimes effect a cure. When the horse finds 
that he is pretty severely pricked, he will not long continue to punish himself. In 
confirmed cases it may be necessary to have recourse to the log, but the legs are 
often not a little bruised by it. A rather long and heavy piece of wood attached to 
a chain has been buckled above the hock, so as to reach about half-way down the leg. 
When the horse attempts to kick violently, his leg will receive a severe blow : this, 
and the repetition of it, may, after a time, teach him to be quiet. 

A much more serious vice is kicking in harness. From the least annoyance about 
the rump or quarters, some horses will kick at a most violent rate, and destroy the 
bottom of the chaise, and endanger the limbs of the driver. Those that are fidgety 
in the stable are most apt to do this. If the reins should perchance get under the 
tail, the violence of the kicker will often be most outrageous ; and while the animal 
presses down his tail so tightly that it is almost impossible to extricate the reins, he 
continues to plunge until he has demolished everything behind him. 

This is a vice standing foremost in point of danger, and which no treatment wilS 
always conquer. It will be altogether in vain to try coercion. If the shafts are very 
strong and without flaw, or if they are plated with iron underneath, and a stout kick 
jng-strap resorted to which will barely allow the horse the proper use of his hin'l 
limbs in progression, but not permit him to rnise them sufficiently for the purpose of 
kicking, he may be prevented from doing mischief; or if he is harnessed to a heavy 
»^i1, and thus confiiied, his eflTorls to lash out will be restiained : but it is freq,uen«lji 



* Stewart's Stable CEconomy, page 160. 



UNSTEADINESS WHILE BEING MOUNTED.— REARING &c. 350 

a very unpleasant thing to witness tliese attempts, though ineffectual, to demolish the 
vehicle, for the shafts or the kicking-strap may possibly break, and extreme dangei 
may ensue. A horse that has once begun to kick, whatever may liave been the origi- 
nal cause of it, can never be depended upon again, and he will be very unwise who 
ventures behind him. The man, however, who must come within reach of a kicker 
should come as close to him as possible. The blow may thus become a push, and 
seldom is injurious. 

UNSTEADINESS WHILE BEING MOUNTED. 

When this merely amounts to eagerness to start — very unpleasant, indeed, at times, 
for many a rider has been thrown from his seat before he was fairly fixed in it — it 
may be remedied by an active and good horseman. We have known many instances 
in which, while tlie elderly, and inactive, and fearful man has been making more than 
one ineffectual attempt to vault into the saddle, the horse has been dancing about to 
his annoyance and danger; but the animal had no sooner been transferred to the 
management of a younger and more agile rider than he became perfectly subdued. 
Severity will here, more decidedly than in any other case, do harm. The rider should 
be fearless — he should carelessly and conlldentl}^ approach the horse, mount at the 
first effort, and then restrain him for a while; patting him, and not suffering him to 
proceed until he becomes perfectly quiet. Horses of this kind should not he too 
highly fed, and should have sufficient daily exercise. 

When the difficulty of mounting arises, not from eagerness to start, but unwilling- 
ness to be ridden, the sooner that horse is disposed of the better. He may be con- 
quered by a skilful and determined horseman; but even he will not succeed without 
frequent and dangerous contests that will mar all the pleasure of the ride. 

REARING. 

This sometimes results from playfulness, carried, indeed, to an unpleasant and 
dangerous extent ; but it is oftener a desperate and occasionally successful effort to 
unhorse the rider, and consequently a vice. The horse that has twice decidedly and 
dangerously reared, should never be trusted again, unless, indeed, it was the fault of 
the rider, who had been using a deep curb and a sharp bit. Some of the best horses 
will contend against these, and then rearing may be immediately and permanently 
cured by using a snaffle-bridle alone. 

The horse-hreaker's remedy, that of pulling the horse backward on a soft piece of 
ground, should be practised by reckless and brutal fellows alone. Many horses have 
been injured in the spine, and others have broken their necks, by being thus suddenly 
pulled over; while even the fellow, who fears no danger, is not always able to extri- 
cate himself from the falling horse. If rearing proceeds from vice, and is unprovoked 
by the bruising and laceration of the mouth, it fully partakes of the inveteracy which 
attends the other divisions of restiveness. 

RUNNING AWAY. 

Some headstrong horses will occasionally endeavour to bolt with the best rider. 
Others with their wonted sagacity endeavour thus to dislodge the timid or unskilful 
one. Some are hard to hold, or bolt only during the excitement of the chase; others 
Avill run away, prompted by a vicious propensity alone. There is no certain cure 
here. The method which affords any probability of success is, to ride such a horse 
with a strong curb and sharp bit; to have him always firmly in hand; and, if he will 
run away, and the place will admit of it, to give him (sparing neither curb, whip, nor 
spur) a great deal more running than he likes. 

VICIOUS TO CLEAN. 

It would scarcely be credited to what an extent this exists in some horses that are 
otherwise perfectly (juiet. It is only at great hazard that they can be cleaned at all 
The origin of this is probably some maltreatment. There is, however, a great differ- 
ence inlhe sensibility of the skin in different horses. Some seem as if they could 
scarcely be made to feel the whip, while others cannot bear a fly to alight on then, 
without an expressior. of annoyance. In young horses the skin is peculiarly delicate. 
If they have been curried with a broken comb, or hardly rubbed with an uneven bnisJ\ 



3dO VICES AND DEFECTS OF THE HORSE. 

•he recollection of the torture they have felt makes them impatient, and even vicious, 
during every succeeding- operation of the kind. Many grooms, likewise, seem to 
delight in producing these exhibitions of uneasiness and vice; although, when they 
are carried a little too far, and at the hazard of the limbs of the groom, the animals 
that have been almost tutored into these expressions of irritation are brutally kicked 
and punished. 

This, however, is a vice that may be conquered. If the horse is dressed with a 
lighter hand, and wisped rather than brushed, and the places where the skin is most 
sensitive are avoided as much as thorough cleanliness will allow, he will gradually 
lose the recollection of former ill-treatment, and become tractable and quiet. 

VICIOUS TO SHOE. 

The correction of this is more peculiarly the business of the smith ; yet the mastei 
should diligently concern himself with it, for it is oftener the consequence of injudi- 
cious or bad usage than of natural vice. It may be expected that there will be some 
difficulty in shoeing a horse for the first few times. It is an operation that gives him 
a little uneasiness. — The man to whom he is most accustomed should go with him to 
the forge; and if another and steady horse is shod before him, he may be induced 
more readily to submit. It cannot be denied that, after the habit of resisting this 
necessary ojjeration is formed, force may sometimes be necessary to reduce our rebel- 
lious servant to obedience; but we unhesitatingly affirm that the majority of horses 
vicious to shoe are rendered so by harsh usage, and by the pain of correction being 
added to the uneasiness of shoeing. It should be a rule in every forge that no smith 
should he permitted to strike a horse, much less to twitch or to gag him, without the 
master-farrier's order; and that a young horse should never be twitched or struck. 
There are few horses that may not be gradually rendered manageable for this purpose 
by mildness and firmness in the operator. They will soon understand that no harm 
is meant, and they will not forget their usual habit of obedience ; but if the remem- 
brance of corporal punishment is connected with shoeing, they will always be fidgety, 
and occasionally dangerous. 

This is a very serious vice, for it not only exposes the animal to occasional severe 
injury from his own struggles, but also from the correction of the irritated smith, 
whose limbs and whose life being in jeopardy, may be forgiven if he is sometimes a 
little too hard-handed. Such a horse is very liable, and without any fault of the 
smith, to be pricked and lamed in shoeing; and if the habit should be confirmed, and 
should increase, and it at length becomes necessary to cast him, or to put him in the 
trevis, the owner may be assured that many years will not pass ere some formidable 
or fatal accident will take place. If, therefore, mild treatment will not correct this 
vice, the horse cannot be too soon got rid of. 

Horses have many unpleasant habits in the stable and on the road, which cannot 
be said to amount to vice, but which materially lessen their value. 

SWALLOWING WITHOUT GRINDING. 

Some greedy horses habitually swallow their corn without properly grinding it, 
and the power of digestion not being adequate to the dissolving of the husk, no nutri- 
ment is extracted, and the oats are voided whole. This is particularly the case when 
horses of unequal appetite feed from the same manger. The greedy one, in his eager- 
ness to get more than his share, bolts a portion of his corn whole. If the farmer, 
without considerable inconvenience, could contrive that every horse shall have his 
separate division of the manger, the one of smaller appetite and slower feed would 
have the opportunity of grinding at his leisure, without the fear of the greater share 
being stolen by his neighbour. 

Some horses, however, are naturally greedy feeders, and will not, even when alone, 
allow themselves time to chew or grind their corn. In consequence of this they carry 
but little flesh, and are not equal to severe work. If the rack was supplied with hay 
when the corn was put into the manger, they will continue to eat on, and their sto- 
machs will become distended with half-chewed and indigestible food. In consequence 
of this they will be incapable of considerable exertion for a long time after feeding, 
and, occasionally, dangerous symptoms of staggers will occur. 

The remedy is, not to let such horses fast loo long. The nose-bag should be the 
rompanion of every considerable journey. The food should likewise be of such ? 



CRIB -BITING. 361 

natme that it cannot be rapidly bolted. Chaff should be plentifully mixed with the 
corn, and, in some cases, and especially in liorses of slow work, it should with the 
corn, constitute the whole of the food. This will be treated on more at large under 
the article " Feeding." 

In every case of this kind the teeth should be carefully examined. Some of tnera 
may be unduly lengthened, particularly the first of the grinders : or they may be 
ragged at the edges, and may abrade and wound the cheek. In the first place the 
horse cannot properly masticate his food; in the latter he will not; for tiiese animals, 
as too often happens in sore throat, would rather starve than put themselves to much 
pain. 

CRIB-BITING. 

This is a very unpleasant habit, and a considerable defect, although not so serious 
a one as some have represented. The horse lays hold of the manger with his teeth, 
violently extends his neck, and then, after some convulsive action of the throat, a 
slight grunting is heard, accompanied by a sucking or drawing in of air. It is not 
an effort at simple eructation, arising from indigestion. It is°the inhalation of air. 
It is that which takes place with all kinds of diet, and when the stomach is empty as 
well as when it is full. 

The effects of crib-biting are plain enough. The teeth are injured and worn away, 
and that, in an old horse, to a very serious degree. A considerable quantity of corn 
is often lost, for the horse will frequently crib with his mouth full of it, and the greater 
part will fall over the edge of the manger. Much saliva escapes while the manger is 
thus forcibly held, the loss of which must be of serious detriment in impairing the 
digestion. The crib-biting horse is notoriously more subject to colic than otlier horses, 
and to a species difficult of treatment and frequently dangerous. Although many a 
crib-biter is stout and strong, and capable of all ordinary work, these horses do no* 
generally carry so much flesh as others, and have not their endurance. On these 
accounts crib-biting has very properly been decided to be unsoundness. We must 
not look to the state of the disease at the time of purchase. The question is, does it 
exist at all ■? A case was tried before Lord Tenterden, and thus decided : " a horse 
with crib-biting is unsound." 

It is one of those tricks which are exceedingly contagious. Every companion of a 
crib-biter in the same stables is likely to acquire the habit, and it is the most invete- 
rate of all habits. The edge of the manger will in vain be lined with iron, or with 
sheep-skin, or with sheep-skin covered with tar or aloes, or any other unpleasant sub- 
stance. In defiance of the annoyance which these may occasion, the horse will per- 
sist in the attack on his manger. A strap buckled tightly round the neck, by com- 
pressing the wind-pipe, is the best means of preventing the possibility of this trick; 
but the strap must be constantly worn, and its pressure is too apt to produce a worse 
affection, viz. an irritation in the windpipe, which terminates in roaring. 

Some have recommended turning out for five or six months; but this has never 
succeeded except with a young horse, and then rarely. The old crib-biter will employ 
the gate for the same purpose as the edge of his manger, and wfe have often seen him 
galloping across a field for the mere object of having a gripe at a rail. Medicine will 
be altogether thrown away in this case. 

The only remedy is a muzzle, with bars across the bottom; sufficiently wide to 
enable the animal to pick up his corn and to pull his hay, but not to grasp the edge 
of the manger. If this is worn for a considerable period, the horse may be tired of 
attempting that which he cannot accomplish, and for a while forget the habit, but, in 
a majority of cases, the desire of crib-biting will return with the power of gratifying it. 

The causes of crib-biting are various, and some of them beyond the control of the 
proprietor of the horse. It is often the result of imitation; but it is more frequently 
the consequence of idleness. The high-fed and spirited horse must be in mischief if 
he is not usefully employed. Sometimes, but we believe not often, it is produced by 
partial starvation, whether in a bad straw-yard, or from unpalatable food. An occa- 
sional cause of crib-biting is the frequent custom of grooms, even when the weather 
j<5 not severe, of dressing them in the stable. The horse either catches at the edge 
of the manger, or at that of the partition on each side, -f he has been turned, And mus 
he forms the habit of laying hold of these substances on every occasion. 
31 3v 



362 VICES AND DEFECTS OF THE HORSE. 

WIND-SUCKING. 

This hears a close analogy to crib-biting. It arises from the same causes; the 
same purpose is accomplished ; and the same results follow. The horse stands with 
his neck bent ; his head drawn inward ; his lips alternately a little opened and then 
closed, and a noise is heard as if he were sucking. If we may judge from the same 
comparative want of condition and the flatulence which we have described under the 
last head, either some portion of wind enters the stomach, or there is an injurious loss 
of saliva. This diminishes the value of the horse almost as much as crib-biting ; it 
is as contagious, and it is as inveterate. The only remedies, and they will seldom 
avail, are tying the head up, except when the horse is feeding, or putting on a muzzle 
with sharp spikes towards the neck, and which will prick him whenever he attempts 
to rein his head in for the purpose of wind-sucking. 

CUTTING. 

Of this habit, mention has been made at page 275 ; and we would advise the owner 
if a cutting horse, without trying any previous experiments of raising or lowering the 
leels, to put on the cutting foot a shoe of even thickness from heel to toe, not project- 
■ ng in the slightest degree beyond the crust, and the crust itself being rasped a little 
at the quarters. The shoe should be fastened as usual, on the outside, but with only 
one nail on the inside, and that almost close to the toe. The principle on which this 
shoe acts, has been explained at page 339. 

NOT LYING DOWN. 

It not uncommonly happens that a horse will seldom or never lie down in the 
stable. He sometimes continues in apparent good health, and feeds and works well ; 
but generally his legs swell, or he becomes fatigued sooner than another horse. If it 
is impossible to let him loose in the saddle, or to put him into a spare box, we know 
not what is to bp done. No means, gentle or cruel, will force him to lie down. The 
secret is that he is tied up, and either has never dared to lie down through fear of the 
confinement of the halter, or he has been cast in the night, and severely injured. If 
he can be suffered to range the stable, or have a comfortable box, in which he may be 
loose, he will usually lie down the first night. Some few horses, however, will lie 
down in the stable, and not in a loose box. A fresh, well-made bed will generally 
tempt the tired horse to refresh himself with sleep. 

OVERREACH. 

This unpleasant noise, known also by the term " clicking," arises from the toe of 
the hind foot knocking against the shoe of the fore foot. In the trot, one fore leg and 
the opposite hind leg are first lifted from the ground and moved forward, the other 
fore leg and the opposite hind leg remaining fixed ; but, to keep the centre of gravity 
within the base, and as the stride, or space passed over by these legs, is often greater 
than the distance between the fore and hind feet, it is necessary that the fore feet 
should be alternately moved out of the way for tjie hind ones to descend. Then, as 
occasionally happens with horses not perfectly broken, and that have not been taught 
their paces, and especially if they have high hinder quarters and low fore ones, if the 
fore feet are not raised in time, the hind feet will strike them. The fore foot will 
generally be caught when it has just begun to be raised, and the toe of the hind foot 
will meet the middle of the bottom of the fore foot. It is an unpleasant noise, and 
not altogether free from danger ; for it may so happen that a horse, the action of 
whose feet generally so much interferes with each other, may advance the hind foot a 
little more rapidly, or raise tiie fore one a little more slowly, so that the blow may fall 
on the heel of the shoe, and loosen or displace it; or the two shoes may be locked 
together, and the animal may be thrown ; or the contusion may be received even 
higher, and on the tendons of the leg, and considerable swelling and lameness will 
follow. 

If the animal is young, the action of the horse may be materially improved ; other- 
wise nothing can be done, except to keep the toe of the hind foot as short and as 
round as it can safely be, and to bevel off and round the toe of the shoe, like thai 



PAWING— QUIDDING— ROLLING— SHYING. 365 

which has been worn by a stumbler for a fortnight, and, perhaps, a little to lower the 
heel of the fore foot. 

A blow received on the heel of the fore foot in this manner, has not unfrequently, 
and especially if neglected, been followed by quittor.* 

The heel most frequently suffers in overreaching, although the pastern is sometimes 
injured. It usually, or almost always, occurs in fast paces on deep ground. The 
injury is inflicted by the edge of the inner part of the shoe. The remedy is the cut- 
ting away the edge of the shoe. An account of the most successful treatment of 
overreach has been given in page 312. 

PAWING. 

Some hot and irritable horses are restless even in the stable, and paw frequentl 
and violently. Their litter is destroyed, the floor of the stable broken up, the shoes 
worn out, the feet bruised, and the legs sometimes sprained. If this habit does not 
exist to any great extent, yet the stable never looks well. Shackles are the only 
remedy, with a chain sufficiently long to enable the horse to shift his posture, or move 
in his stall ; but these must be taken off at night, otherwise the animal will seldom 
lie down. Except, however, the horse possesses peculiar value, it will be better to 
dispose of him at once, than to submit to the danger and inconvenience that heanay 
occasion. 

QUIDDING. 

A horse will sometimes partly chew his hay, and suffer it to drop from his mouth. 
If this does not proceed from irregular teeth, which it will be the business of the vete- 
linary surgeon to rasp down, it will be found to be connected with sore-throat, and 
then the horse will exhibit some other symptom of indisposition, and particularly, the 
swallowing of water will be accompanied by a peculiar gulping effort. In this cape, 
the disease (catarrh, with sore-throat) must be attacked, and the quidding will cease. 

ROLLING. 

This is a very pleasant and perfectly safe amusement for a horse at grass, but can 
not be indulged in the stable without the chance of his being dangerously entangled 
with the collar rein, and being cast. Yet, although the horse is cast, and bruised, 
and half-strangled, he will roll again on the following night, and continue to do so as 
long as he lives. The only remedy is not a very pleasant one to the horse, nor 
always quite safe ; yet it must be had recourse to, if the habit of rolling is inveterate. 
" The horse," says Mr. Caslley, " should be tied with length enough of collar to lie 
down, but not to allow of his head resting on the ground ; because, in order to roll 
over, a horse is obliged to place his head quite down upon the ground." 

SHYING. 

We have briefly treated of the cause of this vice at page 91, and observed that 
while it is often the result of cowardice, or playfulness, or want of work, it is at 

* Mr. Simpson relates an interesfintr though unfortunate case of this interference, after the 
operation of neurotomy. — "An old but splendid horse had been sadly lame in the off fore- 
foot during some months. Many plans of treatment were adopted, without the desired effect; 
and at length it was determined to have recourse to neurotomy. A portion of the metacarpal 
nerve was excised on both sides, just above the fetlock. Three weeks afterwards, the horse 
being quite free from lameness, he was put into harness, and driven about twelve miles. He 
appeared to go very well, but, on arriving at his journey's end, it was found that the off hind- 
foot was covered with blood, and the heels of the neurotomised foot were dreadfully bruised 
and cut, from repeated blows from the corresponding foot behind. In order to remedy this, 
the toe of the hind-foot was ordered to be shortened as much as possible. 

" Four days afterwards, he was driven again with the same contusions, but did not appear 
to feel the slightest pain, either when the blows were inflicted, or when he was examined again 
some days afterwards. 

" There was not the same activity in this foot that there had been before the operation, and 
it could not get out of the way of the hind-foot, a circumstance that would hardly have been 
expected, for it is the general" belief that, although sensation is destroyed in the foot, the loco- 
motive powers of the leg are unimpaired. This deserves future inquir/." — The Veterinarinn, 
»ol. viii. p. 242. 



364 VICES AND DEFECTS OF THE HORSE. 

other times the consequence of a defect of sight. It has been remarlced, and we 
believe very truly, that shying is oftener a vice of half or quarter-bred horses, than 
of those who have in them more of the genuine racing blood. 

In the treatment of shying, it is of great importance to distinguish between that 
which is the consequence of defective sight, and what results from fear, or newness 
of objects, or mere aifcctation or skittishness. For the first, the nature of which we 
have explained at page 91, every allowance must be made, and care must be taken 
that the fear of correction is not associated with the imagined existence of some ter- 
rifying object. The severe use of the whip and the spur cannot do good here, and are 
likely to aggravate the vice tenfold. A word half encouraging and half scolding, 
■with a gentle pressure of the heel, or a slight touch of the spur, will tell the horse 
that there was nothing to fear, and will give him confidence in his rider on a future 
occasion. It should be remembered, however, that although a horse that shies from 
defective sight may be taught considerable reliance on his rider, he can never have 
the cause of the habit removed. We may artificially strengthen the human sight, 
but that of the horse must be left to itself. 

The shying from skittishness or affectation is quite a different affair, and must be 
conquered : but howl Severity is altogether out of place. If he is forced into con- 
tact with the object by dint of correction, the dread of punishment will afterwards be 
associated with that object, and, on the next occasion, his startings will be more fre- 
quent and more dangerous. The way to cure him is to go on, turning as little as 
possible out of the road, giving a harsh word or two, and a gentle touch with the 
spu;-, and then taking no more notice of the matter. After a few times, whatever 
may have been the object which he chose to select as the pretended cause of affright, 
he will pass it almost without notice. 

In page 253, under the head " breaking in," we described how the colt may be 
cured of the habit of shying from fear or newness of objects ; and, if he then is ac- 
customed as much as possible to the objects among which his services will be re- 
quired, he will not possess this annoying vice when he grows to maturer age. 

Mr. John Lawrence, in his last work on the Horse, says, "These animals gener- 
ally fix on some particular shying butt: for example, I recollect having, at different 
periods, three hacks, all very powerful ; the one made choice of a wind-mill for the 
object or butt, the other a tilted wagon, and the last a pig led in a string. It so hap- 
pened, however, that I rode the two former when amiss from a violent cold, and they 
then paid no more attention to either wind-mills or tilted wagons than to any other 
objects, convincing me that their shying when in health and spirits was pure affecta- 
tion ; an affectation, however, which may be speedily united with obstinacy and vice. 
Let it be treated with marked displeasure, mingled with gentle, but decided firmness, 
and the habit will be of short endurance."* 

It is now generally admitted by all riding-masters and colt-breakers, that a great 
deal more is to be effected by lenient than by harsh treatment. Rewards are found 
to operate more beneficially than punishments ; and therefore the most scientific and 
practised riding-masters adopt methods based upon the former. The writer of the 
present work remembers a very remarkable instance of the efficacy of this plan, or 
rather of its vast and decided superiority over violence of the worst description. A 

* " We will suppose a case — a very common one, an every-day one. A man is riding a 
young horse upon the high-road in the country, and meets a stage-coach. What with the 
noise, the bustle, the imposing appearance altogether, and the slashing of the coachman's 
whip, the animal at its approach erects its head and crest, pricks his ears, looks affrighted, 
and no sooner comes alongside of the machine than he suddenly starts out of the road. His 
rider, annoyed by this, instantly commences a round of castigation with whip, spur, and curb, 
in which he persists until the horse, as well as himself has lost his temper; and then one 
whips, spurs, and pulls, and the other jumps, plunges, frets, and throws up his head, until 
lioth, pretty well exhausted by the conflict, grow tranquil again and proceed on their journey, 
ihougli not for some lime afterwards in their former mutual confidence and satisfaction. 
Should they in their road, or even on a distant day, meet with another coach, what is the 
consequence ? The horse is not only more alarmed than before, but now, the moment he has 
started, being conscious of his fault and expecting chastisement, he jumps about in fearful 
agitation, making plunges to strike into a gallop, and attempting to run away. So tliat by 
chis correction, instead of rendering his horse tranquil during the passage of a coach, the rider 
adds to the evil of shying that of subsequently plunging, and perhaps running away." — Tlf 
Veterinarian, vol. i., p *)6. 



I 



SLIPPING THE COLLAR. 365 

vicious, thorough-bred horse had baffled the efforts of every one into whose hands he 
had been put in order to be rendered tractable : at length a foreio-ner of considerable 
repute among the equestrians of the " school," took him to make trial of; and in the 
course of a twelvemonth had rendered him so quiet that not only could any person 
ride him with the utmost safety, but, at the same time he was so docile and tractable 
that he could be induced, by certain signs, to lie down and permit his rider to mount 
beiore he arose again. 

The same forbearance and humanity have been practised with the same beneficial 
results upon shy horses. With all such persons as are best able to give counsel in 
cases ot shyness, the language is now-a-days, " let the horse alone"— " take no no- 
tice of his shyness '— " work him well and accustom him to the objects he dislikes, 
and in time he will of himself leave off his trick of shyino-." 

This is good advice; but, let it not be misinterpreted. Let it not be understood to 
mean that the animal is to receive any encouragement to shy ; for by no other expres- 
sion can be characterised that erroneous and foolish practice of pattino- the horse or 
"making much of him," either just before or during the time he evinces shyness. 
Ihe tormer is bad, because it draws the attention of the animal to the object he 
dreads; the latter is worse, because it fills him with the impression either that the 
object itself is really terrific, or that he has acted right in shying at it, and ou-rht to 
do so again. " 

Whether we are approaching the frightful object, or the horse is actually shyino- 
"we should let him alone"— " we should take no notice whatever of him"— neither 
letting him perceive that we are aware that we are advancing towards anythino- he 
dislikes ; nor do more with him, while in the act of shying, than is necessary for 
due restramt with a steady hand upon the rein. We may depend upon it,'that 
battling on our part will only serve to augment affright and arouse resistance on 
his, and that the most judicious course we can pursue is to persevere in mild forbear- 
ant usage. 

Shying on coming out of the stable is a habit that can rarely or never be cured. It 
proceeds from the remembrance of some ill-usage or hurt which the animal has re- 
ceived in the act of proceeding from the stable, such as striking his head against a 
low doorway, or entangling the harness. Coercion will but associate greater fear 
and more determined resistance with the old recollection. Mr. Castley gives an 
interesting anecdote, which tends to prove that while severity will be worse than 
useless, even kind treatment will not always break a confirmed habit. " I remember 
a very fine grey mare that had got into this habit, and never could be persuaded to 
go through a doorway without taking an immense jump. To avoid this, the servants 
used to back her in and out the stable; b>it the mare happening to meet with a se- 
vere injury of the spine, was no longer able to back; and then I have seen the poor 
creature, when brought to the door, endeavouring to balance herself, with a stagger- 
ing motion, upon her half-paralysed hind extremities, as if making preparation^'and 
summoning up resolution for some great effort; and then, when urged, she would 
plunge headlong forward with snch violence of exertion, as often to lo&e her feet, and 
tumble down, altogether most pitiable to be seen. This I merely mention," he 
continues, "as one proof how inveterate the habits of horses are. They are evils, 
let it always be remembered, more easy to prevent than to cure." 

When the cure, however, is early attempted, it may be so far overcome that it will 
be unattended with danger or difficulty. The horse should be bridled when led out 
or in. He should be held short and tight by the head that he may feel he has not 
liberty to make a leap, and this of itself is often sufficient to restrain him. Punish- 
ment, or a threat of punishment, will be highly improper. It is only timid or high- 
spirited horses that acquire this habit, and rough usage invariably increases th^eir 
agitation and terror. Some may be led out quite at leisure when blindfolded ; others 
when they have the harness bridle on; some will best take their own way, and a few 
may be ridden through the doorway that cannot be led. By quietness and kindness 
however, the hcflrse will be most easily and quickly subdued. 

SLIPPING THE COLLAR. 

This is a trick at which many horses are so clever that scarcely a night passes 
Writhout their getting loose. It is a very serious habit, for it enables the horse some- 
times to gorge himself with food, to the imminent danger of staggers ; or it exooses 
31 * 



300 THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE. 

mm, as he wanders about, to be kicked and injured by the other horses, while his 
restlessness will often keep the whole team awake. If the web of the halter, being 
first accurately fitted to his neck, is sufferejd to slip only one way, or a strap is attached 
to the halter and buckled round the neck, but not sufficiently tight to be of serious 
inconvenience, the power of slipping the collar will be taken away. 

TRIPPING. 

He must be a skilful practitioner or a mere pretender who promises to remedy this 
habit. If it arises from a heavy forehand, and the fore legs being too much under the 
horse, no one can alter the natural frame of the animal : if it proceeds from tenderness 
of the foot, grogginess, or old lameness, these ailments are seldom cured. Also, if it 
is to be traced to habitual carelessness and idleness, no whipping will rouse the drone. 
A known slumbler should never be ridden, or driven by any one who values his safety 
or his life. A tight hand or a strong-bearing rein are precautions that should not be 
neglected, although they are generally of litde avail; for the inveterate stumbler will 
rarely be able to save himself, and this tight rein may sooner and farther precipitate 
the rider. If, after a trip, the horse suddenly starts forward, and endeavours to break 
into a sharp trot or canter, the rider or driver may be assured that others before him 
have fruitlessly endeavoured to remedy the nuisance. 

If the stumbler has the foot kept as short and the toe pared as close as safety will 
permit, and the shoe is rounded at the toe, or has that shape given to it which it 
naturally acquires in a fortnight from the peculiar action of such a horse, the animal 
mav not stumble quite so much ; or if the disease which produced the habit can be 
alleviated, some trifling good maybe done, but in almost every case a stumbler should 
be got rid of, or put to slow and heavy work. If the latter alternative is adopted, he 
may trip as much as he pleases, for the weight of the load and the motion of the other 
horses will keep him upon his legs. 

WEAVING. 

This consists in a motion of the head, neck, and body, from side to side, like the 
shuttle of a M^eaver passing through the web, and hence the name which is given to 
this peculiar and incessant and unpleasant action. It indicates an impatient, irritable 
temper, and a dislike to the confinement of the stable. A horse that is thus incessantly 
on the fret will seldom carry flesh, or be safe to ride or drive. There is no cure for 
it, but the close tying-up of the animal, or at least allowing him but one loose rein, 
except at feeding-time. 



CHAPTER XX. 
THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE. 

This is a most important part of our subject, even as it regards the farmer, although 
there are comparatively few glaring errors in the treatment of the agricultural horse 
but it comes more especially home to the gentleman, who is too often and too impli 
citly under the guidance of an idle, and ignorant, and designing groom. 

We will arrange the most important points of general management under the fol 
lowing heads : 

AIR. 

The breathing of pure air is necessary to the existence and the health of man and 
beast. It is comparatively lately that this has been admitted even in the manage 
ment of our best stables. They have been close, and hot, and foul, instead of airy, 
and cool, and wholesome. The eflfect of several horses being shut up in the same 
stable is completely to empoison the air ; and yet, even in the present day, there are. 
too many who carefully close every aperture by which a breath of fresh air can by 
possibility gain admission. In effecting this, even the key-hole and the threshold are 
not forgotten. What, of necessity, must be the consequence of this 1 Why ! if one 



VENTILATION. 'SGI 

Inouglit is bestowed on the new and dangerous character that the air is assuming, it 
will be too evident that sore throat, and swelled legs, and bad eyes, and inflamed 
lungs, and mange, and grease, and glanders, will scarcely ever be long out of thai 
stable. 

Let this be considered in another point of view. The horse stands twenty or two- 
and-tvventy hours in this unnatural vapour bath, and then he is suddenly stripped of 
all his clothing, he is led into the open air, and there he is kept a couple of hours or 
more in a temperature fifteen or twenty degrees below that of the stable. Putting the 
inhumanity of this out of the question, must not the animal thus unnaturally*' and 
absurdly treated be subjected to rheumatism, catarrh, and various other complaints? 
Does he not often stand, hour after hour, in the road or the street, while his owner is 
warming himself within, and this perhaps after every pore has been opened by a 

rushing gallop, and his susceptibility to the painful and the injurious influence of 
cold has been excited to the utmost! 

It is not so generally known, as it ought to be, that the return to a hot stable is 
quite as dangerous as the change from a heated atmosphere to a cold and biting air. 
Many a horse that has travelled without harm over a bleak country, has been suddenly 
seized with inflammation and fever when he has, immediately at the end of his 
journey, been surrounded with heated and foul air. It is the sudden change of tem- 
perature, whether from heat to cold, or from cold to heat, that does the mischief, and 
yearly destroys thousands of horses. 

Mr. Clarke of Edinburgh was the first who advocated the use of well-ventilated 
stables. After him Professor Colemar. established them in the quarters of the cavalry 
troops, and there Cannot be a doubt that he saved the government many thousand 
pounds every year. His system of ventilation, however, like many other salutary 
innovations, was at first strongly resisted. Much evil was predicted ; but after a 
time, diseases that used to dismount whole troops, almost entirely disappeared from 
the army. 

The stable should be as large, compared with the number of horses that it is destined 
to contain, as circumstances will allow. A stable for six horses should not be less 
than forty feet in length, and thirteen or fourteen feet wide. If there is no loft above, 
the inside of the roof should always be plastered, in order to prevent direct currents 
of air and occasional droppings from broken tiles. The heated and foul air should 
escape, and cool and pure air be admitted, by elevation of the central tiles ; or by laro-e 
tubes carried through the roof, with caps a little above them, to prevent the beating in 
,of the rain ; or by gratings placed high up in the walls. These latter apertures 
should be as far above the horses as they can conveniently be placed, by which means 
all injurious draught will be prevented. 

If there is a loft above the stable, the ceiling should be plastered, in order to prevent 
the foul air from penetrating to the hay above, and injuring both its taste and its 
wholesomeness ; and no openings should be allowed above the racks, through which 
the hay may be thrown into them ; for they will permit the foul air to ascend to tlit; 
provender, and also in the act of filling the rack, and while the horse is eagerly gazing 
upward for his food, a grass seed may fall into the eye, and produce considerable 
inflammation. At other times, when the careless groom has left open the trap-door, 
a stream of cold air beats down on the head of the horse. 

The stable with a loft over it should never be less than twelve feet high, and proper 
ventilation should be secured either by tubes carried through the loft to the roof, or by 
gratings close to the ceiling. These gratings or openings should be enlarged or con- 
tracted by means of a covering or shutter, so that during spring, summer, and autumn, 
the stable may possess nearly the same temperature with the open air, and in winter 
a temperature of not more than ten degrees above that of the external atmosphere. 

A hot stable has, in the mind of the groom, been long connected with a glossy 
coat. The latter, it is thought, cannot be obtained without the former. 

To this we should reply, that in winter a thin, glossy coat is not desirable. Nature 
gives to every animal a warmer clothing when the cold weather approaches. The 
horse — the agricultural horse especially — acquires a thicker and a lengthened coat, in 
order to defend him from the surrounding cold. Man puts on an additional and a 
warmer covering, and his comfort is increased and his health preserved by it. He 
wno knows anything of the farmer's horse, or cares about his enjoyment, will not 
object to a coat a little longer and a little rc^ighened when the wintry wind blows 



8 THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE. 

leak. The coat, however, needs not to be so long as to be unsightly ; and warm 
flotlnng, even in a cool stable, will, with plenty of honest grooming, keep the haii 
suliiciently smooth and glossy to satisfy the most fastidious. The overheated air of 
a close stable saves much of this grooming, and therefore the idle attendant unscru- 
pulously sacrifices the health and safety of the horse. When we have presently to 
treat ol' the hair and skin of the horse, this will be placed in a somewhat different 
Doint of view. 

If the stable is close, the air will not only be hot, but foul. The breathing of every 
animal contaminates it ; and when, in the course of the night, with every aperture 
sto]iped, it passes again and again through the lungs, the blood cannot undergo its 
proper and healthy change; digestion will not be so perfectly performed, and all the 
functions of life are injured. Let the owner of a valuable horse think of his passing 
twenty or twenty-two out of the twenty-four hours in this debilitating atmosphere! 
Nature does wonders in enabling every animal to accommodate itself to the situation 
in which it is placed, and the horse that lives in the stable-oven suffers less from it 
than would scarcely be conceived possible; but he does not, and cannot, possess 
the power and the hardihood which he would acquire under other circumstances. 

The air of the improperly close and heated stable is still farther contaminated by 
the urine and dung, which rapidly ferment there, and give out stimulating and un- 
wholesome vapours. When a person first enters an ill-managed stable, and especially 
early in the morning, he is annoyed, not only by the heat of the confined air, but by 
a pungent smell, resembling hartshorn; and can he be surprised at the inflammation 
of the eyes, and the chronic cough, and the disease of the lungs, by which the animal, 
who has been all night shut up in this vitiated atmosphere, is often attacked ; or if 
glanders and farcy should occasionally break out in such stables? It has been ascer- 
tained by chemical experiment that the urine of the horse contains in it an exceedingly 
large quantity of hartshorn; and not only so, but that, influenced by the heat of a 
crowded stable, and possibly by other decompositions that are going forward at the 
'.lame time, this ammoniacal vapour begins to be rapidly given out almost immediately 
after the urine is voided. 

When disease begins to appear among the inhabitants of these ill-ventilated places, 
is it wonderful that it should rapidly spread among them, and that the plague-spot 
should be, as it were, placed on the door of such a stable ] When distemper appears 
in spring or in autumn, it is in very many cases to be traced to such a pest-house. It 
is peculiarly fatal there. The horses belonging to a small establishment, and ration- 
ally treated, have it comparatively seldom, or have it lightly ; but among the inmates 
of a crowded stable it is sure to display itself, and there it is most fatal. The experi- 
ence of every veterinary surgeon, and of every large proprietor of horses, will corro- 
borate this statement. Agriculturists should bring to their stables the common sense 
which directs them in the usual concerns of life, and should begin, when their plea- 
sures and their property are so much at stake, to assume that authority and to enforce 
that obedience, to the lack of which is to be attributed the greater part of bad stable- 
management and horse-disease. Of nothing are v.'e more certain than that the majority 
of the maladies of the horse, and those of the worst and most fatal character, are 
directly or indirectly to be attributed to a deficient supply of air, cruel exaction of 
work, and insufficient or bad fare. Each ot these evils is to be dreaded — each is, in 
a manner, watching for its prey; and when they are combined, more than half of the 
inmates of the stable are often swept away. 

Every stable should possess within itself a certain degree of ventilation. The cost 
of this would be trifling, and its saving in the preservation of valuable animals may 
be immense. The apertures need not be large, and the whole may be so contrived 
that no direct current of air shall fall on the horse. 

A gentleman's stable should never be without a thermometer. The temperature 
should seldom exceed 70° in the summer, or sink below 40° or 50° in the winter. 

LITTER. 

Having spoken of the vapour of hartshorn, which is so rapidly and so plentifully 
given out from the urine of a horse in a heated stable, we next take into consideration 
the subject of litter. The first caution is frequently to remove it. The early 
extrication of gas shows the rapid putrefaction' of the urine ; and the consequence of 
which will be the rapid r)utrefaction of the litter that has been moistened by it, 



LIGHT. 309 

Everything hastening to decomposition should be carefully removed where life and 
health are to be preserved. The litter that has been much wetted or at all softened 
by the urine, and is beginning to decay, should be swept away every morning; the 
greater part of the remainder may then be piled under the manger; a little being left 
to prevent the painful and injurious pressure of the feet on the hard pavement during 
the day. The soiled and macerated portion of that which was left should oe removed 
at night. In the better kind of stables, however, the stalls should be completely 
emptied every morning. 

No heap of fermenting dung should be suffered to remain during the day in the 
corner or in any part of the stable. With regard to this, the directions of the master 
should be peremptory. 

The stable should be so contrived that the urine shall quickly run off, and the 
offensive and injurious vapour from the decomposing fluid and the litter will thus be 
materially lessened : if, however, the urine is carried away by means of a gutter run- 
ning along the stable, the floor of the stalls must slant towards that gutter, and the 
declivity must not be so great as to strain the back sinews, and become an occasional, 
although unsuspected, cause of lameness. Mr. R. Lawrence well observes, that, 
" if ;he reader will stand for a few minutes with his toes higher than his heels, the 
pain he will feel in the calves of his legs will soon convince him of the truth of this 
remark. Hence, when a horse is not eating, he always endeavours to find his level, 
either by standing across the stall or else as far back as his halter will permit, so that 
his hind-legs may meet the ascent of the other side of the channel." 

This inclination of the stall is also a frequent cause of contraction of the heels of 
the foot, by throwing too great a propoj-tion of the weight upon the toe and removing 
that pressure on the heels which tends most to keep them open. Care, therefore, 
must be taken that the slanting of the floor of the stalls shall be no more than is suf- 
ficient to drain off the urine with tolerable rapidity. Stalls of this kind certainly do 
best for mares ; but for horses we much prefer those with a grating in the centre, and 
a slight inclination of the floor on every side towards the middle. A short branch 
may communicate with a larger drain, by means of which the urine may be carried 
off to a reservoir outside the stable. Traps are now contrived, and may be procured 
at little expense, by means of whicli neither any offensive smell nor current of air 
(!an pass through the grating. 

The farmer should not lose any of the urine. It is from the dung of the horse that 
he derives a principal and most valuable part of his manure. It is that which earliest 
takes on the process of putrefaction, and forms one of the strongest and most durable 
dressings. That which is most of all concerned with the rapidity and the perfection 
of the decomposition is the urine. 

Humanity and interest, as well as the appearance of the stable, should induce the 
proprietor of the horse to place a moderate quantity of liicer under him during the 
day. The farmer who wants to convert every otherwise useless substance into ma- 
nure, will have additional reason for adopting this practice : especially as he does not 
confine himself to that to which in towns and in gentlemen's stables custom seems 
to have limited the bed of the horse. Pea and bean-haum, and potato-tops, and 
heath, occupy in the stable of the farmer, during a part of the year, the place of 
wheaten and oaten straw. It should, however, be remembered, that these substances 
are disposed more easily to ferment and putrefy than straw, and therefore should be 
more carefully examined and oftener removed. It is the faulty custom of some farm- 
ers to let the bed accumulate until it reaches almost to the horse's belly, and the bot- 
om of it is a mass of dung. If there were not often many a hole and cranny through 
which the wind can enter and disperse the foul air, the health of the animal would 
materially suffer. 

LIGHT, 

This neglected branch of stable-management is of far more consequence than is 
generally imagined ; and it is particularly neglected by those for whom' these trea- 
tises are principally designed. The farmer's stable is frequently destitute of any 
glazed window, and has only a shutter, which is raised in warm weather, and closed 
when the weather becomes cold. When the horse is in the stable only during a few 
hoiiTS in the day, this is not of so much consequence, nor of so much, probably, witr 
regard to horses of slow work , but to carriage-horses and hackneys, so far, at least 

2w 



:^70 THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE. 

as the eyes are concerned, a dark stable is little less injurious than a foul and heated 
one. In order to illustrate this, reference may be made to the unpleasant feelino;, and 
the utter impossibility of seeing distinctly, when a man suddenly emer<res from a 
dark place into the full blaze of day. The sensation of mingled pain and giddiness 
is not soon forgotten; and some minutes pass before the eye can acconmiodate itself 
to the increased light. If this were to happen every day, or several times in the day, 
llie sight would be irreparably injured, or possibly blindness would ensue. Can we 
wonder, then, that the horse, taken from a dark stable into a glare of light, feeling, 
probably, as we should do under similar circumstances, and unable for a considerable 
time to see anything around him distinctly, should become a starter, or that the fre- 
quently repeated violent effect of sudden light should induce inflammation of the eye 
50 intense as to terminate in blindness] There is, indeed, no doubt that horses kept 
in dark stables are frequently notorious starters, and that abominable habit has been 
properly traced to this cause. 

Farmers know, and should profit by the knowledge, that the darkness of the stable 
is not unfrequently a cover for great uncleanliness. A glazed window, with leaden 
divisions between the small panes, would not cost much, and would admit a degree 
of light somewhat more approaching to that of day, and at the same time would ren- 
der the concealment of gross inattention and want of cleanliness impossible. 

If plenty of light is admitted, the walls of the stable, and especially that portion 
of them which is before the horse's head, must not be of too glaring a colour. The 
constant reflection from a v^'hite wall, and especially if the sun shines into the stable, 
will be as injurious to the eye as the sudden changes from darkness to light. The 
perpetual slight excess of stimulus will do as much mischief as the occasional but 
more violent one when the animal is taken from a kind of twilight to the blaze of 
day. The colour of the stable, therefore, should depend on the quantity of light. 
Where much can be admitted, the walls should be of a grey hue. Where dark- 
ness would otherwise prevail, frequent whitewashing may in some degree dissipate- 
the gloom. 

For another reason, it will be evident that the stable should not possess too glaring 
a light: it is the resting-place of the horse. The work of the farmer's horse, indeed, 
is confined principally to the day. The hour of exertion having passed, the animal 
returns to his stable to feed and to repose, and the latter is as necessary as the former, 
in order to prepare him for renewed work. Something approaching to the dimness 
of twilight is requisite to induce the animal to compose himself to sleep. This half- 
light more particularly suits horses of heavy work, and who draw almost as much by 
the weight of carcass which they can throw into the collar, as by the degree of mus- 
cular energy of which they are capable. In the quietness of a dimly-lighted stable, 
they obtain repose, and accumulate flesh and fat. Dealers are perfectly aware of this. 
They have their darkened stables, in which the young horse, with little or no exercise, 
and fed upon mashes and ground corn, is made up for sale. The round and plump 
appearance, however, which may delude the unwary, soon vanishes with altered 
treatment, and the animal is found to be unfit for hard work, and predisposed to many 
an inflammatory disease. The circumstances, then, under which a stable somewhat 
ddrkened may be allowed, will be easily determined by the owner of the horse; but, 
as a general rule, dark stables are unfriendly to cleanliness, and the frequent cause of 
the vice of starting, and of the most serious diseases of the eyes. 

GROOMING. 

Of this, much need not be said to the agriculturist, since custom, and apparently 
without ill effect, has allotted so little of the comb and brush to the farmer's horse. 
The animal that is worked all day, and turned out at night, requires little more to be 
done to him than to have the dirt brushed oft' his limbs. Regular grooming, by ren- 
dering his skin more sensible to the alteration of temperature, and the inclemency of 
the weather, would be prejudicial. The horse that is altogether turned out, needs no 
u rooming. The dandriff, or scurf, which accumulates at the roots of the hair, is a 
provision of nature to defend him from the wind and the cold. 

It is to the stabled horse, highly fed, and little or irregularly worked, that grooming 
is of so much consequence. Good rubbing with the brush, or the currycomb, opens 
the pores of the skin, circulates the blood to the extremities of the body, produces 
free ana healthy perspiration, and stands in the room of exercise. No horse will 



EXERCISE. 371 

carry a fine coat without either unnatural heat or dressing. They both effect the same 
purpose; they both increase the insensible perspiration: but the first does it at the 
expense of health and strength, while the second, at the same time that it produces a 
glow on the skin, and a determination of blood to it, rouses all the energies of the 
frame. It would be well for the proprietor of the horse if he were to insist — and to 
see that his orders are really obeyed — that the fine coat in which he and his groom so 
much delight, is produced by honest rubbing, and not by a heated stable and thick 
clothing, and most of all, not by stimulating or injurious spices. The horse should 
be regularly dressed every day, in addition to the grooming that is necessary after 
v/ork. 

VViien the weather will permit the horse to be taken out, he should never be groomed 
in the stable, unless he is an animal of peculiar value, or placed for a time under pecu- 
liar circumstances. Without dwelling on the want of cleanliness, when the scurf and 
dust that are brushed from the horse lodge in his manger, and mingle with his food, 
experience teaches, that if the cold is not too great, the animal is braced and invigo- 
rated to a degree that cannot be attained in the stable, from being dressed in the 
open air. There is no necessity, however, for half the punishment which many a 
groom inflicts upon the horse in the act of dressing; and particularly on one whose 
skin is thin and sensible. The curry-comb should at all times be lightly applied. 
With many horses, its use may be almost dispensed with ; and even the brush needs 
not to be so hard, nor the points of the bristles so irregular, as they often are. A 
soft brush, with a little more weight of the hand, will be equally effectual, and a great 
deal more pleasant to the horse. A hair-cloth, while it will seldom irritate and tease, 
will be almost sufficient with horses that have a thin skin, and that have not been 
neglected. After all, it is no slight task to dress a horse as it ought to be done. It 
occupies no little time, and demands considerable patience, as well as dexterity. It 
will be readily ascertained whether a horse has been well dressed by rubbing him 
with one of the fingers. A greasy stain will detect the idleness of the groom. 
When, however, the horse is clianging his coat, both the curry-comb and the brush 
should be used as lightly as possible. 

Whoever would be convinced of the benefit of friction to the horse's skin, and to 
the horse generally, needs only to observe the effects produced by well hand-rubbing 
the legs of a tired horse. While every enlargement subsides, and the painful stiffness 
disappears, and the legs attain their natural warmth, and become fine, the animal is 
evidently and rapidly reviving ; he attacks his food with appetite, and then quietly 
lies down to rest. 

EXERCISE. 

Our observations on this important branch of stable-management must have only a 
slight reference to the agricultural horse. His work is usually regular, and not 
exhausting. He is neither predisposed to disease by idleness, nor worn out by exces- 
sive exertion. He, like his master, has enough to do to keep him in health, and not 
enough to distress or injure him: on the contrary, the regularity of his work prolongs 
life to an extent rarely witnessed in the stable of the gentleman. Our remarks on 
exercise, then, must have a general bearing, or have principal reference to those per- 
sons who are in the middle stations of life, and who contrive to keep a horse for busi- 
ness or pleasure, but cannot afford to maintain a servant for the express purpose of 
looking after it. The first rule we would lay down is, that every horse should have 
daily exercise. The animal that, with the usual stable feeding, stands idle for three 
or four days, as is the case in many establishments, must suffer. He is predisposed 
to fever, or to grease, or, most of all, to diseases of the foot; and if, after three or four 
days of inactivity, he is ridden far and fast, he is almost sure to have inflammation 
of the lungs or of the feet. 

A gentleman or tradesman's horse suffers a great deal more from idleness than he 
does from work. A stable-fed horse should have two hours' exercise every day, if he 
is to be kept free from disease. Nothing of extraordinary or even of ordinary labour 
can be effected on the road or in the field, without sufficient and regular exercise. It 
is this alone which can give energy to the system, or develope the povrers of any 
animal. 

How, then, is this exercise to he givon ? As much as possible by, or under the 
superintendence of, the owner. The exercise given by the groom is rarely to no 



372 THE GENERAL MANAGExMENT OF THE HORSE. 

(lepended upon. It is inefficient or it is extreme. It is in many cases both irregular 
and injurious. It is dependent upon tlie caprice of him wlio is performing a task, 
and who will render that task subservient to his own pleasure or purpose. 

In training the hunter and the race-horse, regular exercise is the most important of 
all considerations, however it may be forgotten in the usual management of the stable. 
The exercised horse will discharge his task, and sometimes a severe one, with ease 
and pleasure ; while the idle and neglected one will be fatigued ere half his labour is 
accomplished, and, if he is pushed a little too far, dangerous inflammation will ensue. 
How often, nevertheless, does it happen, that the horse which has stood inactive in 
the stable three or four days, is ridden or driven thirty or forty miles in the course of 
a sino-le day ! This rest is often purposely given to prepare for extra-exertion ; — to 
lay in a stock of strength for the performance of the task required of him : and then 
the owner is surprised and dissatisfied if the animal is fairly knocked up, or possibly 
becomes seriously ill. Nothing is so common and so preposterous, as for a person to 
buy a horse from a dealer's stable, where he has been idly fattening for sale for many 
a day, and immediately to give him a long run after the hounds, and then to complain 
bitterly, and think that he has been imposed upon, if the animal is exhausted before 
the end of the chase, or is compelled to be led home suffering from violent inflannna- 
tion. Regular and gradually increasing exercise would have made the same horse 
appear a treasure to his owner. 

Exercise should be somewhat proportioned to the age of the horse. A young horse 
requires more than an old one. Nature has given to young animals of every kind a 
disposition to activity; but the exercise must not be violent. A great deal depends 
upon the manner in which it is given. To preserve the temper, and to promote 
health, it should be moderate, at least at the beginning and the termination. The 
rapid trot, or even the gallop, may be resorted to in the middle of the exercise, but 
the horse should be brought in cool. If the owner would seldom intrust his horse to 
boys, and would insist on the exercise being taken within sight, or in the neighbour- 
hood of his residence, many an accident and irreparable injury would be avoided. It 
should be the owner's pleasure, and it is his interest, personally to attend to all these 
things. He manages every other part of his concerns, and he may depend on it that 
he suffers when he neglects, or is in a manner excluded from, his stables. 

FOOD. 

, The system of manger-feeding is becoming general among farmers. There are few 
horses that do not habitually waste a portion of their hay ; and by some the greatei 
part is pulled down and trampled under foot, in order first to cull the sweetest and 
best locks, and which could not be done while the hay was enclosed in the rack. A 
good feeder will afterwards pick up much of that which was thrown down ; but some 
of it must be soiled and rendered disgusting, and, in many cases, one-third of this 
division of their food is wasted. Some of the oats and beans are imperfectly chewed 
by all horses, and scarcely at all by hungry and greedy ones. The appearance of the 
dung will sufficiently evince this. 

The observation of this induced the adoption of manger-feeding, or of mixing a 
portion of chaflf with the corn and beans. By this means the animal is compelled to 
chew his food ; he cannot, to an}' great degree, waste the straw or hay ; the chaff" is 
too hard and too sharp to be swallowed without considerable mastication, and, while 
he is forced to grind that down, the oats and beans are ground with it, and yield more 
nourishment; the stomach is more slowly filled, and therefore acts better on its con- 
tents, and is not so likely to be overloaded ; and the increased quantity of saliva 
thrown out in the lengthened maceration of the food, softens it, and makes it more fii 
for digestion. 

Professor Stewart very properly remarks that "many horses swallow their corn in 
great haste, and when much is eaten, that habit is exceedingly dangerous. The sto 
mach is filled — it is overloaded before it has time to make preparation for acting oh 
its contents — the food ferments, and painful or dangerous colic ensues. By adding 
<rhaff" to his corn, tha horse must take more time to eat it, and time is given for tho 
commencement of digestion, before fermentation can occur. In this way chaff" is very 
iseful, especially after long fasts."* 

* Stewart's Stable CEconomy, p. 225. 



FOOD. 373 

If, when considerable provender was wasted, the horse maintained his condition, 
and was able to do liis work, it was evident that much might be saved to the farmer, 
when lie adopted a system by which tlie horse ate all that was set before him ; and 
by degrees it was found out that, even food somewhat less nutritious, but a great deal 
cheaper, and which the horse either would not eat, or would not properly grind down 
in its natural state, might be added, while the animal would be in quite as good plight, 
and always ready for work. 

Chafi'may be composed of equal quantities of clover or meadow hay, and wheaten, 
oaten, or barley straw, cut into pieces of a quarter or half an inch in length, and 
mingled well together ; the allowance of oats or beans is afterwards added, and mixed 
with the chaff. Many farmers very properly bruise the oats or beans. The whole 
oat is apt to slip out of the chaff and be lost ; but when it is bruised, and especially 
if the chaff is a little wetted, it will not readily separate ; or, should a portion of it 
escape the grinders, it will be partly prepared for digestion by the act of bruising. 
The prejudice against bruising the oats is, so far as the farmer's horse, and the wagon 
horse, and every horse of slow draught, are concerned, altogether unfounded. The 
quantity of straw in tlie chaff will always counteract any supposed purgative quality 
in the bruised oats. Horses of quicker draught, except they are naturally disposed to 
scour, will thrive better with bruised than with whole oats ; for a greater quantity of 
nutriment will be extracted from the food, and it will always be easy to apportion the 
quantity of straw or beans to the effect of the mixture on the bowels of the horse. 
The principal alteration that should be made in the horse of harder and more rapid 
work, such as the post-horse, and the stage-coach horse, is to increase the quantity 
of hay, and diminish that of straw. Two trusses of hay may be cut with one of 
straw. 

Some gentlemen, in defiance of the prejudice and opposition of the coachman or the 
groom, have introduced this mode of feeding into the stables of their carriage-horses 
and hackneys, and with manifest advantage. There has been no loss of condition or 
power, and considerable saving of provender. This system is not, however, calculated 
for the hunter or the race-horse. Their food must lie in smaller bulk, in order that 
the action of the lungs may not be impeded by the distension of the stomach; yet 
many hunters have gone well over the field who have been manger-fed, the proportion 
of corn, however, being materially increased. 

For the agricultural and cart horse, eight pounds of oats and two of beans should 
be added to every twenty pounds of chaff. Thirty-four or thirty-six pounds of the 
mixture will be sufhcient for any moderate-sized horse, with fair, or even hard work. 
The dray and wagon horse may require forty pounds. Hay in the rack at night is, in 
this case, supposed to be omitted altogether. The rack, however, may remain, as 
occasionally useful for the sick horse, or to contain tares or other green meat. 

Horses are very fond of this provender. The majority of them, after having been 
accustomed to it, will leave the best oats given to them alone, for the sake of the 
mingled chaff and corn. We would, however, caution the farmer not to set apart too 
much damaged hay for the manufacture of the chatf. The horse may be thus induced 
to eat that which lie would otherwise refuse ; but if the nourishing property of the 
hay has been impaired, or it has acquired an injurious principle, the animal will either 
lose condition, or become- diseased. Much more injury is done by eating damaged 
hay or musty oats than is generally imagined. There will be sufficient saving in the 
diminished cost of the provender by the introduction of the straw, and the improved 
condition of the horse, without poisoning him with the refuse of the farm. For old 
horses, and for those with defective teeth, chaff is peculiarly useful, and for them the 
grain should be broken down as well as the fodder. 

While the mixture of chaff with the corn prevents it from being too rapidly de- 
voured and a portion of it swallowed whole, and therefore the stomach is not too 
loaded with that on which, as containing the most nutriment, its chief digestive powe- 
should be exerted, yet, on the whole, a great deal of time is gained by this mode ot 
feeding, and more is left for rest. When a horse comes in wearied at the close of 
the day, it occupies, after he has eaten his corn, two or three hours to clear his rack 
On the system of manger-feeding, the chaff being already cut into small pieces, and 
the beans and oats bruised, he is able fully to satisfy his appetite in an hour and a 
half. Two additional hours are therefore devoted to rest. This is a circumstance 
desorvino- of much consideration even in the farmer's stable, and of immense conse' 
32 



374 THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE. 

quence to the postmaster, the stage-coach proprietor, and the owner ol' jvery hard 
worked horse. 

Manger food will be the usual support of the farmer's horse during the winter, and 
while at constant or occasional hard work ; but from the middle of April to the ena 
of July, he may be fed with this mixture in the day and turned out at night, or he 
may remain out duiing every rest-day. A team in constant employ should not, how- 
ever, be suffered to be out at night alter the end of July. 

The farmer should take care that the pasture is thick and good ; and that the dis- 
tance from the yard is not too great, or the fields too large, otherwise a very consid- 
erable portion of time will be occupied in catching the horses in the morning. He 
will likewise have to take into consideration the sale he would have for his hay, and 
the necessity for sweet and untrodden pasture for his cattle. On the whole, however, 
turning out in this way, when circumstances will admit of it, will be found to be 
more beneficial for the horse, and cheaper than soiling in the yard.* 

The horse of the inferior farmer is sometimes fed on hay or grass alone, and the 
animal, although he rarely gets a feed of corn, maintains himself in tolerable condi- 
tion, and does the work that is required of him : but hay and grass alone, howevex 
good in quality, or in whatever quantity allowed, will not support a horse under hard 
work. Other substances containing a larger proportion of nutriment in a smaller 
compass, have been added. They shall be briefly enumerated, and an estimate form- 
ed of their comparative value. 

In almost every part of Great Britain, Oats have been selected as that portion of 
the food which is to atford the principal nourishment. They contain seven hundred 
and forty-three parts out of a thousand of nutritive matter. They should be about oi 
somewhat less than a year old, heavy, dry, and sweet. New oats will weigh ten oi 
fifteen per cent, more than old ones ; but the difference consists principally in watery 
matter, which is gradually evaporated. New oats are not so readily ground down 
by the teeth as old ones. They form a more glutinous mass, difficult to digest, and, 
when eaten in considerable quantities, are apt to occasion colic and even staggers. 
If they are to be used before they are from three to five months old, they would be 
materially improved by a little kiln-drying. There is no fear for the horses from 
simple drying, if the corn was good when it was put into the kiln. The old oat 
forms, when chewed, a smooth and uniform mass, which readily dissolves in the sto- 
mach, and yields the nourishment which it contains. Perhaps some chemical change 
may have been slowly effected in the old oat, disposing it to be more readily assimi- 
lated. Oats should be plump, bright in colour, and free from unpleasant smell oi 
taste. The musty smell of wetted or damaged corn is produced by a fungus which 
grows upon the seed, and which has an injurious effect on the urinary organs, and 
often on the intestines, producing profuse staling, inflammation of the kidneys, colic, 
and inflammation of the bowels. 

This musty smell is removed by kiln-drying the oat ; but care is here requisite that 
too great a degree of heat is not employed. It should be sufficient to destroy the fun- 

* Professor Stewart thus sums up the compartuive advantages of chaff and racked feed- 
ing: — 

"Where the stablemen arc careful, waste of fodder is diminished, but not prevented, by 
feeding from the manger. 

"Where the racks are good, careful stablemen may prevent nearly all waste of fodder with- 
out cutting it. 

" An accurate distribution of the fodder is not a very important object. 

" No horse seems to like his corn the better for being mingled with chaff. 

" Among half-starved horses chaff-cutting promotes the consumption of damaged fodder. 

" Full-fed horses, rather than eat the mi.xture of sound with unsound, will reject the whole, 
or eat less than their work demands. 

" Chaff is more easily eaten than hay. This is an advantage to old horses and others work- 
ing all day — a disadvantage when the horses stand long in the stable. 

" Chafl' insures complete mastication and deliberate digestion of the corn. It is of con- 
siderable, and of most importance in this respect. All the fodder needs not to be mingled 
with the corn, one pound of chaff being sufficient to secure the mastication and slow ingestion 
of four pounds of corn. 

" The cost of cutting all the fodder, especially for heavy horses, is repaid only when hay is 
dear, and wasted in large quantities. 

" Among hard-working horses bad food should never be cut." — Steviari'i Stable CEcoHyt- 
■IV. p 225, 



FOOD. 375 

fTiis without injuring the. life of the seed. Many persons, but without just cause, 
have considerable fear of the kihi-burnt oat. It is said to produce inflammation of 
Uie bladder, and of the eyes, and mangy affections of the skin. The fact is, that 
many of the kiln-dried oats that are given to horses were damaged before they were 
dried, and thus became imhealthy. A considerable improvement would be eliected 
by cutting the unthreshed oat-straw into chatT, and the expense of threshing would 
be saved. Oat-straw is better than that of barley, but does not contain so nmch nu 
triment as that of wheal. 

When the horse is fed on hay and oats, the quantity of the oats must vary with 
his size and the work to be performed. In winter, four feeds, or from ten to fourteen 
pounds of oats in the day, will be a fair allowance for a horse of fifteen hands one 
or two inches high, and that has moderate work. In summer, half the quantity, with 
green food, will be sufiicieut. Those who work on the farm have from ten to four- 
teen pounds, and the hunter from twelve to sixteen. There are no efficient and safe 
substitutes for good oats; but, on the contrary, we are much inclined to believe that 
tlicy possess an invigorating property which is not found in other food. 

Oatmeal will form u poultice more stimulating than one composed of linseed meal 
alone — or they may bo mingled in different proportions, as circumstances require. In 
the form of gruel it constitutes one of the most important articles of diet for the sick 
horse — not, indeed, forced upon him, but a pail containing it being slung in his box, 
and of which he will soon begin to drink when water is denied. Few grooms make 
good gruel ; it is either not boiled long enough, or a sufficient quantity of oatmeal has 
not been used. The proportions should be, a pound of meal thrown into a gallon of 
water, and kept constantly stirred until it boils, and five minutes afterwards. 

White-water, made by stirring a pint of oatmeal in a pail of water, the chill being 
taken from it, is an excellent beverage for the thirsty and tired horse. 

Barlev is a common food of the horse on various parts of the Continent, and, 
until the introduction of the oat, seems to have constituted almost his only food. It 
is more nutritious than oats, containing nine hundred and twenty parts of nutritive 
matter in every thousand. There seems, however, to be something necessary be- 
sides a great proportion of nutritive matter, in order to render any substance whole- 
some, strengthening, or fattening; therefore it is that, in many horses that are hardly 
worked, and, indeed, in horses generally, barley does not agree with tliem so well as 
oats. They are occasionally subject to inflanmiatory complaints, and particularly to 
surfeit and mange. 

When barley is given, the quantity should net exceed a peck daily. It should 
always be bruised, and the chaff should consist of equal quantifies of hay and bar- 
ley-straw, and not cut too short. If the farmer has a quantity of spotted or unsale- 
able barley that he wishes thus to get rid of, he must very gradually accustom his 
horses to it, or he will probably produce serious illness among them. For horses that 
are recovering from illness, barley, in the form of malt, is often serviceable, as tempt- 
ing the appetite and recruiting the strength. It is best given in mashes — water, con- 
siderably below the boiling heat, being poured upon it, and the vessel or pail kept 
covered for half an hour. 

Grains frf^sh from the mash-tub, either alone, or mixed with oats or chaff, ^r both, 
may be occasionally given to horses of slow draught; they would, however, afford 
very insufficient nourishment for horses of quicker or harder work. 

Wheat is, in Great Britain, more rarely given than barley. It contains nine hun- 
dred and fifty-five parts of nutritive matter. ' When farmers have a damaged or un- 
marketable sample of wheat, they sometimes give it to their horses, and, being at 
first used in small quantities, they become accustomed to it, and thrive and work 
well : it must, however, always be bruised and given in chaff. Wheat contains a 
greater portion of s;luten, or sticky, adhesive matter, than any other kind of grain. 
It is difficult of digestion, and apt to cake and form obstructions in the bowels. This 
will oftener be the^case if the horse is suffered to drink much water soon after feed- 
ing upon wheat. 

Fermentation, colic, and death, are occasionally the consequence of eating any 
great quantity of wheat. A horse that is fed on wheat should have very little hay. 
The proportion should not be more than one truss of hay to two of straw. WSeuten 
flour, boiled in water to the thickness of starch, is given with good effect in CA^er-puru- 
ing, and especially if combined with chalk and opium. 



3*/G THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE. 

Bra.\, or the ground husk of the wheat, used to be frequently given to sick horses 
!m account of the supposed advantage derived from its relaxing the bowels. There 
is no doubt that it does operate gently on the intestinal canal, and assists in quick- 
enino- the passage of its contents, when it is occasionally given ; but it must not be 
a constant, or even frequent food. Mr. Ernes attended three mills at which many 
liorses were kept, and there were always two or three cases of indigestion from the 
accumulation of bran or pollard in the large intestines. Bran may, however, be use- 
ful as an occasional aperient in the form of a mash, but never should become a regu- 
lar article of food. 

Beans. — These form a striking illustration of the principle, that the nourishing or 
strenfTthenin"' effects of the ditferent articles of food depend more on some peculiar 
property which they possess, or some combination which they form, than on the ac- 
tual quantity of nutritive matter. Beans contain but five hundred and seventy parts 
of nutritive matter, yet they add materially to the vigour of the horse. There are 
many horses that will not stand hard work without beans being mingltd with their 
food, and these not horses whose tendency to purge it may be necessary to restrain 
by the astringency of the bean. There is no traveller who is not aware of the differ- 
ence in the spirit and contirmance of his horse whether he allows or denies him beans 
on his journey. They afford not merely a temporary stimulus, but they may be daily 
used without losing their power, or producing exhaustion. They are indispensable 
to the hard-worked coach-horse. Washy horses could never get through their work 
without them ; and old horses would often sink under the task imposed upon them. 
Tney should not be given to the horses whole or split, but crushed. This will make 
a meterial difference in the quantity of nutriment that will be extracted. They are 
sometimes given to turf horses, but only as an occasional stimulant. Two pounds 
of beans may, with advantage, be mixed with the chafF of the agricultural horse, 
during the winter. In summer the quantity of beans should be lessened, or they 
should be altogether discontinued. Beans are generally given whole. This is very 
absurd ; for the young horse whose teeth are strong, seldom requires them ; while the 
old horse, to whom they are in a manner necessary, is scarcely able to masticate them, 
swallows many of them which he is unable to break, and drops much corn from his 
mouth in the ineffectual attempt to crush them. Beans should not be merely split, 
but crushed ; they will even then give sufficient employment to the grinders of the 
animal. Some postmasters use chaff with beans instead of oats. With hardly- 
worked horses they may possibly be allowed ; bul, in general cases, beans, without 
oats, would be too binding and stimulating, and would produce costiveness, and pro- 
bably megrims or staggers. 

Beans should be at least a twelvemonth old before they are given to the horse, ano 
they should be carefully preserved from damp and mouldiness, which at least disgust 
the horse if they do no other harm, and harbour an insect that destroys the inner part 
of the bean. 

The straw of the bean is nutritive and wholesome, and is usually given to the 
horses. Its nutritive properties are supposed to be little inferior to those of oats. The 
small and plump bean is generally the best. 

Peas are occasionally given. They appear to be in a slight degree more nourish- 
ing than beans, and not so heating. They contain five hundred and seventy-four 
parts of nutritive matter. For horses of slow work they may be used ; but the 
quantity of chaff should be increased, and a few oats added. They have not been 
found to answer with horses of quick draught. It is essential that they should be 
crushed ; otherwise, on account of their globular form, they are apt to escape from 
the teeth, and many are swallowed whole. Exposed to warmth and moisture in 
the stomach, they swell considerably, and may painfully and injuriously distend it. 
The peas that are given to horses should be sound, and at least a twelvemonth old. 

In some northern counties pea-meal is frequently used, not only as an excellent food 
for the horse, but as a remedy for diabetes. 

Linseed is sometimes given to sick horses — raw, ground, and boiled. It is sup- 
posed to be useful in cases of catarrh.* 

* " Mr. Black, veterinary surgeon of the 14th Dragoons, says that sugar was tried as an 
article of food during the Peninsular War. Ten horses were selected, each of which got 8 
pounds a day at four rations. They took it very readily, and their coats became fine, smooth 



FOOD. 37? 

Herbage, green and dry, constitutes a principal part of the food of the horse. Thero 
are few things with regard to which the farmer is so careless as the mixture of grasses 
on both his upland and meadow pasture. Hence we find, in the same field, the ray- 
grass, coming to perfection only in a loamy soil, not fit to cut until the middle or lat- 
ter part of July, and yielding little aftermath ; the meadow fox-tail, best cultivated in 
a clayey soil, fit for the scythe in the beginning of June, and yielding a plentiful 
aftermath; the glaucous fescue-grass, ready at the middle of June, and rapidly dete- 
riorating in value as its seeds ripen ; and the fertile meadow-grass, increasing in value 
until the end of July. These are circumstances the importance of which will, at no 
distant period, be recognised. In the mean time, Sinclair's account of the different 
grasses, or the condensation of the most important part of his work in Sir Humphry 
Davy's Agricultural Chemistry, or Low's Elements of Practical Agriculture, are well 
deserving of the diligent perusal of the farmer. 

Hay is most in perfection when it is about a twelvemonth old. The horse perhaps 
would prefer it earlier, but it is neither so wholesome nor so nutritive, and often has 
a purgative quality. When it is about a year old, it retains or should retain some- 
what of its green colour, its agreeable smell and its pleasant taste. It has undergone 
the slow process of fermentation, by which the sugar which it contains is developed, 
and its nutritive quality is fully exercised. Old hay becomes dry and tasteless, and 
innutritive and unwholesome. After the grass is cut, and the hay stacked, a slight 
degree of fermentation takes place in it. This is necessary for the development of 
the saccharine principle ; but occasionally it proceeds too far and the hay becomes 
mowhurnt, in which state it is injurious, or even poisonous. The horse soon shows 
the effect which it has upon him. He has diabetes to a considerable degree — he 
becomes hidebound — his strength is wasted — bis thirst is excessive, and he is almost 
worthless. 

Where the system of manger-feeding is not adopted, or where hay is still allowed 
at night, and chaff" and corn in the day, there is no error into which the farmer is so 
apt to fall as to give an undue quantity of hay, and that generally of the worst kind. 
If the manger system is good, there can be no necessity for hay, or only for a small 
quantity of it; but if the rack is overloaded, the greedy horse will be eating all night, 
instead of taking his rest — when the time for the morning feed arrives, his stomach 
will be already filled, and he will be less capable of work from the want of sleep, and 
from the long-continued distension of the stomach rendering it impossible for the food 
to be properly digested. 

It is a good practice to sprinkle the hay with water in which salt has been dis- 
solved. It is evidently more palatable to the animal, who will leave the best unsalted 
hay for that of an inferior quality that has been moistened with brine; and there can 
be no doubt that the salt very materially assists the process of digestion. The pre- 
ferable way of salting the hay is to sprinkle it over the different layers as the rick is 
formed. From its attraction for water, it would combine with that excess of moisture 
which, in wet seasons, is the cause of too rapid and violent fermentation, and of the 
hay becoming mowburnt, or the rick catching fire, and it would become more incor- 
porated with the hay. The only oljjection to its being thus used is, that the colour 
of the hay is not so bright; but this will be of little consequence for home consump- 
tion. 

Of the value of Tares, as forming a portion of the late spring and summer food of 
the stabled and agricultural horse, there can be no doubt. They are cut after the pods 
are formed, but a considerable time before the seeds are ripe. They supply a larger 
quantity of food for a limited time than almost any other forage-crop. Tiie vicia saliva 
is the most profitable variety of the tare. It is very nutritive, and acts as a gentle 
aperient. When surfeit-lumps appear on the skin, and the horse begins to rub him 
self ao-ainst the divisions of the stall, and the legs swell, and the heels threaten to 
crack,^a few tares, cut up with the chaff, or given instead of a portion of the hay, will 
afford considerable relief. Ten or twelve pounds may be allowed daily, and half that 



and glossy. They got no corn, and only 7 pounds of hay, instead of the ordinary allowance 
which is i2 pounds. The sugar seemed to sui)ply the place of the corn so well, that it would 
have been probably given abroad ; but peace came, and the circumstances that rendered the 
use of sno-ar for corn desirable ceased, and the horses returned to their usual diet. That the 
BUf^ar might not be appropriated to other purposes it was slightly scented with assafoetida, 
wliich did not produce any apparent effect upon them." 
32* 2x 



378 THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE. 

weight of hay subtracted. It is an erroneous notion, that, g-iven in moderate quanti' 
lies, they either roughen the coat or lessen the capability for hard work. 

KvE Grass affords a valuable article of food, but is inferior to the tare. It is noJ 
so nutritive. It is apt to scour and, occasionally, and late in the spring, it has aj 
peared to be injurious to the horse. 

Clover, for soiling the horse, is inferior to the tare and the rye grass, but neverthe- 
less, is useful when they cannot be obtained. Clover hay is, perhaps, preferable to 
meadow hay for chaff". It will sometimes tempt the sick horse, and may be given 
with advantage to those of slow and heavy work ; but custom seems properly to have 
forbidden it to the hunter and the hackney. 

LucERN, where it can be obtained, is preferable even to tares, and sain-foin is supe- 
rior to lucern. Although they contain but a small quantity of nutritive matter, it is 
easily digested, and perfectly assimilated. They speedily put both muscle and fat 
on the horse that is worn down by labour, and they are almost a specific for hide- 
bound. Some farmers have thought so highly of lucern as to substitute it for oats. 
This may be allowable for the agricultural horse of slow and not severe work, but he 
from whom speedier action is sometimes required, and the horse of all work, must 
have a propoition of hard meat withiij him. 

The Swedish Turnip is an article of food the value of which has not been suffi- 
ciently appreciated, and particularly for agricultural horses. Although it is far from 
containing the quantity of nutritive matter which has been supposed, that which it 
has seems to be capable of easy and complete digestion. It should be sliced with 
chopped straw, and without hay. It quickly fattens the horse, and produces a smooth 
glossy coat and a loose skin. It will be good practice to give it once in the day, and 
that at night when the work is done. 

Carrots. — The virtues of this root are not sufficiently known, whether as contri- 
buting to the strength and endurance of the sound horse, or the rapid recovery of the 
sick one. To the healthy horse they should be given sliced in his chaff". Half a 
bushel Avill be a fair daily allowance. There is little provender of which the horse ig 
fonder. The following account of the value of the carrot is not exaggerated. "This 
root is held in much esteem. There is none better, nor perhaps so good. When first 
given it is slightly diuretic and laxative; but as the horse becomes accustomed to it, 
these effects cease to be produced. They also improve the state of the skin. They 
form a good substitute for grass, and an excellent alterative for horses out of condi- 
tion. To sick and idle horses they render corn unnecessary. They are beneficial in 
all chronic diseases connected with breathing, and have a marked influence upon 
chronir cough and broken wind. They are serviceable in diseases of the skin, and 
in combination with oats they restore a worn horse much sooner than oats alone."* 

Potatoes have been given, and with advantafje, in their raw state, sliced with the 
chaff ; but, where it has been convenient to boil or steam them, the benefit has been 
fiir more evident. Purging has then rarely ensued. Some have given boiled potatoes 
alone, and horses, instead of rejecting them, have soon preferred them even to the 
oat ; but it is better to mix them with the usual manger feed, in the proportion of one 
pound of potatoes to two and a half pounds of the other ingredients. The use of the 
potato must depend on its cheapness, and the facility for boiling it. Half a dozen 
liorses would soon lepay the expense of a steaming boiler in the saving of provender, 
without taking into the account their improved condition and capability for work.]" 
A horse fed on potatres should have his quantity of water materially curtailed. 

Furze has sometimes been given during the winter months. There is considerable 
trouble attending the preparation of it, although its plentifulness and little value for 
other purposes would, on a large farm, well repay that trouble. The furze is cut 
down at about three or four years' growth ; the green branches of that and the pre- 
(cding year are bruised in a mill, and then given to the horses in the state in which 
they come from the mill, or cut up with the chaff". Horses are very fond of it. If 

"* Stewart's Stable CEconomy, p 183. 

t Professor Low savs that 15 lbs. of potatoes yield as much nourishment as four pounds and 
a half of oats. Von Thayer asserts that three bushels are equal to 112 lbs. of bay ; and Cur- 
wen, wno tried potatoes e.xtensively in the feeding of horses, says that an acre goes as far aa 
four acres of ha>. 



FOOD. 379 

twenty pounds of the furze are given, five pounds of straw^, the beans, and three 
pounds of the oats, may be withdravi^n. 

It may not be uninteresting to conclude this catalogue of the different articles of 
horse-food with a list of the quantities of nutritive matter contained in each of them ; 
for althoiigli these quantities cannot be considered as expressing the actual value of 
each, because other circumstances besides tbe simple quantity of nutriment seem te 
influence their effect in supporting the strength and condition of the horse, yet many 
a useful hint may be derived when the farmer looks over the produce of his soil, and 
inquires what other grasses or vegetables might suit his land. The list is partly 
taken from Sir Humphry Davy's Agricultural Chemistry : — 1000 parts of wheat con- 
tain 955 parts of nutritive matter ; barley, 920 ; oats, 713 ; peas, 574 ; beans, 570 ; 
potatoes, 230; red beet, 148; parsneps, 99 ; carrots, 98. Of the grasses, 1000 parts 
of the meadow cat's-tail contain, at the time of seeding, 98 parts of nutiitive matter; 
narrow-leaved meadow grass in seed, and sweet-scented soft grass in flower, 95; 
narrow-leaved and flat-stalked meadow grass in flower, fertile meadow grass in seed, 
and tall fescue in flower, 93 ; fertile meadow grass, meadow fescue, reed-like fescue, 
and creeping soft grass in flower, 78 ; sweet-scented soft grass in flower, and the 
aftermath, 77; florin, cut in the winter, 7G; tall fescue, in the aftermath, and meadow 
soft grass in flower, 74 ; cabbage, 73 ; crested dog's-tail and brome, when flowering, 
71; yellow oat, in flower, 6G; Swedisli turnips, 64; narrow-leaved meadow grass, 
creeping beet,'^ round-headed cocksfoot, and spiked fescue, 59; roughish and fertilu 
meadow grass, flowering, 5G; florin, in summer, 54; common turnips, 43; sain-foin, 
and broad-leaved and long-rooted clover, 39; white clover, 32; and lucern, 23. 

The times of feeding should be as equally divided as convenience will permit; and 
when it is likely that the horse will be kept longer than usual from home, the nose- 
bag should invariably be taken. The small stomach of the horse is emptied in a few 
hours; and if he is suffered to remain hungry much beyond his accustomed time, he 
will afterwards devour his food so voraciously as to distend the stomach and endanger 
an attack of staggers. When this disease appears in the farmer's stable, he may 
attribute it to various causes; the true one, in the majority of instances, is irregularity 
in feeding. If the reader will turn back to page 97, he will be convinced that this 
deserves more serious attention than is generally given to it. 

"When extra work is required from the animal, the system of management is often 
injudicious, for a double feed is put before him, and as soon as he has swallowed it, 
he is started. It would be far better to give him a double feed on the previous eve- 
ning, which would be digested before he is wanted, and then he might set out in the 
morning after a very small portion of corn has been given to him, or perhaps only a 
little hay. One of the most successful methods of enabling a horse to get well 
through a long journey, is to give him only a little at a time while on the road, and 
at night to indulge him with a double feed of corn and a full allowance of beans. 

Water. — This is a part of stable management little regarded by the farmer. He 
lets his horses loose morning and night, and they go to the nearest pond or brook and 
drink their fill, and no harm results, for they obtain that kind of water which nature 
designed them to have, in a manner prepared for them by some unknown influence 
of the atmosphere, as well as by the deposition of many saline admixtures. The dif- 
ference between hard and snfl water is known to every one. In hard water, soap will 
curdle, vegetables will not boil soft, and the saccharine matter of the malt cannot be 
fully obtained in the process of brewing. There is nothing in which the different 
effect of hard and soft water is so evident, as in the stomach and digestive organs of 
the horse. Hard water, drawn fresh from the well, will assuredly make the coat of a 
horse imaccustomed to it stare, and it will not unfrequently gripe and otherwise injure 
him. Instinct or experience has made even the horse himself conscious of this, for 
he will never drink hard water if he has access to soft, and he will leave the most 
transparent and pure water of the well for a river, although the stream may be turbid, 
and even for the muddiest pool.* He is injured, however, not so much by the hard- 
ness of the well-water as by its coldness — particularly by its coldness in summer, 
r»nd when it is many degrees below the temperature of the atmosphere. The wate* 



* Some trainers have so much fear of hard or strange water, that they carry with them to 
the different courses the water that the animal has been accustomed to drink, and that which 
ihev know agrees with it. 



380 THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE. 

m the l)i->ok and the pond being warmed by long exposure to the air, as well as having 
bet'onie soft, the horse drinks freely of it without danger. 

If the horse were watered three times a day, and especially in summer, he would 
often be saved from the sad torture of thirst, and from many a disease. Whoever has 
observed the eagerness with which the over-worked horse, hot and tired, plunges his 
muzzle into the pail, and the difficulty of stopping him until he has drained the last 
drop, may form some idea of what he had previously suflered, and will not wonder at 
the violent spasms, and inflammation, and sudden death, that often result. 

There is a prejudice in the minds of many persons against the horse being fully 
supplied with water. They think that it injures his wind, and disables him for quick 
and hard work. If he is galloped, as he too often is, immediately after drinking, his 
wind may be irreparably injured; but if he were oftener suffered to satiate his thirst 
at the intervals of rest, he would be happier and better. It is a fact unsuspected by 
those who have not carefully observed the horse, that if he has frequent access to 
water, he will not drink so much in the course of the day as another will do, who, to 
cool his parched mouth, swallows as fast as he can, and knows not when to stop. 

On a journey, a horse should be liberally supplied with water. When he is a little 
cooled, two or three quarts may be given to him, and after that, his feed. Before he 
has finished his corn, two or three quarts more may be offered. He will take no 
harm if this is repeated three or four times during a long and hot day. 

It is a judicious rule with travellers, that when a horse begins to refuse his food, 
he should be pushed no farther that day. It may, however, be worth while to try 
whether this does not proceed from thirst, as much as from exhaustion, for in many 
instances his appetite and his spirits will return soon after he has partaken of the 
refreshing draught. 

Management of the Feet. — This is the only division of stable management 
that remains to be considered, and one sadly neglected by the carter and groom. 
The feet should be carefully examined every morning, for the shoes may be loose 
and the horse would have been stopped in the middle of his work; or the clenchea 
may be raised, and endanger the wounding of his legs ; or the shoe may begin 
to press upon the sole or the heel, and bruises of the sole, or corn, may be the 
result; and, the horse having stood so long in the stable, every little increase of heat 
in the foot, or lameness, will be more readily detected, and serious disease may often 
be prevented. 

When the horse comes in at night, and after the harness has been taken off and 
stowed away, the heels should be we,, brushed out. Hand-rubbing will be prefer- 
able to washing, especially in the agricultural horse, whose heels, covered with long 
hair, can scarcely be dried again. If the dirt is suffered to accumulate in that long 
hair, the heels will become sore, and grease will follow; and if the heels are washed, 
and particularly during the winter, grease will result from the coldness occasioned by 
the slow evaporation of the moisture. The feet should be stopped — even the feet of 
the farmer's horse, if he remains in the stable. Very little clay should be used in 
the stopping, for it will get hard and press upon the sole. Cowdung is the best stop- 
ping to preserve the feet cool and elastic; but, before the stopping is applied, the 
picker should be run round the whole of the foot, between the shoe and the sole, in 
order to detect any stone that may have insinuated itself there, or a wound on any 
other part of the sole. For the hackney and hunter, stopping is indispensable. After 
several days' hard work it will afford very great relief to take the shoes off, having 
put plenty of litter under the horse, or to turn him, if possible, into a loose-box ; ano 
ihe shoes of every horse, whether hardly worked or not, should be removed or change*! 
unce in every three weeks. 



THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES. 381 

CHAPTER XXI. 

THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES. 

THii skin of the horse resembles in construction that of other animals. It consists 
of three layers, materially diflering in their structure and office. Externally is the 
CUTICLE — the epidermis or scarf-skin — composed of innumerable thin, transparent 
scales, and extending over the whole animal. If the scarf-skin is examined by 
means of a microscope, the existence of scales like those of a fish, is readily detect- 
ed. In the action of a blister they are raised from the skin beneath in the form of 
pellucid bladders, and, in some diseases, as in mange, they are thrown off in hard, 
dry, white scales, numerous layers of which are placed one above another. In 
every part of tlie body the scarf-skin is permeated by innumerable pores, some of 
which permit the passage of the hair — through others the perspirable matter finds 
a passage — others are perforated by tubes through which various unctuous secre- 
tions make their escape, while, through a fourth variety, numerous fluids and gases 
are inhaled. It is destitute of nerves and blood-vessels, and its principal use seema 
to be to protect the cutis from injury, and to restrain and moderate its occasional mor 
bid sensibility. 

There is at all times a singular change taking place in this outer covering of 
the animal. There is a constant alteration and renewal of every part of it, but it 
adheres to the true skin through the medium of the pores, and also numerous little 
eminenr.f.s, or projections, which seem to be prolongations of the nerves of the skin. 
The cuticle is in itself insensible ; but one of its most important functions is to pro- 
tect and defend the parts beneath, which are so often exposed to the effects of a mor- 
bid sensibility. 

Beneath the cuticle is a thin, soft substance, through which the pores and eminences 
of the true skin pass. It is termed the rete miicosiim, from its web-like structure, 
and its soft mucous consistence. Its office is to cover the minute vessels and nerves 
in their way from the cutis to the cuticle. It is also connected with the colour of the 
skin. In horses with white hair the rete mucosum is white ; it is brown in those of 
a brown colour — black in the black, and in patches of different colours with those 
the hue of whose integument varies. Like the cuticle it is reproduced after abrasion, 
or other injury. 

The cutis, or true skin, lies beneath the rete mucosum. It is decidedly of a fibrous 
texture, elastic, but with difficulty lacerated — exceedingly vascular, and highly sen- 
sitive. It is the substance which is converted into leather when removed from the 
body, and binds together the different parts of the frame. In some places it does this 
literally and clings so closely to the substance beneath that it scarcely admits of any 
motion : this is the case about the forehead and the back, while upon the face, the 
sides and flanks, it hangs in loosened folds. In the parts connected with progression 
it is folded into various duplicatures, that the action of the animal may admit of the 
least possible obstruction. The cutis is thinnest, and most elastic, on those parts that 
are least covered with hair, or where the hair is altogether deficient, as the lips, the 
muzzle, and the inside of the flanks. 

Whatever is the colour of the rete mucosum, the true skin is of a pale white ; in 
fact, the cutis has no connection with the colour of the hair. Of its general char- 
acter, Mr. Percivall gives a very accurate description : — " It appears to consist of 
a dense substratum of cellular tissue, with which are interwoven fibres of a liga- 
mentous nature, in such a manner that innumerable areolae, like the meshes of a 
net, are formed in it. These areolae open, through correspondent pores in the cuti- 
cle, upon the external surface, and are for the purpose of transmitting thither blood- 
vessels and absorbents, giving passage to the hair, and lodging the various secretory 
organs of the skin."* 

Over a great part of the frame lies a singular muscle peculiar to quadrupeds, and 
more extensive and powerful in the thin-skinned and thin-haired animals, than in 

* Percivall's Anatomy of the Horse, p. 400. 



382 THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES. 

tliosc wilh thicker hides. It reaches from the poll over the whole of the carcase, and 
down to the arm before, and the stifle behind. By its contraction the skin is pucker- 
ed in every direction ; and if it acts strongly and rapidly, the horse is not only ena- 
bled to shake oft' any insect or fly that may annoy him, but sometimes to displace a 
great part of his harness, and to render it difficult for the most expert rider to keep 
his seat. This muscle also assists the skin in bracing that part of the frame which 
It covers, and, perhaps, gives additional strength to the muscles beneath. It is called 
the panniculus carnosus, or fleshy panicle or covering. 

The skin answers tlie double purpose of protection and strength. Where it is 
necessary that the parts should be bound and knit together, it adheres so tightly that 
Ave can scarcely raise it. Thus the hones of the knees and the pasterns and the ten- 
dons of the legs, on which so much stress is frequently thrown, are securely tied 
down and kept in their places. It is in order to take additional advantage of this 
binding and strengthening power that we fire the legs of overworked horses, in whom 
the sinews have begun to start, and the ligaments of the joints to swell, or be dis- 
placed. The skin is tight along the muscles of the back and loins, and down the 
yet more powerful muscles of the quarters; but in other places it is loosely attached, 
that it may not interfere with the motions of the anim.al. About the brisket, and 
within the arms and at the flanks, it hangs even in folds. 

Of its strength we have abundant proof, both in the living and dead animal. Its 
fibres are interlaced in a most curious and intricate manner, so as, when living, to be 
scarcely lacerable, and converted into leather after death. 

It is, while the animal is alive, one of the most clastic bodies with which we are 
acquainted. It not only perfectly adapts itself to the slow growth or decrease of tho 
body, and appears equally to fit, whether the horse is in the plumpest condition oi 
reduced to a skeleton ; but, when a portion of it is distended to an extraordinary de- 
gree, in the most powerful action of the muscles, it, in a moment, again contracts to 
its usual dimensions. 

It is principally indebted for this elasticity to almost innumerable minute glands 
which pour out an oily fluid that softens and supples it. When the horse is in health, 
and every organ discharges its proper functions, a certain quantity of this unctuous 
matter is spread over the surface of the skin, and is contained in all the pores that 
penetrate its substance ; and the skin becomes pliable, easily raised from the texture 
beneath, and presenting that peculiar yielding softness and elasticity which experi- 
ence has proved to be the best proofs of the condition, or, in other words, the general 
health of the animal. Then, too, from the oiliness nnd softness of the skin, the hair 
lies in its natural and proper direction, and is smooth and glossy. When the system 
is deranged, and especially the digestive system, and the vessels concerned in the 
nour-ishment of the animal feebly act, those of the skin evidently sympathize. This 
oily secretion is no more thrown out; the skin loses its pliancy; it seems to cling to 
the animal, and we have that peculiar appearance which we call hide-bound. This, 
however, requires attentive consideration. 

We observe a horse in the summer. W"e find him with a thin, smooth, glossy 
coat, and his extremities clean and free almost from a single rough or misplaced hair. 
We meet with him again towards the winter, when the thermometer has fallen almost 
or quite to the freezing point, and we scarcely recognize him in his thick, rough, 
coarse, colourless coat, and his legs enveloped in long, shaggy hair. The health of 
the horse is, to a certain degree, deranged. He is dull, languid, easily fatigued. He 
will break into a sweat with the slightest exertion, and it is almost impossible tho- 
roughly to dry him. He may perhaps feed as well as usual, although that will not 
generally be the case, but he is not equal to the demands which we are compelled to 
make upon him. 

This process goes on for an uncertain time, depending on the constitution of the 
animal, until nature has effected a change, and then he once more rallies: but a great 
Hlteration has taken place in him — the hair has lost its soft and glossy character, and 
IS become dry and staring. The skin ceases to secrele iliat peculiar unctuous matter 
which kept it soft and flexible, and becomes dry and i-r ly ; and the exhalents on the 
surface, having become relaxed, are frequently pouring out a profuse perspiration, 
without any apparent adequate cause for it. 

So passes the approach to winter, and the owner complains sadly of the appear 
Mice of his steed, and, according to the old custom, gives him plenty of cordia' 



HIDE-BOUND. 383 

balls, — perhaps too many of them, — on tlie whole not brir.o- \m-ervieeable at this 
critical period, yet not productive of a great deal of good. At length the animal 
rallies of himself, and although not so strong and full of spirits as he ought to be, is 
hardier and more lively than he was, and able to struggle with the cold of the coming 
winter.* 

What a desideratum in the management of the horse would be a course of treat- 
ment that would render all this unnecessary ! This desideratum has been found — 
a free escape of perspiration, a moist and softened state of the skin, an evident in- 
crease of health and capability of enduring fatigue, and working on shorter supply 
of food than he could before. This is said to be performed by the clipping and singe- 
ing systems. 

Mr. Thomas Turner, who was almost one of the earliest advocates of these sys- 
tems, states that during the months of October and November an inordinate growth 
ef hair is observed over the whole surface of the body, and in many horses as early 
as the beginning of September, and almost invariably prevails, more or less, in every 
horse that is not thorough-bred. The debilitating effects thereby induced are profuse 
perspiration on the least possible exertion — depression of the animal spirits, and tem- 
porary loss of appetite. The immediate removal of all the superfluous hair by close 
clipping, instantly proves so powerful a tonic to the animal, that he unhesitatingly 
affirms it to be inferior to none at present known in our pharmacopoeia. Mr. Turner 
adds. — " Now, signal as the success of clipping has been, I do entertain a hope, and 
am of opinion that, in the majority of instances, it may be superseded by sincreing 
under certain modifications."]' 

We may not, perhaps, be able satisfactorily to explain the apparently magical 
effects of clipping and singeing on the general constitution, a*id particularly the wind 
of the horse, or the respiratory functions generally, but there is no doubt of their ex- 
istence. An increased tone is given to the system generally ; and probably, in some 
way not yet sufficiently developed, the increased current of the electric fluid may 
have much to do with it. 

Mr. Snewing gives an interesting account of the effect of clipping on two horses 
in his establishment. He had a cob, with a fixed catarrh of several months' stand- 
ing. It did not interfere with the animal's general health, but was a source of con- 
siderable annoyance. At length the owner determined to sell him ; but first he had 
him clipped. After a few days his attention was drawn to the circumstance, that 
either the horse's cough must have left him, or, from repeatedly hearing it, he had 
ceased to regard it. He watched the animal, and, truly enough, he found that the 
rough had entirely disappeared. He rode him through the winter and the following 
summer, and there was no return of it. 

The other instance was in a mare which he had after this one was sold. In the 
months of August, September, and October, 1841, she was continually the subject of 
intermittent cough. He had her clipped, and in a few days she ceftsed to cough, and 
has not been heard to cough from that time. 

HIDE-BOUND. 

This is not so much a diminution of the cellular or fatty substance between tht 
skin and the muscles beneath, as it is an alteration in the skin itself. It is a hard- 
ness and unyieldingness of the skin from the want of the oily matter on its surface 

* Mr. E. Gabriel, V. S., on the Treatment of the Horse in Autumn. — Veterinarian, vol. 
xiii. 627. 

t Veterinarian, vol. xiv., 18. ,^ 

In justif-e, however, to an excellent sportsman, Nimrod, we must quote another opinion, 
and with that the subject shall be left to the consideration of our readers. " On the subject 
of clipping, I cannot agree with Mr. Gabriel as to the call for it, much less admit its almost 
UTijversal adoption. I would clip road-coach horses, and a hunter that had been summered 
entirely at grass, despairing of condition on any other terms. It is a mere substitute for good 
grooming. As for its almost universal adoption, such is far from being the case. I did^rot 
see three clipped horses last year (1840); at Melton, in the Quorn stables, rot one, nor in 
Mr. Foljambe's. Singed ones I did see to a certain extent; but a hardy-riding Meltonian 
told me that he would have no more spirits of wine charged in his groom's book. ' A mere 
substitute,' said he, ' in my stable for the old-fashioned elbow-grease.' In my opinior the 
norse is not yet foaled which cannot be got into perfect condition without this outrage on .la- 
ture."— TAe Veterinarian, vol", xiv., p. 35. 



3S4 THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES. 

and in its substance. It is the difference that is presented to the feeling by wejl cur 
ried and supple leather, and that which has become dry and unyielding. 

The surface of the skin becoming dry and hard, the scales of the cutiole are no 
lono'er penetrated by the hair, but, separating themselves in every direction, give that 
peculiar roughness to the coat which accompanies want of condition. It betokens 
impaired function o: the vessels everywhere, and particularly ihose of the stomach 
and bowels. Hide-bound is not so much a disease as a symjitom of disease, and 
particularly of the digestive organ*- and our remedies must be applied not so much to 
the skin — although we have, in friction and in warmth, most valuable agents in pro- 
ducintr a healthy condition of the integuments — as to the cause of the hide-bound, 
and the state of the constitution generally. Every disease that can affect the general 
system may produce this derangement of the functions of the skin. Glanders, when 
become constitutional, is strongly indicated by the imthrifty appearance of the coat. 
Chronic cough, grease, farcy, and founder, are accompanied by hide bound; and diet 
too sparing, and not adequate to the work exacted, is an unfailing source of it. If 
the cause is removed, the effect will cease. 

Should the cause be obscure, as it frequently is — should the horse wiiar an unthrifty 
coat, and his hide cling to his ribs, without any apparent disease, we shall generally 
be warranted in tracing it to sympathy with the actual, although not demonstrable, 
suspension of some important secretion or function, either of the alimentury canal or 
the respiratory functions. A few mashes, and a mild dose of physic, are first indi 
cated, and, simple as they appear to be, they often have a very beneficial effect. The 
reo'ular action of the bowels being re-established, that of all the organs of the fraitio 
will speedily follow. If the horse cannot be spared for physic, alteratives may be 
administered. There is no better alterative for hide-bound and an unthrifty coat, than 
that which is in common use, levigated antimony, nitre, and sulphur. The peculiar 
effect of the antimony and sulphur, and electric influence on the skin, with tliat of the 
sulphur on the bowels, and of the nitre on the urinary organs, will be here advan 
tageousl^' combined. 

Should the horse not feed well, and there is no indication of fever, a slight tonic 
may be added, as gentian, or ginger ; but in the majority of cases, attended by loss 
of condition, and an unthrifty coat, and hide-bound, tonics and aromatics should be 
carefully avoided. 

The cause of the impaired action of the vessels being removed, the powers of 
nature will generally be suffi'^ient, and had better be left to themselves. There are 
not any more dangerous medicines in common use in the stable, and especially in 
cases like these, than tonics and cordials. They often arouse to fatal action a ten- 
dency to fever that would otherwise have slept, or they produce a state of excitement 
near akin to fever, and apt to degenerate into it. By the stimulus of a cordial, the 
secretions may be suddenly roused, and among them, tliis unctuous secretion from the 
pores of the skin, so necessary to apparent condition ; but the effect soon patses over, 
and a repetition of the stimulus is necessary — the habit is soon formed — the dose 
must be gradually increased, and in the mean time the animal is kept in a state of 
dangerous excitement, by which the powers of nature must be eventually impaired. 

Friction may be employed with advantage in the removal of hide-bound. It has 
repeatedly been shown that this is one of the most efficacious instruments we can 
use, to call into exercise the suspended energies either of the absorbent or secreting 
vessels. Warmth may likewise be had recourse to — not warmth of stable, which 
has been shown to be so injurious, but warmth arising from exercise, and the salu- 
tary, although inexplicable, influence of clipping and singeing. Before this can be 
fully considered, the hair by which the skin is covered must be described. 

The base of the bulb whence the hair proceeds being beneath the true skin, it is 
easy to perceive that the hair will grow again, although the cuticle may have been 
destroyed. A good blister, although it may remove the cuticle, and seemingly for a 
while the hair with it, leaves no lasting trace. Even firing, lightly and skilfully per- 
formed, and not penetrating through the skin, leaves not much blemish ; but when, in 
broken knees, the true skin is cut through, or destroyed, there will always remain s 
spot devoid of hair. The method of hastening and perfecting the re-production of the 
lia»r, nas been described in page 367. 



PORES OF THE SKI N . — M O U LTI NG. 385 

PORES OF THE SKIN. 

Besides the openings already mentioned, through which proceeds the unctuous fluid 
that supplies and softens the skin, there are others more numerous, by means of which.; 
a vast quantity of aqueous fluid escapes, and perspiration is carried on. As in the 
human being, this actually exists in a state of health and quietness, although imper- 
ceptible; but when the animal is excited by exercise, or labours under some stao-es 
of disease, it becomes visible, and appears in the form of drops. 

This process of perspiration is not, however, so far under the control of medicine aa 
in the human being. 

We are not aware of any drugs that will certainly produce it. Warm clothintr 
seems occasionally to effect it, but this is more in appearance than reality. The 
insensible perspiration cannot escape through the mass of clothing, and assumes a 
visible form. This, perhaps, is the case when sheep-skins are appUed over the back 
and loins in " locked jaw." They produce a good effect, acting as a warm poultice 
over the part, and so contributing to relax the muscular spasms. There are, how- 
ever, a few medicines, as antimony and sulphur, that have an evident and very con- 
siderable eff'ect on the skin in opening its pores and exciting its vessels to action. 

Of the existence of absorbent vessels on the skin, or those which take up some 
fluid or substance, and convey it into the circulation, we have satisfactory proof. A 
horse is even more easily salivated than the human being. Salivation has been pro- 
duced by rubbing a splint with mercurial ointment, previous to blistering ; and a very 
few drachms rubbed on the inside of the thighs, will probably produce a greater effect 
than the practitioner desires. 

From some parts of the skin, there are peculiar secretions, as that of grease in the 
heel, and mallenders in the knee. 

MOULTING. 

Tv/ice in the year, the hair of the body of the horse is changed. The short, fine 
3oat of summer would aff'ord little protection against the winter, and that of the winter 
would be oppressive to the animal, if it appeared during the summer. The hair of the 
mane and tail remains. The bulbous root of the hair does not die, but the pulpy 
matter seems to be removed from the root of the hair, which, thus deprived of its 
nourishment, perishes and drops off", and a new hair springs at its side from the same 
bulb. The hair which is produced in the autumn, is evidently different from that 
which grows in the spring; it is coarser.^ thicker, and not so glossy as the other. As 
moulting is a process extending over the whole of the skin, and requiring a very con- 
siderable expenditure of vital power, the health of the animal is generally afl^ected at 
these times. That energy, and nervous and vital influence, which should support the 
whole of the frame, is to a great degree determined to the skin, and the animal is lan- 
guid, and unequal t.o much hard work. He perspires greatly with the least unusual 
exertion, and if he is pressed beyond his strength, becomes seriously ill. 

The treatment which the groom in this case adopts, is most absurd and dangerous. 
The horse, from the deranged distribution of vital power, is disposed to fever, or he 
labours under a slight degree of fever, sufficiently indicated by the increased quick- 
ness of pulse, redness of nose, and heat of mouth. The lassitude and want of appe- 
tite which are the accompaniments of this febrile state, are mistaken for debility; and 
cordials of various kinds, some of them exceedingly stimulating, are unsparingly 
administered. At length, with regard to the hunter, the racer, and even in the hack- 
ney and the carriage horse, the scissors or the lamp are introduced, and a new method 
is established of guarding against this periodical debility, setting at defiance the occa- 
sional exposure to cold, and establishing a degree of health and strength previously 
unknown. Friction may be allowed, to assist the falling off of the old hair, and to 
loosen the cuticle for the appearance of the new hair, but it is somewhat more gently 
applied than it used to be. The curry-comb is in a great measure banished, and even- 
the brush is not applied too hard or too long. The old hair is not forced off" before 
the young hair is ready to take its place. 

Nature adapts the coat to the climate and to the season. The Sheltie has one as 
long and thick as that of a bear; and, as the summer is short and cold in tho3« 
northern islands, the coat is rough and shaggy during the whole of the year. In the 
southern parts of our country, the short, and light and glossy coat of summer ^adu 
33 2y 



386 THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES. 

ally yields to the close and heavy, and warm clothing of winter. In the deserts of 
Arabia, where the winter is rarely cold, the coat remains short and glossy throughout 
the year. These are wise and kind provisions of nature, and excite our admiration. 

COLOUR. 

The colour of the hair admits of every variety, and each colour becomes in turn 
fashionable. Like that of the skin, it is influenced by, or depends on, the mucous 
mesh-work under the cuticle. There are comparatively few perfectly white horses 
now remaininf. The snow-white palfrey, with its round carcass and barb head, 
originally from Spain, or perhaps from Barbary, and rarely exceeding the size of a 
galloway, is nearly extinct. Some, however, yet remain in the possession of the 
Duke of Montrose. They are of good constitution, and pleasant in their paces. The 
majority of white horses are those that' have become so. Light-grey colts begin to 
grow white before they are five years old, especially if they have not much dark mix- 
ture about the joints. 

Grey horses are of different shades, from the lightest silver to a dark iron-grey. 
The silver-grey reminds the observer of the palfrey, improved by an admixture of 
Arab blood. He does not often exceed fourteen hands and a half in height, and is 
round carcassed— ^thin-legged — with oblique pasterns, calculated for a light carriage, 
or for a lady's riding — seldom subject to disease — but not very fleet, or ca'pable of 
hard work. 

The iron-grey is usually a larger hqrse; higher in the withers, deeper and thinner 
in the carcass, more angular in all his proportions, and in many cases a little too long 
in the legs. Some of these greys make good hackneys and hunters, and especially 
the Irish horses ; but they are principally used for the carriage. They have more 
endurance than the flatness of their chest would promise ; but their principal defect is 
their feet, which are liable to contraction, and yet that contraction not so often accom- 
panied by lameness as in many other horses. 

The dappled grey is generally a handsomer and a better horse. All the angular 
points of the iron-grey are filled up, and with that which not only adds to symmetry, 
but to use. Whether as a hackney, or, the larger variety, a carriage horse, there are 
few better, especially since his form has been so materially improved, and so much of 
his heaviness got rid of, by the free use of foreign blood. There are not, however, so 
many dappled greys as there used to be, since the bays have been bred with so much 
care. The dappled grey, if dark at first, generally retains his colour to old age. 

Some of the greys approach to a nutmeg, or even bay colour. Many of these are 
handsome, and most of them are hardy. 

The roans, of every variety of colour and form, are composed of white mixed with 
bay, or red, or black. In some it seems to be a natural mixture of the colours ; in 
others it appears as if one colour was powdered or sprinkled over another. They are 
pretty horses for ladies or light carriages, and many of them easy in their paces, but 
they do not usually display much blood, nor are they celebrated for endurance. If 
they should have white fore legs, with white hoofs, they are too often tender-footed, 
or become so with even a little hard work. 

The strawberry horse is a mixture of sorrel with white ; usually handsome and 
pleasant, but more celebrated for these qualities than for strength and endurance. 

The pied horse is one that has distinct spots or patches of different colours, but 
generally of white with some other colour. They are not liked as hackneys, on 
account of their peculiarity of colour, nor in teams of horses ; but they look well when 
tolerably matched in a phaeton or light carriage. Their value must depend on their 
breed. Of themselves they have no ])eculiar character, except that a white leg and 
foot is as suspiciors in them as it is in the roan. 

The dun, of the Galloway size, and with considerable blood, is often attached to 
the curricle or the phaeton. The larger variety is a true farmer's or miller's horse, 
with no great speed or extraordinary strength, yet a good-tempered, good-feeding, 
^ood-constitutioned, useful horse enough. Varieties of the dun, shaded with a darker 
colour, or dappled, and with some breeding, and not standing too high, are beautiful 
animals, and much sought after for light carriages. 

The cream-colour, of Hanoverian extraction, with his white iris and red pupil, is 
appropriated to royal use. Attached to the state-carriage of the monarch, he is a 
euperb animal. His bulky, yet perfectly-formed body, his swelling crest, and hia 



SURFEIT. 387 

proud and lofty action, as if conscious of his office, ]ualify him for the service that is 
exacted from him, but we have little experience how far he would suit other purposes. 

Of the chestnuts there are three varieties — the pale red or the sorrel, usually with 
some white, eitlier on the face or the legs — generally lightly made, yet some of theia 
bulky enough for the heaviest loads. Their colour is generally objectionable, and 
they are supposed to be somewhat deficient in endurance. 

The light chestnut, with less red and a little more bay or brown, is considered a 
preferable animal, especially if he has little or no white about him ; yet even he, 
although pleasant to ride, is sometimes irritable, and generally weak. We must 
except one variety, the Suffolk punch ; a heavy horse, and adapted for slow work, but 
perfect of his kind — whom no labour can daunt, no fatigue overcome. This is a breed 
now, unfortunately, nearly extinct. The present variety, however crossed, is not 
equal to the old Suffolk. 

The dark chestnut is as different a horse from the hackney-like chestnut as can be 
well imagined ; round in the carcase ; powerful in the quarters, but rather fine in the 
legs ; possessed of great endurance, and with a constitution that rarely knows an ail- 
ment, except that the feet are small and disposed to contraction, and the horse is occa- 
sionall}'' of a hot and unmanageable temper. 

Of the bays, there are many varieties, and they include the very best of our horses 
of every description. The bright yellow bay, although very beautiful, and especially 
if his mane and tail are black, is the least valuable — the lightness of his colour seems 
to give him some tenderness of constitution. The pure bay, with no white about him, 
and black from the knees and hocks to the feet, is the most desirable of all. He has 
generally a good constitution, and good feet; and, if his conformation is not faulty, 
will turn out a valuable horse for almost every purpose. 

The bay-brown has not always so much show and action, but, generally, more 
strength and endurance, and usefulness. He has greater substance tlian the lighter 
bay, and more depth of leg; and, if he had the same degree of breeding, he would be 
as handsome, and more valuable. 

When, however, we arrive at the browns, it is necessary to examine the degree of 
breeding. This colour is not so fashionable, and therefore these horses have been 
considerably neglected. There are many good ones, and those that are good are 
valuable; others, probably, are only a half or a quarter bred, and therefore compara- 
tively coarse, yet useful for the saddle and for harness — for slow work, and, occasion- 
ally, for that which is more rapid. 

The black-brown is generally more neglected so far as its breed is concerned, and 
should bo more carefully examined. It is valuable if it retains the goodness of con- 
stitution of the brown and bay-brown. 

Of the black, greater care has been taken. The heavy black of Lincolnshire and 
the midland counties is a noble animal, and would be almost beyond price if he could 
be rendered more active. The next in size constitute the majority of our wagon- 
horses, and perhaps our best; and, on a smaller breed, and to the improvement of 
which much attention has been devoted, many of our cavalry are mounted. A few 
black thorough-bred horses and black hunters are occasionally seen, but the improve- 
ment of horses of this colour has not been studied, except for the purposes that have 
been mentioned. Their peculiar high action, while not objectionable for draught, and 
desirable for the parade, would be unbearable in the roadster. Black horses have 
been said to be more subject to vice, disease, and blindness, than those of any other 
colour. This charge is not true to its full extent; but there certainly are a great many 
worthless black horses in every part of the country. 

After all, there is an old saying, that a go-d horse cannot be of a bad colour; and 
that it is far more necessary to attend to the confermati'^n and points of the animal 
than to his colour. The foregoing observations, however, although they admit of 
many exceptions, may be useful in guiding to the judicious; purchase of the horse. 

SURFEIT. 

Large pimples or eruptions often appear suddenly on the skin of the l;jrse, and 
especially in the spring of the year. Occasionally they disappear as quickly as they 
came. Sometimes they seem to be attended with great itching, but. at other times, 
the annoyance is comparatively little. When these eruptions have remained a few- 
clays, the cuticle frequently peels off, and a small scaly spot — rarely a sore — is left. 



388 THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES. 

This is called a surfeit, from its resemblance to some eruptions en ll.<- sldn of the 
human beino- when indigestible or unwholesome food has been taken. The surfeit is, 
in sou:e cases, confined to the neck ; but it oftener spreads over the sides, back, loins, 
and quarters. The cause is enveloped in some obscurity. The disease most fre- 
quently appears when the skin is irritable during or after the process of moulting, or 
when it sympathises with any disorder of the stomach. It has been known to follow 
the eating of poisonous herbs or mowburnt hay, but, much oftener, it is to be traced 
to exposure to cold when the skin was previously irritable and the horse heated by 
exercise. It has also been attributed to the immoderate drinking of cold water when 
the animal was hot. It is obstruction of some of the pores of the skin and swelling 
of the surrounding substance, either from primary aifection of the skin, or a plethoric 
state of the system, or sympathy with the digestive organs. 

The state of the patient will sufficiently guide the surgeon as to the course he 
should pursue. If there is simple eruption, without any marked inflammatory action, 
alteratives should be resorted to, and particularly those recommended for hidebound 
in page 47G. They should be given on several successive nights. The night is bet- 
ter than the morning, because the warmth of the stable will cause the antimony and 
sulphur to act more powerfully on the skin. The horse should be warmly clothed — 
half an hour's walking exercise should be given, an additional rug being thrown over 
him — such green meat as can be procured should be used in moderate quantities, and 
the chill should be taken from the water. 

Should the eruption continue or assume a more virulent character, bleeding and 
aloetic physic must be had recourse to, but neither should be carried to any extreme. 
The physic having set, the alteratives should again be had recourse to, and attention 
should be paid to the comfort and diet of the horse. 

If the eruption, after several of these alternate appearances and disappearances, 
should remain, and the cuticle and the hair begin extensively to peel off, a worse 
affection is to be feared, for surfeit is too apt to precede, or degenerate into, mange. 
This disorder, therefore, must next be considered. 

MANGE 

Is a pimpled or vesicular eruption. After a while the vesicles break, or the cuticle 
and the hair fall off, and there is, as in obstinate surfeit, a bare spot covered with 
scurf — some fluid oozing from the skin beneath, and this changing to a scab, which 
likewise soon peels off, and leaves a wider spot. This process is attended by consi- 
derable itching and tenderness, and thickening of the skin, which soon becomes more 
or less folded, or puckered. The mange generally first appears on the neck at the 
root of the mane, and its existence may be suspected even before the blotches appear, 
and when there is only considerable itchiness of the part, by the ease with which the 
shcot hair at the root of the mane is plucked out. From the neck it spreads upward 
to the head, or downward to the withers and back, and occasionally extends over the 
whole carcass of the horse. 

One cause of it, although an unfrequent one, has been stated to be neglected oi 
inveterate surfeit. Several instances are on record in which poverty of condition, and 
general netjlect of cleanliness, preceded or produced the most violent mange. A 
remark of Mr. Blaine is very important: — "Among the truly healthy, so far as my 
experience goes, it never arises spontaneously, but it does readily from a spontaneous 
origin among the unhealthy." The most common cause is contagion. Amidst the 
whole list of diseases to which the horse is exposed, there is not one more highly 
contagious than mange. If it once gets into a stable, it spreads through it, for the 
slightest contact seems to be sufficient for the communication of this noisome com- 
plaint. 

If the same brush or currycomb is used on all the horses, the propagation of mange 
IS assured ; and horses feeding in the same pasture with a mangy one rarely escape, 
from the propensity they have to nibble one another. Mange in cattle has been pro- 
pagated to the horse, and from the horse to cattle. There are also some well-authen- 
ticated instances of the same disease being communicated from the dog to the horse. 
but not from the horse to the dog. 

Mange has been said to originate in want of cleanliness in the management of the 
stable. The comfort and the health of the horse demand the strictest cleanliness 
The eyes and the lungs frequently suffer from the noxious fumes of the putrefying 



M A N G E . 389 

dung and urine; but, in defiance of common prejudice, there is no authentic instance 
of man<Te being the result. It may, however, proceed from poverty. When the ani- 
mal is half starved, and the functions of digestion and the power of the constitution 
are weakened, the skin soon sympathises, and mange is occasionally produced instead 
of surfeit and hide-bound. Every fanner has proof enough of this being the case. 
If a horse is turned on a common where there is scarcely sufficient herbage to satisfy 
his appetite, or if he is placed in one of those straw-yards that are under the manage- 
ment of mercenary and unfeeling men, and are the very abodes of missry, the ani- 
mal comes up a skeleton, and he comes up mangy too. Poverty and auirvation are 
fruitful sources of mange, but it does not appear~^that filth has much to do with it, 
although poverty and filth generally go hand in hand. 

The propriety of bleeding in cases of mange depends on the condition of the pa- 
tient. If mange is the result of poverty, and the animal is much debilitated, bleed- 
ing will increase the evil, and will probably deprive the constitution of the power of 
rallying. Physic, however, is indispensable in every case. It is the first step in the 
progress towards cure. A mercurial ball will be preferable to a common aloetic one, 
as more certain and effectual in its operation, and the mercury probably having some 
influence in mitigating the disease. In this, however, mange in the horse resembles 
itch in the human being — medicine alone will never effect a cure. There must be 
some local application. There is this additional similarity — that which is most effec- 
tual in curing the itch in the human being must form the basis of every local appli- 
cation for the cure of mange in the horse. Sulphur is indispensable in every 
unguent for mange. It is the sheet-anchor of the veterinary surgeon. In an early and 
not very acute state of mange, equal portions of sulphur, turpentine, and train-oil, 
gently but well rubbed on the part, will be applied with advantage. Farriers are fond 
of the black sulphur, but that which consists of earthy matter, with the mere dregs 
of various substances, cannot be so effectual as the pure sublimed sulphur. A toler- 
ably stout brush, or even a currycomb, lightly applied, should be used, in order to 
remove the dandriff or scurf, wherever there is any appearance of mange. After that, 
the horse should be v/ashed with strong soap and water as far as the disease has ex- 
tended ; and, when he has been thoroughly dried, the ointment should be well rubbed 
in with the naked hand, or with a piece of flannel. More good will be done by a 
little of the ointment being well rubbed in, than by a great deal being merely smeared 
over the part. The rubbing should be daily repeated. 

The sulphur seems to have a direct influence on the disease — the turpentine has an 
ndirect one, by exciting some irritation on the skin of a different nature from that 
produced by the mange, and under the influence of which the irritation of mange will 
be diminished, and the disease more easily combated. During the application of the 
ointment, and as soon as the physic has set, an alterative ball or powder, similar to 
those recommended for the other affections of the skin, should be daily given. If, 
after some days have passed, no progress should appear to have been made, half a 
pound of sulphur should be well mixed with a pint of oil of tar, or, if that is not to 
be obtained, a pint of Barbadoes tar, and the affected parts rubbed, as before. On 
every fifth or sixth day the ointment should be washed off with warm soap and wa- 
ter. The progress towards cure will thus be ascertained, and the skin will be cleans- 
ed, and its pores opened for the more effectual application of the ointment. 

The horse should be well supplied with nourishing, but not stimulating food. As 
much green meat as he will eat should be given to him, or, what is far better, he 
should be turned out, if the weather is not too cold. It may be useful to add, that, 
after the horse has been once well dressed with either of these liniments, the danger 
of contagion ceases. It is necessary, however, to be assured that every mangy place 
has been anointed. It will be prudent to give two or three dressings after the horse 
has been apparently cured, and to continue the alteratives for ten days or a fortnight. 

The cure being completed, the clothing of the horse should be well soaked in wa- 
ter, to which a fortieth part of the saturated solution of the chloride of lime has been 
added; after which it should be washed with soap and water, and again washed and 
soaked in a solution of the chloride of lime. Every part of the harness should un- 
dergo a similar purification. The currycomb may be scoured, but the brush should 
be burned. The rack, and manger, and partitions, and every part of the stable which 
she horse could possibly have touched, should be well washed with a hair-broom — a 
pint of the "hloride of lime being sdded to three gallons of water. All the wooJ- 
3.*?* 



390 SOUNDNESS AND UNSOUNDNESS. 

work should then be scoured with soap and water, after which a second washing witi 
the chloride of lime will render all secure. Some farmers have pulled down theii 
stables, when they have been thoroughly infected with mange. This is being unne 
cessarily cautious. The efficacy of the chloride of lime was not then known; bu» 
jf that is carefully and sufficiently applied to every part of the stable and its furni 
'uro, there cannot afterwards be danger. 

Every case of itchiness of the skin should be regarded with suspicion. When a 
horse is seen to rub the root of his tail, or his head, or neck, against the manger, the 
i^arts should be carefully examined. Some of the hair may have been rubbed or torn 
I'fl", but if the roots remain firmly adherent, and there is only redness and not scurfi- 
ness of tiie skin, it probably is not mange, but only inflammation of the skin, from 
too great fuhiess of blood. A little blood should be abstracted — a purgative admin- 
istered — and the alteratives given. The mange ointment cannot do harm, and may 
possibly prevent this heat of the skin from degenerating into mange, or arrest the 
progress of mange if it has commenced. If a scurfmess of skin should appear on 
any of the points that are pressed upon by the collar or harness, the veterinary sur- 
geon will do right to guard against danger by alterative medicine and the use of the 
ointment. 

WARTS. 

These are tumours of variable size, arising from the cuticle, and afterwards con- 
nected with the true skin by means of the vessels which supply the growth of the 
tumours. They are found on the eyelids, the muzzle, the ea?s, the belly, the neck, 
the penis, and the prepuce. There are some caustics available, but frequently they 
must be removed by an operation. If the root is very small, it may be snipped asun- 
der, close to the skin, with a pair of scissors, and touched with the lunar caustic. If 
the pedicle or stem is somewhat larger, a ligature of waxed silk should be passed 
firmly round it, and tightened every day. The source of nutriment being thus re- 
moved, the tumour will, in a short time, die and drop off. If the warts are large, or 
in considerable clusters, it will be necessary to cast the horse, in order to cut them 
off close to the skin : the root should then be seared with a red-hot iron. Unless 
these precautions are used, the warts will speedily sprout again. 

VERMIN. 

Both the biped and the quadruped are subject to the visitation of insects, that fasteTfi 
on the skin, and are a constant nuisance from the itchiness which they occasion. If 
the horse, after being turned out for the winter, is takea up in the spring, long and 
rough in his coat, and poor in condition, and with evident hide-bound, he will almost 
invariably be afflicted with vermin. 

In our present imperfect acquaintance with natural history, it is difficult to account 
for the appearance of certain insects, and of tliose alone, on the integument of on& 
animal, while others of an altogether different character are found on its neighbour. 
Kach one has a tormentor peculiar to itself. 

Tiie vermin of the horse is destroyed by an infusion of tobacco, or a solution of 
corrosive sublimate, the latter requiring the greatest caution. The skin being once 
cleansed of them, an attention to cleanliness will prerent theij reappearance. 



CHAPTER XXII. 
ON SOUNDNESS, AND THE PURCHASE AND SALE OF HORSES. 

There are few sources of greater annoyance both to the purchaser and the seller 
ef the horse than disputes with regard to the soundness of the animal. Although, 
in describing the various parts of the horse, we have glanced at the connexion of cer- 
liain natural conformations, and some alterations of structure, and accidents, and dis- 
eases, with the question of soundness or unsoundness, \t may not be uninteresting to> 
tihose for whom our work is designed, if we now bring into one point of view the 
substance of that wnich has been scattered over many pages. 

Tkat horse is sound ia whom tliere is uo disease, and no alteration of structure tliaS 



UNSOUNDNESS. 391 

impairs, or is like]y to impair, his natural usefulness. The horse is unsound that 
labours under disease, or has some alteration of structure whicli does interfere, or is 
likely to interfere, with his natural usefulness.* The term '■'■natural usefu/ness^^ must 
be borne in mind. One horse may possess great speed, but is soon knocked up; an- 
other will work all day, but cannot be got beyond a snail's pace : a third with a heavy 
forehand is liable to stumble, and is continually putting to hazard the neck of his 
rider; another, with an irritable constitution and a loose, washy form, loses his appe- 
tite and begins to scour if a little extra work is exacted from him. The term un- 
soundness jnust not be applied to either of these ; it would be opening far too widely 
a door to disputation and endless wrangling. The buyer can discern, or ought to 
know, whether the form of the horse is that whicli will render him likely to suit his 
purpose, and he should try him sufficiently to ascertain his natural strength, endur- 
ance, and manner of going. Unsoundness, we repeat, has reference only to disease, 
or to that alteration of structure which is connected with, or will produce disease, and 
lessen the usefulness of the animal. 

These principles will be best illustrated by a brief consideration of the usually sup- 
posed appearances or causes of unsoundness. 

Broken knees certainly do not constitute unsoundness, after the wounds are healed, 
unless they interfere with the action of the joint; for the horse may have fallen from 
mere accident, or through the fault of the rider, without the slightest damage more 
than the blemish. No person, however, would buy a horse with broken knees, until 
he had thoroughly tried him, and satisfied himself as to his form and action. 

Capped hocks, may be produced by lying on an unevenly paved stable, with a 
scanty supply of litter, or by kicking generally, in neither of which cases would they 
constitute unsoundness, although in the latter they would be an indication of vice ; 
but, in the majority of instances, they are the consequence of sprain, or of latent 
injury of the hock, and accompanied by enlargement of it, and would constitute un- 
soundness. A special warranty should always be taken against capped hocks. 

Contraction is a considerable deviation from the natural form of the foot, but not 
necessarily constituting unsoundness. It requires, however, a most careful examina- 
tion on the part of the purchaser or veterinary surgeon, in order to ascertain that there 
is no heat about the quarter, or ossification of the cartilage — that the frog, although 
diminished in size, is not diseased — that the horse does not step short and go as if 
the foot were tender, and that there is not the slig-htest trace of lameness. Unless 
these circumstances, or some of them, are detected, a horse must not be pronounced 
to be unsound because his feet are contracted; for many horses with strangely con- 
tracted feet do not suffer at all in their action. A special warranty, however, should 
be required where the feet are at all contracted. 

Corns manifestly constitute unsoundness. The portion of the foot in which bad 
corns are situated will not bear the ordinary pressure of the shoe; and accidental 
additional pressure from the growing down of the horn, or the introduction of dirt or 
gravel, will cause serious lameness. They render it necessary to wear a thick and 
heavy shoe, or a bar shoe, in order to protect the weakened and diseased part; and 
they are very seldom radically cured. There may be, however, and frequently is, a 
difference of opinion as to the actual existence or character of the corn. A v-eterinary 
surgeon may consider it so slight and insignificant as not apparently to injure the horse, 
and he pronounces the animal to be sound ; but he should be cautious, for there are 
corns of every shade and degree, from the slightest degree to the most serious evil 
They may be so slight and manao-eable as, though ranging under the class of morbid 
alteration of structure, yet not to diminish the natural usefulness of the horse in any 
degree. Slight corns will disappear on the horse being shod with ordinary skill and 
care, even without any alteration in the shoe. 

* '-inee the publication of our first edition, this definition or rule as to soimdness or nnsound- 
nesp has received vpry high judicial sfinction. Coates v. Stephens, 2 iVIoody and Robinson 
157 , ScholefeJd v. Boht,, id. 210. We shall adhere to it ns our test of soundness or unsound 
neps' thro-jphout this chapter, not forpjettincr what is said in the following extraft from a note 
to one of these cases. " As it may now be considered as settled law, that the breach of 
warrantv of soundness does not entitle the purchaser to return the horse, but only to recover 
tlie difference of value of the horse with or without the particular unsoundness, the question 
of temporary maladies, producing no permanent deterioration of the animal, wculd, ^ener 
ally spealung, only involve a right to damages merely nominal." 



392 UNSOUNDNESS. 

Cough. — This is a disease, and consequently unsoundness. However slight may 
be its degree, and of whatever short standing it may be, although it may soaietimes 
scarcely seem to interfere with the usefulness of the horse, yet a change of stabling, 
or slight exposure to wet and cold, or the least over-exertion, may, at other times, 
cause it to degenerate into many dangerous complaints. A horse, therefore, sliould 
never be purchased with a cough upon him, without a special warranty ; or if — the 
cough not being observed — he is purchased under a general warranty, that warranty 
is thereby broken. It is not law, that a horse may be returned on breach of the war- 
ranty. The seller is not bound to take him back, unless he has contracted so to do; 
but he is liable in damages. Lord EUenborough has completely decided this matter, 
" I have always held," said he, " that a warranty of soundness is broken, if the ani- 
mal, at the time of sale, had any infirmity upon him that rendered him less fit for 
present service. It is not necessary that the disorder should be permanent or incura- 
ble. While he has a cough, he is unsound, although that may either be temporary 
or prove mortal."* 

Roaring, Wheezing, W'histling,' High-blowing, and Grunting, being the result 
of alteration of structure, or disease in some of the air-passages, and interferino" with 
the perfect freedom of breathing, especially when the horse is put on his speed, with- 
out doubt constitute unsoundness. There are decisions to the contrary, which are 
now universally admitted to be erroneous. Broken wind is still more decidedly 
unsoundness. 

Crib-biting. — Although some learned judges have asserted that crib-biting is sim- 
ply a trick or bad habit, it must be regarded as unsoundness. This unnatural sucking 
in of the air must to a certain degree injure digestion. It must dispose to colic, and 
so interfere with the strength, and usefulness, and health of the horse. Some crib 
biters are good goers, but they probably would have possessed more endurance had 
they not acquired this habit; and it is a fact well established, that, as soon as a horsf 
becomes a crib-biter, he, in nine cases out of ten, loses condition. He is not to th( 
experienced eye the horse he was before. It may not lead on to strongly-marked dis- 
ease, or it may rarely do so to any considerable degree ; but a horse that is morbidlj 
deficient in condition must, to that extent, have his capability for extraordinary work 
diminished, and so be brought within our definition of unsoundness. In its very early 
stage it may be a mere trick — confirmed, it must have produced morbid deterioration. 
The wear of the front teeth, and the occasional breaking of them, make a horse old 
before his time, and sometimes render it difliicult or almost impossible for him to graze, 
when the state of the animal or the convenience of the owner requires that he should 
be turned out. 

Curb constitutes unsoundness while it lasts, and perhaps while the svv'elling 
remains, althougli the inflammation may have subsided ; for a horse that has once 
*hrown out a curb is, for a while at least, very liable to do so again, to get lame in 
the same place on the slightest extra exertion; or, at all events, he would there firs^ 

* In deciding on another case, the Fnme judge said, " I have always held it that a cough 
!S a breach of the warranty. On tliat understanding I have always acted, and lliink it quite 
clear." It was argued on the other hand that two-thirds of tlie horses in London had coughs, 
yet still the judge maintained that the cough was a breach of warranty. When it was farther 
argued that the horse had been hunted the day after the purchase, and the cough might have 
been increased by this, the reply was singular, but decisive. " There is no proof that he 
woidd have got well if he had not been hunted." This doctrine is confirmed by Parke, B., 
in ftie first case cited in p. 391. 

In p. 194, it is very properly stated that roaring is unsoundness, because it impairs the func- 
tion of respiration. This was not always, however, the law of the bench. " Lord EUenbo- 
rough," quoting from Sir James Mansfield, savs. " It has been held by very high authority 
that roaring is not necessarily unsoundness, and I entirely concur in that opinion. If the horse 
emits a loud noise, which is offensive to the ear, merely from a bad habit which he has con- 
tracted, or from any cause that does not interfere with his general health, or muscular powers, 
he is still to be considered a sound horse. On the other hand, if the roaring proceeds from 
any disease or organic infirmity, which renders him incapable of performing the usual func- 
tions of a horse, then it does constitute unsoundness, ^i'he plaintiff has not done enough ir. 
showing that this horse was a roarer. To prove a breach of the warranty he must go on to 
show that the roaring was symptomatic of disease." These extracts are taken from a singu 
^r work, not always correct, yet from which much amusement, and instruction loo, may be 
derived— " The Adventures of a Gentleman in Search of a Horse, by Caveat Emptor." 



UNSOUNDNESS. 393 

fill, on extraordinary exertion. A horse, however, is not returnable, aitliough he 
should spring a curb five minutes after the purchase; for it is done in a moment, and 
loes not necessarily indicate any previous unsoundness or weakness of the part. 

Cutting, as rendering a horse liable to serious injury of the legs, ;«»id indicating 
that he is either weak, or has an awkwardness of gait inconsistent with safety, pro- 
duces, rather than is, unsoundness. Many horses go lame for a considerable period 
after cutting themselves severely ; and others have dropped from the sudden agony 
and endangered themselves and their riders. As some doubt, however, exists on this 
subject, and as it is a very material objection to a horse, cutting, when evident, should 
aave its serious consequences provided against by a special warranty. 

Enlauged Glands. — The enlargement of the glands under the jaw has not been so 
much considered as it ouglit to have been in our estimate of the soundness of the 
hoise. Simple catarrh will occasionally, and severe affection of the chest will gene- 
rally, be accompanied by swelling of these glands, which does not subside for a con- 
siderable time after the cold or fever has apparently been cured. To slight enlarge- 
ments of the glands under the jaw much attention need not be paid ; but if they are of 
considerable size, and especially if they are tender, and the glands at the root of the 
3ar partake of the enlargement, and the membrane of the nose is redder tiian it should 
be, we should hesitate in pronouncing that horse to be sound. We must consider the 
swelling as a symptom of disease. 

Enlarged Hock. — A horse with enlarged hock is unsound, the structure of this 
complicated joint being so materially affected that, although the horse may appear for 
1 considerable time to be capable of ordinary work, he will occasionally fail even in 
that, and a few days' hard work will always lame him. 

The Eyes. — That inflammation of the eye of the horse which usually terminates in 
blindness of one or both eyes, has the peculiar character of receding or disappearing 
for a time, once or twice, or thrice, before it fully runs its course. The eye, after an 
attack of inflammation, regains so nearly its former natural brilliancy that a person 
sven well acquainted with horses will not always recognise the traces of former dis- 
3ase. After a time, however, the inflammation returns, and the result is inevitable. 
A horse that has had one attack of this complaint, is long afterwards unsound, how- 
ever perfect the eye may seem to be, because he carries about with him a disease tha" 
vvill probably again break out, and eventually destroy tlie sight. Whether, therefore, 
he may be rejected or not, depends on the possibility of proving an attack of inflam- 
mation of the eye, prior to the purchase. Next to direct evidence of this are appear- 
ances about the eye, of which the veterinary surgeon at least ought not to be ignorant. 
Allusion has been made to them in page 80. They consist chiefly of a puckering 
of the lids towards the inner corner of one or both eyes — a difference in the size of 
the eyes, although perhaps only a slight one, and not discovered except it be looked 
for — a gloominess of the eye — a dulness of the iris — a little dulness of the transparent 
part of 'the eye generally — a minute, faint, dusky spot, deep in the eye, and generally 
with little radiations of white lines proceeding from it. If these symptoms, or the 
majority of them, existed at the time of purchase, the animal had assuredly been d's- 
eased before, and was unsound. Starting has been considered as an equivocal proof. 
It is usually an indication of defective sight, but it is occasionally a trick. Connect- 
ed, however, with the appearances just described, it is a very strong corroborative 
proof. 

Lameness, from whatever cause arising, is unsoundness. However temporary it 
may be, or however obscure, there must be disease which lessens the utility of tha 
horse, and renders him unsound for the time. So says common sense, but there are 
contradictory decisions on the case. *' A horse labouring under a temporary injury of 
hurt, which is capable of being speedily cured or removed, is not, according to Chief 
Justice Eyre, an unsound horse ; and where a warranty is made that such a horse is 
sound, it is made without any view to such an injury; nor is a horse so circumstanced 
within the meaning of the warranty. To vitiate the warranty, the injury the horse 
had sustained, or th'e malady under which he laboured, ought to_ he of a pcmunent 
nature, and not such as mav arise from a temporary injury or accident."* 

On She contrary. Lord Ellenborough says: "I have always held, and now hold, 
that a warranty of soundness is broken, if the animalat the time of sale has any 



* 2 Espin. Rep. 673, Garment v. Barrs. 
2z 



394 UNSOUNDNESS. 

nfirmity upon him which renders him less fit for present service. It is not necessa y 
ihat the disorder sl«;uld be permanent or incurable. While a horse has a couoh he 
is unsound, although it may either be temporary or may prove mortal. The horse in 
question having been lame at the time of sale, when he was warranted to be sound, 
his condition subsequently is no defence to the action."* The decisions of Mr. 
Baron Parke, already referred to, confirm this doctrine. 

Neuuotomv. — A question has arisen how far a horse that has undergone the opera 
tion of the division of the nerve of the leg (see p. Ill), and has recovered from the 
lameness with which he was before affected, and stands his work well, may be con 
sidered to be sound. Chief Justice 13est held such a horse to be unsound, and in out 
opinion there cannot be a doubt about the matter. The operation of neurotomy does 
not remove the disease causing the lameness, but only the sensation of pain. A horse 
on wiiom this operation has been performed may be improved by it — may cease to be 
lame — may go well for many years ; but there is no certainty of this, and he is unsound, 
within our definition, unless nature gave the nerve for no useful purpose. 

Ossification of the lateral cartilages constitutes unsoundness, as interfering 
with the natural expansion of the foot, and, in horses of quick work, almost invariably 
producing lameness. 

Pumiced-foot. — When the union between the horny and sensible laminae, or little 
plates of tlie foot (see p. 301), is weakened, and the ccflin-bone is let down, and 
presses upc.n the sole, and the sole yields to this unnatural weight, and becomes 
rounded, and is brought in contact with the ground, and is bruised and injured, that 
horse must be unsound, and unsound for ever, because there are no means by which 
we can raise the coffm-bone again into its place. 

QuiDDiNG. — If the mastication of the food gives pain to the animal, in consequence 
of soreness of the mouth or throat, he will drop il before it is perfectly chewed. This, 
as an indication of disease, constitutes unsoundness. Quidding sometimes arises from 
irregularity in the teeth, which wound the cheek with their sharp edges; or a protrud- 
ing tooth renders it impossible for the horse to close his jaws so as to chew his food 
thoroughly. Quidding is unsoundness for the time; but tlie unsoundness will cease 
when the teeth are properly filed, or the soreness or other cause of this imperfect 
chewing removed. 

QuiTTOR is manifestly unsoundness. 

Ring-bone. — Although when the bonj^ tumour is small, and on one side only, there 
is little or no lameness — and there are a few instances in which a horse with ring- 
bone has worked for many years without its return — yet from the action of the foot, 
and the stress upon the part, the inflammation and the formation of bone may acquire 
a tendency to spread so rapidl}', that we must pronounce the slightest enlargement of 
tiie pasterns, or around the coronet, to be a cause of unsoundness. 

Sandcrack is manifestly unsoundness. It may, however, occur without the sl-ight- 
est warning, and no horse can be rejected on account of a sandcrack that has sprung 
after purchase. Its usual cause is too great brittleness of the crust of the hoof; but 
there is no infallible niPthod of detecting this, or the degree in which it must exist in 
order to constitute unsoundness. When the horn round the bottom of the foot has 
chipped off so much tliat only a skilful smith can fasten the shoe without pricking the 
horse, or even when there is a tendency in the horn to chip and break in a much less 
degree than this, the horse is unsound, for this brittleness of the crust is a disease of 
the part, or it is such an altered structure of it as to interfere materially with the use- 
fulness of the animal. 

Spavin. — Bone spavin, comprehending in its largest sense every bony tumour en 
the hock, is not necessarily unsoundness. If the tumour affects in the slightest degree 
tlie action of the horse, it is unsoundness; — even if it does not, it is seldom safe to 
pronounce it otherwise than unsoundness. But it may possibly be (like splint in the 
fore-leg) so situated as to have no tendency to affect the action. A veterinary surgeon 
consulted on the purchase will not always reject a horse because of such a tumour 
His evidence on a question of soundness will depend on the facts. The situation and 
history of the tumour may be such as to enable him to give a decisive opinion in a 
aorse going sound, but not often. 
Bog or Blood Spavin is unsoundness, because, although it may not bo productive 

* 4 Campbell, 251, Elton v. Brogden. 



UNSOUNDNESS. 395 

of lameness at slow work, the rapid and powerful action of the hock in quicker motion 
will produce permanent, yet perhaps not considerable lameness, whicli can scarcely 
ever be with certainty removed. 

vSplint. — It depends entirely on the situation of the bony tumour on the shank-bone, 
whether it is to be considered as unsoundness. If it is not in the neighbourhood of 
vmy joint, so as to interfere with its action, and if it does not press upon any ligament 
or tendon, it may be no cause of unsoundness, although it is often very unsightly. 
In many cases it may not lessen the capability and value of the animal. This has 
been treated on at considerable length in page 2GS. 

Stiunghalt. — This singular and very unpleasant action of the hind leg is decided- 
ly an unsoundness. It is an irregular communication of nervous energy to some 
muscle of the thigh, observable when tlie horse first comes from the stable, and gra- 
dually ceasing on exercise. It has usually been accompanied by a more than com- 
mon degree of strength and endurance. It must, however, be traced to some morbid 
alteration of structure or function; and it rarely or never fails to deteriorate and gra- 
dually wear out the animal. 

Thickening of the Back Sinews. — Sufficient attention is not always paid to the 
fineness of the legs of the horse. If the flexor tendons have been sprained, so as to 
produce considerable thickening of the ccllalar substance in which their sheaths are 
enveloped, they will long afterwards, or perhaps always, be liable to sprain, from 
causes by which they would otherwise be scarcely affected. The continuance of any 
considerable thickness around the sheaths of the tendons indicates previous and vio- 
lent sprain. This very thickening will fetter the action of the tendons, and, after 
much quick work, will occasionally renew the inflammation and the lameness; there- 
fore, such a horse cannot be sound. It requires, however, a little discrimination to 
distinguish this from the gumminess or roundness of leg, peculiar to some breeds. 
There should be an evident difference between the injured leg and the other. 

Thoroughpin, except it is of great size, is rarely productive of lameness, and there- 
fore cannot be termed unsoundness ; but as it is the consequence of hard work, and 
now and then does produce lameness, the hock should be most carefully examined, 
and there should be a special warranty against it. 

Thrush. — There are various cases on record of actions on account of thrushes in 
horses, and the decisions have been much at variance, or perfectly contradictory. 
Thrush has not been always considered by legal men as unsoundness. We, how- 
ever, decidedly S'O consider it; as being a disease interfering and likely to interfere 
with the usefulness of the horse. Thrush is inflammation of the lower surface of the 
inner or sensible frog — and the secretion or throvv^ing o\it of pus — almost invariably 
accompanied by a slight degree of tenderness of the frog itself, or of the heel a little 
above it, and, if neglected, leading to diminution of the substance of the frog, and 
separation of the horn from parts beneath, and underrunning, and the production of 
funo-us and canker, and, ultimately, a diseased state of the foot, destructive of the 
present, and dangerous to the future usefulness of the horse. 

WiNDGALLS. — There are few horses perfectly free from windgalls, but they do not 
interfere with the action of the fetlock, or cause lameness, except when they are nu- 
merous or large. They constitute unsoundness only when they cause lameness, or 
are so large and numerous as to render it likely that they will cause it. 

In the purchase of a horse the buyer usually receives, embodied in the receipt, 
what is termed a warranty. It should be thus expressed :— 

" Received of A. B. forty pounds for a grey mare, warranted only five years old, sound, 
free from vice, and quiet to ride and drive. 

"£40. "CD. 

A receipt, including merely the word " warranted," extends only to soundness,- 
warranted sound" goes no farther; the age, freedom from vice, and quietness to 
jde and drive, should be especially named. This warranty coniprises every cause 
of unsoundness that can be detected, or that lurks in the constitution at the time of 
sale, and to every vicious habit that the animal has hitherto shown. To establish a 
Keach of the warranty, and to be enabled to tender a return of the horse and recover 
the difference of price, the purchaser must prove that it was unsound or viciously dis- 
posed at the time of sal'^. In case of cough, the horse must have been heard to cough 
immediately after the purchase, or as he was led home, or as soon as he had entered. 



3'JG UNSOUNDNESS, 

the stable of the purchaser. Coughing, even on the following morning, will not be 
sullicient; for it is possible that he might have caught cold by change of stabling. 
If he is lame, it must be proved to arise from a cause that existed before the animal 
was in the purchaser's possession. No price will imply a warranty, or be equivalent 
to one ; there must be an express warranty. A fraud must be proved in the seller, in 
order that the buyer may be enabled to return the horse or maintain an action for the 
price. The warranty should be given at the time of sale. A warranty, or a promise 
to warrant the horse given at any period antecedent to the sale, is invalid ; for horse- 
flesh is a very perishable commodity, and the constitution and usefulness of the ani- 
mal may undergo a considerable change in the space of a few days. A warranty 
after the sale is invalid, for it is given without any legal consideration. In order to 
complete the purchase, there nmst be a transfer of the animal, or a memorandum of 
ao-reement, or the payment of earnest-money. The least sum will suffice ior earnest. 
\o verbal promise to buy or to sell is binding without one of these. The momen 
either of these is effected, the legal transfer of property or delivery is made, and what- 
ever may happen to the horse, the seller retains, or is entitled to the money. If the 
purchaser exercises any act of ownership, by using the animal without leave cf the 
vendor, or by having any operation performed, or any medicines given to him, he 
makes him his own. I'he warranty of a servant is considered to be binding on the 
master.* 

If the horse should be afterwards discovered to have been unsound at the time of 
warranty, the buyer may tender a return of it, and, if it be not taken back, may bring 
his action for the price ; but the seller is not bound to rescind the contract, unless he 
has agreed so to do. 

Although there is no legal compulsion to give immediate notice to the seller of the 
discovered unsoundness, it will be better for it to be done. The animal should then 
be tendered at the house or stable of the vendor. If he refuses to receive him, the 
animal may be sent to a livery-stable and sold ; and an action for the difference in 
•)rice may be brought. The keep, however, can be recovered only for the time that 
necessarily intervened between the tender and the determination of the action. It is 
not legally necessary to tender a return of the horse as soon as the unsoundness is 
discovered. The animal may be kept for a reasonable time afterwards, and even pro- 
per medical means used to remove the unsoundness; but courtesy, and indeed jus- 
tice, will require that the notice should be given as soon as possible. Although it is 
stated, on the authority of Lord Loughborough, that "no length of time elapsed 
after the sale will alter the nature of a contract originally false," yet it seems to 
have been once thought it was necessary to the action to give notice of the unsound- 
ness in a reasonable time. The cause of action is certainly complete on breach of 
the warranty. 

It used to' be supposed that the buyer had no right to have the horse medically treat- 
ed, and that he would vjaive the warranty by doing so. The question, however, 
would be, has he injured or diminished the value of the horse by this treatment? It 
will generally be prudent for him to refrain from all medical treatment, because the 
means adopted, however skilfully employed, may have an unfortunate effect, or may 
be misrepresented by ignorant or interested observers. 

The purchaser possibly may like the horse, notwithstanding his discovered defect, 
and he may retain, and bring his action for the depreciation in value on account of 
the unsoundness. P'ew, however, will do this, because his retaining the horse will 
cause a suspicion that the defect was of no great consequence, and will give rise to 
much cavil about the quantum of damages, and after all, very slight damages wir 
probably be obtained. " I take it to be clear law," says Lord Eldon, " that if a per- 
son purchases a horse that is warranted, and it afterwards turns out that the horse 
was unsound at the time of the warranty, the buyer may, if he pleases, keep the 
horse, and bring an action on the warranty; in which he will have a right to recover 
the difference between the value of a sound horse, and one with such defects as ex- 
isted at the time of warranty ; or he may return the horse, and bring an action to 
recover the full money paid : but in the latter case, the seller has a right to expect 
tha. the horse shall be returned to him in the same state he was when sold, and not 



• The weight of authority decides that the master is bound by the act of the servant. Lord 
Kenyoii, however, had some doubt on the subject. 



UNSOUNDNESS. 3&ir 

hy any msans diminished in value; for if a person Iceeps a warranted article for any 
length of time after discovering its defects, and when he returns it, it is in a worse 
state than it would have been if returned immediately after such discovery, I think 
tlie party can have no defence to an action for the price of the article on the ground 
of non-compliance with the warranty, but must be left to his action on the warranty 
to recover the difference in the value of the article warranted, and its value when 
sold "* 

Where there is no warranty, an action may be brought on the ground of fraud ; but 
this is very difficult to be maintained, and not often hazarded. It will be necessary 
to prove that the dealer knew the defect, and that the purchaser was imposed upon 
by his false representation, or other fraudulent means. If the defect was evident to 
every eye, the purchaser has no remedy — he should have taken more care; but if a 
warranty was given, that extends to all unsoundness, palpable or concealed. Al- 
though a person should ignorantly or carelessly buy a blind horse, warranted sound, 
he may reject it — the warranty is his guard, and prevents him from so closely exam- 
ining the horse as he otherwise would have done; but if he buys a blind horse, think- 
ing him to be sound, and without a warranty, he has no remedy. Every one ought 
to exercise common circumspection and common sense. 

A man should have a more perfect knowledge of horses than falls to the lot of 
most, and a perfect knowledge of the vendor too, who ventures to buy a horse without 
a warranty. 

If a person buys a horse warranted sound, and discovering no defect in him, and, 
relying on the v/arranty, re-sells him, and the unsoundness is discovered by the second 
purchaser, and the horse returned to the first purchaser, or an action commenced 
against him, he has his claim on the first seller, and may demand of him not only the 
price of the horse, or the difference in value, but every expense that may have been 
incurred. 

Absolute exchanges, of one horse for another, or a sum of money being paid in 
addition by one of the parties, stand on the same ground as simple sales. If ther6 is 
a warranty on either side, and that is broken, an action may be maintained : if there 
be no warranty, deceit must be proved. 

The trial of horses on sale often leads to disputes. The law is perfectly clear, but 
the application of it, as in other matters connected with horse-flesh, attended with 
glorious uncertainty. The intended purchaser is only liable for damage done to the 
horse through his own misconduct. The seller may put what restriction he chooses 
on tne trial, and takes the risks of all accidents in the fair use of the horse within 
such restrictions. 

If a horse from a dealer's stable is galloped far and fast, it is probable that he will 
soon show distress; and if he is pushed farther, inflammation and death may ensue. 
The dealer rarely gets recompensed for tliis ; nor ought he, as he knows the unfitness 
of his horse, and may thank himself for permitting such a trial ; and if it should occur 
soon after the sale, he runs the risk of having the horse returned, or of an action for 
its price. 

In this, too, he is not much to be pitied. The mischievous and fraudulent practice 
of dealers, especially in London, of giving their horses, by overfeeding, a false appear- 
ance of muscular substance, leads to the ruin of many a valuable animal. It would 
be a useful lesson to have to contest in an action or two the question whether a horse 
overloaded with fat can be otherwise than in a state of disease, and consequently 
unsound. 

It is proper, however, to put a limit to what has been too frequently asserted from 
the bench, that a horse warranted sound must be taken as fit for immediate use, and 
capable of being immediately put to any fair work the owner chooses. A huntei 
honestly warranted sound is certainly warranted to be in immediate condition to fol 
low the hounds. The mysteries of condition, as has been shown in a former part ol 
the work, are not sufficiently unravelled. 

In London, and in most great towns, there are repositories for the periodical sale 
of horses by auction. They are of great convenience to the seller who can at once 
get rid of a horse with which he wishes to part, without waiting month after month 
before he obtains a purchaser, and he is relieved from the nuisance '-j ^ear of naving 

* Curtis v. Hannay, 3 Esp. 83. 
34 



398 MEDICINE. 

the anima returned on account of breach of the warranty, because in these places only 
two days are allowed for the trial, and if the horse is not returned within that period, 
he cannot be afterwards returned. They are also convenient to the purchaser, who 
can thus in a large town soon find a horse that will suit him, and which, from this 
restriction as to returning- the animal, he will obtain twenty or thirty per cent, below 
the dealers' prices. Although an auction may seem to offer a fair and open competi- 
tion, there is no place ai which it is more necessary for a person not much accustomed 
to horses to take with him an experienced friend, and, when there, to depend on his 
own judgment, or that of his friend, heedless of the observations or manoeuvres of the 
hystanders, the exaggerated commendation of some horses, and the thousand faults 
found with others. There are always numerous groups of low dealers, copers, and 
chaunters, whose business it is to dehide and deceive. 

One of the regulations of the Bazaar in King Street was exceedingly fair, both with 
regard to the previous owner and the purchaser, viz. — 

" When a horse, having been warranted sound, shall be returned within the pre- 
scribed period, on account of unsoundness, a certificate from a veterinary surgeon, 
particularly describing the unsoundness, must accompany the horse so returned ; when, 
if it be agreed to by the veterinary surgeon of the establishment, the amount received 
for the horse shall be immediately paid back ; but if the veterinary surgeon of the 
establishment should not confirm the certificate, tlicn, in order to avoid further dispute, 
one of the veterinary surgeons of the college shall be called in, and his decision shall 
be final, and the expense of such umpire shall be borne by the party in error." 



CHAPTER XXIII. 



-v LIST OF THE MEDICINES USED IN THE TREATMENT OF THE 
DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

He will rarely consult his own interest, who, not having had the advantage of a 
veterinary education, undertakes the tjoatment of any of the serious diseases of his 
horses. Many of the maladies oT ihe horse nearly resemble each other. They are 
continually varying their character, and rtquire, in their diflferent stages, a very differ- 
ent treatment, and in the plainest case noi only the characteristic symptoms of disease 
are obscure, but even the indications of returning health, or increasing danger, are 
often scarcely ascertainable, consequently the sick horse,' as well as the human being, 
needs the care of one whom study and experience havb qualified for the task. A list 
of the drugs generally employed, with a slight account of their history, adulterations, 
and medicinal effects, will be interesting to the horsr-pioprietor as well as to the 
veterinary surgeon ; and may occasionally be useful when professional aid cannot be 
obtained. 

Frequent reference will be made to Professor Morton's most valuable Manual of 
Pharmacy. This work will be found to be a treasure to every veterinary surgeon. 
Mr. W. C. Spooner's Materia Medica, in his recent compendium of White's account 
of the horse, will occasionally be laid under contribution. 

Acacia Gummi. — Many varieties of gum arubic are procured from Egypt, Arabia, 
and the East Indies. It is an exudation from the trunk and branches of various trees. 
It is employed in the form of a mucilage, made by dissolving it in water, in the pro- 
portion of one part of the gum to three or four of water. Various insoluble powders 
may be thus suspended, or oils rendered miscible or emulsions formed. Emulsions 
•composed of gum arable are supposed to be useful in urinary affections. 

AciDUM AcETicuM, AcETic AciD, VixEGAR. — Vinegar is a very useful application I 
for sprains and bruises. Equal parts of boiling water and cold vinegar will form a 
good fomentation. Extract of lead, or bay salt, may be added with some advantage. 
As an internal remedy, vinegar is rarely given, nor has it, except in large doses, any 
considerable medicinal power. The veterinarian and the horse-owner should manu 



MEDICINE. 390 

fitcture their own vinegar. That which they huy frequently contains sulphuric acid 
and pungent spices, and irritates the inflamed part to which it is applied. 

AciuuM AkseniosUi-\[, Arsenic. — Were it not that some practitioners continue to 
use it as a tonic, in doses of from ten to twenty grains daily, and others employ it to 
core out old ulcers, we would not include it in our list, for we have little faith in it. 
There are better and safer tonics, and far better and safer caustics. The method of 
detecting the presence of arsenic, in cases of poisonino", has been described at page 
227. 

AcinuM MuuiATicuM, or Hydrochlouic Acid: Spirit of Salt. — This acid is 
formed by distilling corrosive sublimate with antimony. The butter-like matter which 
is produced (whence the common name, Butyr of Antimony) has a strong affinity for 
water, which it attracts from the atmosphere, and thus becomes converted into a fluid. 
The less water it is suOered to attract to itself the more powerful it remains, and 
therefore it should be kept in stoppered bottles. The proof of its goodness is its 
weight. It is decidedly the best liquid caustic we have. It is most manageable, and 
its elfect can most readily be ascertained. As soon as it touches any muscular or 
living part, a change of colour is perceived, and the effect of the caustic can be fairly 
judged of by the degree of change. For corns, canker, indisposition in the sole to 
secrete good horn, wounds in the foot not attended by healthy action, and for every 
case where the superficial application of a caustic is needed, this acid is unrivalled. 

AciDUM NiTRicuM I NiTuic AciD, Aquafortis. — This is a valuable external appli- 
cation. It is both a caustic and an antiseptic. It destroys fungous excrescences. A 
pledget of tar should be dipped in the acid, and then firmly pressed on the cankerous 
surface. Every part with which the acid has come into contact will be deadened and 
slough off, and healtliy granulations will spring up. 

AciDUM HvDRociANicuM : Prussic Acid. — This, in a concentrated state, is truly a 
deadly poison; a few drops of it will kill a large animal. In a diluted form, it is a 
powerful sedative. In doses of six drops, largely diluted, it abates both pulmonary 
and gastric irritation. It may be worth trying in the form of enema in cases of Te- 
tanus. It rnay also he given by the mouth in the same disease. Nothing is more 
likely to tranquillize the general excitement of the nervous system. The author of 
this work was the first person who applied the hydrocyanic acid for the purpose of 
allaying irritation of the skin in dogs. It seldom fails of producing the desired effect, 
and it has had a similar good effect in subduing itchiness and mange in the horse. 

AciDUM SuLPHURicuM, SuLPHURic AciD. — WlicH mixed with tar in the proportion 
of an ounce to the pound, it is a good application for thrush and canker: a smaller 
quantity mixed with olive oil makes a good stimulating liniment. If too much sul- 
phuric acid is added, either by mistake or wilfully, it inflames and corrodes the sto- 
mach and bowels. The proper antidotes in this case are magnesia, or the carbonate 
of soda or potash, with soft soap. The acid might possibly be neutralized by this 
combination. 

Adeps, Hog's Lard, very properly forms the basis of most of our ointments. It 
is tasteless, inodorous, and free from every stimulating quality. That cannot be said 
of all the ingredients used in the composition of our unguents. 

Alcohol, Rectified Spirit. — This is necessarily used in many of our tinctures 
and other preparations, and is sometimes given to the horse in almost a pure state. 
Some horses that are compelled to travel far and quickly, show evident fatigue before 
they arrive at the end of their journey. A cordial or carminative tincture, to the ex- 
tent of three or four ounces, largely diluted, may occasionally be given, and they 
rally, and cheerfully pursue their course to the end. The groom or the stableman 
gives the gin or whiskey of the country, in preference to any other stimulant. In 
cases of thorough fatigue the Daffy's Elixir may be administered, and probably ren- 
dered more stimulant by the addition of pepper. Mr. Bracy Clark recommends four 
ounces of the tincture of allspice in cases of gripes. On the other hand, some veteri- 
nary surgeons have preferred simple hot water, or the infusion of several of our medi- 
cinal herbs, as peppermint, rosemary, &c. We should be loath, except on extraordi- 
nary occasions, to advocate the use of any spirituous drink. 

Aloes. — There are two kinds used in horse practice, the Barbadoes and the Cape. 
The Socotrine, preferred by the human surgeon, are very uncertain in their effect on 
the horse, and are seldom to be met with pure. Of the Barbadoes ana the Cape, the 
first are much to be preferred. They are obtained principally from the island of Baj 



100 MEDICINE. 

bailees, and are the juice of the large leaves of the aloe boiled to a considerable 
thickness, and then poured into gourds in which they gradually harden. The true 
Cape are the extract of a species of aloes chiefly cultivated at the Cape of Good 
Hope. The Barbadoes aloes are black, with a shade of brown, of an unctuous feel- 
ing, with a stronger smell, broken witii difficulty, and the fracture dull. The Cape 
are darker coloured, stronger smelling, very brittle, and the fracture perfectly glossy 
Every veterinary surgeon who uses much aloes should buy them in the mass, and 
powder them at home, and then, by attending to this account of the difference of the 
two, he can scarcely be imposed upon. It is, however, the fact, that these are mostly 
adulterated, by their being melted together. Aloes purchased in powder are too oftep 
sadly adulterated. 

The Cape aloes may be powdered at all times, and the Barbadoes in frosty wea- 
ther, when enough should be prepared, to be kept in closed bottles, for the year's 
consumption. I'hey may also be powdered when they have been taken from the 
gourd, and exposed to a gentle heat for two or three hours before they are put into 
the mortar. In the proportion of fifteen ounces of the powder mixed with one ounce 
of powdered ginger, and beaten up with eight ounces of palm oil, and afterwards 
divided into the proper doses, it will form a purging mass more effectual, and much 
less likely to gripe, than any that can be procured by melting the drug. If the phy- 
sic is given in the shape of a ball, it more readily dissolves in the stomach, and more 
certainly and safely acts on the bowels when mingled with some oily matter, like 
that just recommended, than when combined with syrup or honey, which are apt to 
ferment, and be themselves the cause of gripes. It is also worse than useless to add 
any diuretic to the mass, as soap or carbonate of soda. The action of these on one 
set of organs will weaken that of the aloes on another. A physic mass should never 
be kt.pt more than two or three months, for, after that time, it rapidly loses its purga- 
tive property. 

Directions for physicking will be found at page 237. We will only add that, as a 
promoter of condition, the dose should always be mild. A few fluid stools will be 
sufficient for every good purpose. Violent disease will alone justify violent purging. 

The Barbadoes aloes have a greater purgative power than the Cape, exclusive of 
griping less and being safer. In addition to this, the action of the bowels is kept up 
longer by the Barbadoes aloes than by the Cape. If the horse is well mashed, and 
carefully exercised, and will drink plenty of warm water, the Cape may be ventured 
on, or at least mixed with equal quantities of the Barbadoes ; but if there is any neglect 
of preparation for physic, or during the usual operation of the physic, the Cape are 
not always to be depended upon. The combination of alkaline compounds with aloes 
alters the results of the medicine. Their action is quickened, but their purgative pro- 
perties are impaired, and they cease to operate specifically on the larger intestines. 
Such is the opinion of Professor Morton, and undoubtedly the latter would be an 
advantage gained. The activity of the aloes may be occasionally increased by a few 
drops of the croton oil. Mashes are useful helps when physic is administered. 

Some persons are fond of Avhat are called half-doses of physic. Three or four 
drachms are given on one day, and three or four on the following; and perhaps, if the 
medicine has not operated, as in this divided state it will not always, two or three 
additional drachms are given on the third day. The consequence is, that the bowels 
having been rendered irritable by the former doses, the horse is over-purged, and 
inflammation and death occasionally ensue. In physicking a horse, whatever is to 
be done should be done at once. Whatever quantity is intended to be given should 
he given in one dose. 

The system of giving small doses of aloes as alteratives is not good. These repeated 
minute doses lodging in some of the folds of the intestines, and at length uniting, often 
produce more effect than is desirable. It is never safe to ride a horse far or fast, with 
even a small dose of aloes within him. 

Most of all objectionable is the custom of giving small doses of aloes as a nauseant. 
in inflammation of the lungs. Tliere is so much sympathy between the contents of 
the chest and the belly in the horse, and inflammation of one part is so likely to bo 
transferred to another, that it is treading on very dangerous ground, when, with much 
inflammation of the lungs, that is given which will stimulate and may inflame the 
intestines. 



MEDICINE. 401 

Aloes are most commonly, because most easily, administered in the form of ball, 
but in a state of solution their effect is more speedy, effectual, and safe. 

Aloes are useful in the form of tincture. Eight ounces of powdered aloes, and one 
ounce of powdered rnyrrh, may be put into two quarts of rectified spirit, diluted with 
an equal quantity of water. The mixture should be daily well shaken for a fortnight, 
and then suffered to stand, in order that the undissolved portion may fall to the bottom. 
This will constitute a very excellent application for wounds, whether recent or of 
long standing and indisposed to heal. It is not only a gentle stimulant, but it forms 
a thin crust over the wound, and shields it from the action of the air. 

The principal adulteration of aloes is by means of resin, and the alteration of coloor 
is concealed by the addition of charcoal or lamp-black. This adulteration is easily 
enough detected by dissolving the aloes in hot water. All aloes contain some resin- 
ous matter, which the water will not dissolve and which has very slight purgative 
effect. The excess of this resin at the bottom of the solution will mark the degree of 
adulteration. 

Alteratives are a class of medicines the nature and effect of which are often much 
misunderstood, and liable to considerable abuse. It is a very convenient name in 
order to excuse that propensity to dose the horse with medicines, which is the dis- 
grace of the groom, and the bane of the stable. 

By alteratives we understand those drugs which effect some slow change in the 
diseased action of certain parts without interfering with the food or work; but by 
common consent the term seems to be confined to medicines for the diseases of the 
circulation, or of the digestive organs, or of the skin. If a horse is heavy and incapa- 
ble of work from too good keep, or if he is off his food from some temporary indiges- 
tion — or if he has mange or grease, or cracked heels, or swelled legs, a few alteratives 
are prescribed, and the complaint is expected to be gradually and imperceptibly 
removed. For all skin affections there is no better alterative than that so often recom- 
mended in this treatise, consisting of black antimony, nitre, and sulphur. If there is 
any tendency to grease, some resin may be added to each ball. If the complaint is 
accompanied by weakness, a little gentian and ginger may be farther added, but we 
enter our protest against the ignorant use of mercury in any form, or any of the mine- 
ral acids, or mineral tonics, or heating spices, as alteratives. We indeed should be 
pleased if we could banish the term alterative from common usage. The mode of 
proceeding which reason and science would dictate is to ascertain the nature and 
degree of the disease, and then the medicine which is calculated to restore the healthy 
action of the part, or of the frame generally. 

Alum is occasionally used internally in cases of super-purgation in the form of 
alum-whey, two drachms of the powder being added to a pint of hot milk ; but there 
are much better astringents, although this may sometimes succeed when others fail. 
If alum is added to a vegetable astringent, as oak-bark, the power of both is dimm- 
ished. Its principal use is external. A solution of two drachms to a pint of watei 
forms alone, or with the addition of a small quantity of white vitriol, a very useful 
wash for cracked heels, and for grease generally; and also for those forms of swelled 
leo-s attended with exudation of moisture through the skin. Some add the Goulard 
lotion, forgetting the chemical decomposition that takes place; the result of which is, 
that the alumine, possessing little astringency, is detached, and two salts with no 
astrino-ency at all, the sulphate of lead and the sulphate of potash, are formed. 

The Burnt Alum is inferior to the common alum for the purposes mentioned, and 
we have better stimulants, or caustics, to apply to wounds. , , . , 

Ammonia is, to the annoyance of the horse, and the injury of his eyes and his lungs 
lentifullv extricated from the putrefying dung and urine of the stable ; but, when 
combined with water in the common form of hartshorn, it is seldom used in veterinary 
practice. It has been given, and with decided benefit, and when other things have 
failed, in flatulent colic; and is best administered in the form of the aromatic spirit of 
ammonia, and in doses of one or two ounces, in warm water. . . 

Chloride of Ammonia, or sal ammoniac, is scarcely deserving ot a place in ou. 
list. It is not now used internally ; and as an astringent embrocation, it must yield 
to several that are more effectual, and less likely to blemish. . 

Anisi Semina, Anise-seed.— This seed is here mentioned principally as a record of 
old times, when it was one of the sheet-anchors of the famer. It i? not yet quite 
liscarded from his shop as a stimulant, a carminative, and a cordial. 
34* 3 a 



402 MEDICINE. 

Anodynes. — Of these there is but one in horse practice : Opium is the only drug 
that will lull pain. It may be given as an anodyne, but it will also be an astringent 
ill doses of one, two, or three drachms. 

Antimony. — There are several valuable preparations of this metal. 

The Black Sesqui-Sulphuret of Antimony, a compound of sulphur and antimony, 
is a good alterative. It is given with more sulphur and with nitre, in varying doses, 
according to the disease, and the slow or rapid effect intended to be produced. It 
should never be bought in powder whatever trouble there may be in levigating it, for 
It is often grossly adulterated with lead, manganese, forge-dust, and arsenic. The 
adulteration may be detected by placing a little of the powder on a red-hot iron plate. 
The pure sulphuret will evaporate without the slightest residue — so will the arsenic: 
l)ut there will be an evident smell of garlic. A portion of the lead and the manga- 
nese will be left behind. 

Antimonii PoTASsio Tartras, Emetic Tartar. — The tartrate of potash and anti- 
mony, or a combination of super-tartrate of potash and oxide of antimony, is a very 
useful nauseant, and has considerable effect on the skin. It is particularly valuable 
in inflammat'on of the lungs, and in every catarrhal affection. It is given in doses 
of from one drachm to a drachm and a half, and combined with nitre and digitalis. 
It is also beneficial in the expulsion of worms. It should be given in doses of two 
drachms, and with some mechanical vermifuge, as tin filings, or ground glass, and 
administered on an empty stomach, and for several successive days. Although it 
may sometimes fail to expel the worms, it will materially improve the condition of 
the horse, and produce sleekness of the coat. To a slight degree the emetic tartar is 
decomposed by the action of light, and should be kept in a jar, or green bottle. It is 
sometimes adulterated with arsenic, which is detected by the garlic smell when it is 
placed on hot iron, and also by its not giving a beautiful gold-coloured precipitate 
when sulphuret of ammonia is added to a solution of it. It has also been externally 
applied in chest affections, in combination with lard, and in quantities of from one 
drachm to two drachms of the antimony, to an ounce of the lard ; but, except in ex- 
treme cases, recourse should not be had to it, on account of the extensive sloughing 
which it sometimes produces. 

PuLVis Antimonii Compositus, The Compound Powder of Antimony. — Com- 
monly known by the name of James's Powder. It is employed as a sudorific in fever, 
either alone or in combination with mercurials. The dose is from one to two drachms. 
The late Mr. Bloxam used to trust to it alone in the treatment of Epidemic Catarrh 
in the horse. It is, however, decidedly inferior to Emetic Tartar. It is often adulte- 
rated with chalk and burnt bones, and other white powders, and that to so shameful 
a degree, that little dependence can be placed on the antimonial powder usually sold 
by druggists. The muriatic or sulphuric acids will detect most of these adulterations. 
Anti-spasmodics. — Of these our list is scanty, for the horse is subject only to a 
few spasmodic diseases, and there are fewer medicines which have an anti-spasmodic 
effect. Opium stands first for its general power, and that exerted particularly in 
locked-jaw. Oil of turpentine is almost a specific for spasm of the bowels. Cam- 
phor, assafoetida, and various other medicines, used on the human subject, have a very 
doubtful effect on the horse, or may be considered as almost inert. 

Argentum, Silver. — One combination only of this metal is used, and that as a 
manageable and excellent caustic, viz., the Lunar Causltc. It is far preferable to the 
hot iron, or to any acid, for the destruction of the part if a horse should have been 
bitten by a rabid dog; and it stands next to the butyr of antimony for the removal of 
fungus generally. It has not yet been administered internally to the horse. 

Arsenicum, Arsenic. — This drug used to be employed as a tonic, in order to core 
out old ulcers; but it is now seldom employed, for there are better and safer tonics, 
and far better and safer caustics. The method of detecting the presence of arsenic 
in cases of poisoning has been described at page 227. 

Balls. — The usual and the most convenient mode of administering veterinary 
med.cines is in the form of balls, compounded with oil, and not with honey or syrup, 
in account of their longer keeping soft and more easily dissolving in the stomach. 
Balls should never weigh more than an ounce and a half, otherwise they will be so 
large as not to pass without diflRculty down the gullet. They should not be more 
than an inch in diameter and three inches in length. The mode of delivering balls 
Vi not difficult to acquire ; but the balling-iron, while it often wounds and permanently 



MEDICINE. 403 

injures the bars, occasions the horse to struggle more than he otherwise would against 
the administration of the medicine. The horse should be backed in the staVi; — ^thc 
tongue should be drawn gently out with the left hand on the off side of the mouth, 
and there fixed, not by continuing to pull at it, but by pressing the fingers against the 
side of the lower jaw. The ball, being now taken between the tips of the fingers 
of the right hand, is passed rapidly up the mouth, as near to the palate as possible, 
until it reaches the root of the tongue. It is then delivered with a slight jerk, and 
the hand being immediately withdrawn and the tongue liberated, the ball is forced 
through the pharynx into the cssophagus. Its passage should be watched down the 
left side of the throat ; and if the passage of it is not seen going down, a slight tap 
or blow under the chin will generally cause the horse to swallow it, or a few gulps 
of water will convey it into the stomach. Very few balls should be kept ready made, 
for they become so hard as to be incapable of passing down the gullet, or dissolving 
in the stomach, and the life of the horse may be endangered or lost. This is pecu- 
liarly liable to be the case if the ball is too large, or wrapped in thick paper. 

Bark, Peruvian. — A concentrated preparation of this is entitled the Sulphate of 
Quinine. The simple bark is now seldom used. If it has any good effect, it is in 
diabetes. The quinine, however, is strongly recommended by Professor Morton as 
singularly efficacious in the prostration of strength which is often the consequence of 
influenza. 

Basilicon is a valuable digestive ointment, composed of resin, bees'-wax, and 
olive-oil. If it is needed as a stimulant, a little turpentine and verdigris may be 
added. 

Belladonna Extractum, Extract of Deadly Nightshade. — The inspissated 
juice is principally used as a narcotic and sedative, and indicated where there is un- 
due action of the nervous and vascular systems, as in tetanus, carditis, and nervous 
affections generally. Externally, it is beneficially applied to the eye. 

Blisters are applications to the skin which separate the cuticle in the form of vesi- 
cles containing a serous fluid. They excite increased action in the vessels of the 
skin, by means of which this fluid is thrown out. The part or neighbouring parts 
are somewhat relieved by the discharge, but more by the inflammation and pain that 
are produced, and lessen that previously existing in some contiguous part. On this 
principle we account for the decided relief often obtained by blisters in inflammation 
of the lungs, and their elTicacy in abating deeply-seated disease, as that of the ten- 
dons, ligaments, or joints; and also the necessity of previously removing, in these 
latter cases, the superficial inflammation caused by them, in order that one of a dif- 
ferent kind may be excited, ond to which the deeply-seated inflammation of the part 
will be more likely to yield. The blisters used in horse-practice are composed of 
cantharides or the oil of turpentine, to which some have added a tincture of the cro- 
ton-nut. 

For some important remarks on the composition, application and management of 
the blister, see page 346. 

Bole Armenian is an argillaceous earth combined with iron, and is supposed to 
possess some astringent property. The propriety of its being administered inwardly 
is doubtful ; for it may remain in the intestinal canal, and become the nucleus of a 
calculus. On account of its supposed astringency, it is employed externally to give 
consistence to ointments for grease. Even the bole Armenian has not escaped the 
process of adulteration, and is largely mixed with inferior earths. The fraud may be 
suspected, but not satisfactorily detected, by the colour of the powder, which should 
be a bright red. 

Calamine. — See Zinc. 

Calomel. — See Mercury. 

Camphor is the produce of one of the laurus species, a native of Japan, and too 
often imitated by passing a stream of chlorine through oil of turpentine. According 
to Professor Morton, it is a narcotic. It diminishes the frequency of the pulse, and 
softens its tone. When long exhibited, it acts on the kidneys. Externally applied, 
it is said to be a discutient and an anodyne for chronic sprains, bruises, and tumours. 
The camphor ball is a favourite one with the groom, and occasionally administered 
by the veterinary surgeon. Mr. W. C. Spooner uses it, mixed with opium, in cases 
of locked-jaw, and in doses of from one to two drachms. In the form of camphorated 
oil, it promotes the absorption of fluids thrown out beneath ihe skin, the removal of 



404 MEDICINE. 

old callus, and the suppling of joints stiff from labour. Combined with oil of turpen 
tine it is more effective, but in this combination it occasionally blemishes. • 

Cantharides are the basis of the most approved and useful veterinary blisters. 
The cantharis is a fly, the native of Italy and the south of France. It is destroyed 
by sulphur, dried and powdered, and mixed with palm oil and resin in the proportion 
directed at page 225. Its action is intense, and yet superficial; it plentifully raises 
the cuticle, yet rarely injures the true skin, and therefore seldom blemishes. The 
application of other acrid substances is occasionally followed by deeply-seated ulcera- 
tions ; but a blister composed of the Spanish fly alone, while it does its duty, leaves, 
after a few weeks have passed, scarcely a trace behind. 

The art of blistering consists in cutting, or rather shaving, the hair perfectly close; 
then well rubbing in the ointment, for at least ten minutes; and, afterwards, and what 
is of the greatest consequence of all, plastering a little more of the ointment lightly 
over the part, and leaving it. As soon as the vesicles have perfectly risen, which will 
be in twenty or twenty-four hours, the torture of the animal may be somewhat relieved 
by the application of olive or neat's-foot oil, or any emollient ointment. 

When too extensive a blister has been employed, or, from the intensity of the origi- 
nal inflammation, the blister has not risen, (for no two intense inflammations can exist 
in neighbouring parts at the same time), strangury — great difficulty in passing urine, 
and even suppression of it — has occurred. The careful washing off of the blister, and 
the administration of plenty of warm water, with opium, and bleeding if the symp- 
toms run high, will generally remove this unpleasant effect. 

An infusion of two ounces of the flies in a pint of oil of turpentine, for several days, 
is occasionally used as a liquid blister; and, when sufficiently lowered with common 
oil, it is called a sweating oil, for it maintains a certain degree of irritation and inflam- 
mation on the skin, yet not sufficient to blister, and thus gradually abates or removes 
some old or deep inflammation, or cause of lameness. 

Of late cantharides have come into more general use. They were recommended 
by Mr. Vines, in combination with vegetable hitters, as a stimulating tonic, in cases 
of debility. He next applied them for the cure of Glanders, and with considerable 
success. The Veterinary public is much indebted to Mr. Vines, for the steadiness 
with which he has followed up the employment of the Spanish fly. The dose is from 
five to eight grains given daily, but withheld for a day or two when diuresis super- 
venes. 

Capsici Bacc^, Capsicum Berries. — They are valuable as stimulants affecting 
the system generally, yet not too much accelerating the pulse. Their beneficial effect 
in cases of cold, has seldom been properly estimated. The dose is from a scruple to 
half a drachm. » 

Carui Semina, Caraway Seeds. — These and Ginger, alone or combined, are the 
best stimulants used in horse-practice. 

Cascarill^ Cortex, Cascarilla Bark. — Tonic as well as aromatic. It must not, 
however, be used with the sulphates of iron or zinc. 

Castor Oil, Oleum Ricini. — An expensive medicine. It must be given in large 
doses, and even then it is uncertain in its effects. Mild as is its operation in most 
animals, it sometimes gripes and even endangers the horse. 

Catechu, Japan Earth, yet, no earth, but extracted from the wood of one of the 
acacia trees, is a very useful astringent. It is given in super-purgation, in doses of 
one or two drachms, with opium, as a yet more powerful astringent; chalk, to neu- 
tralize any acid in the stomach or bowels ; and powdered gum, to sheath the over-irri 
tated mucous, coat of the intestines. It is not often adulterated in our country, bu 
grossly so abroad — fine sand and aluminous earth being mixed with the extract. I 
is seldom given with any alkali, yet the prescription just recommended contains 
chalk : but, although the chalk, as an alkali, may weaken the astringency of the cate 
chu, it probably neutralizes some acid in the stomach or bowels, that would have 
diminished the power of the catechu to a greater degree. It must not be given ir 
conjunction with any metallic salt, for the tannin or gallic acid, on which its powei 
chiefly or entirely depends, has an affinity for all metals, and will unite with them, 
and form a gallate of them, possessing little astringent energy. Common ink is the 
union of this tannin principle with iron. 

A tincture of catechu is sometimes made by macerating three ounces of the powder 
!n a quart of spirit for a fortnight. It is an excellent application for wounds ; and, 



MEDICINE. 403 

witn ihe aloes, constitutes all that we want of a balsamic nature for the purpobe of 
nastening the healing process of wounds. 

Caustics are substances that burn or destroy the parts to which they are applied. 
First among them stands the red-hot iron, or actual cautery, and then pure alkalies, 
potash, and soda, and the sulphuric and nitrous acids. Milder caustics are found in 
the sulphate of copper, red precipitate, burnt alum, and verdigris. They are princi- 
pally used to destroy fungous excrescences, or stimulate indolent tumours, or remove 
portions of cellular substance, or muscle infected by any poison. 

Creta Preparata, Chalk, is principally used in combination with catechu and 
(ypium in cases of super-purgation. All adventitious matters are removed by washing, 
and the prepared or levigated chalk remains in the form of an impalpable powder. It 
is usually administered in doses of two or three ounces. It is externally applied over 
ulcers that discharge a thin and ichorous matter. 

Chamomile, Anthemis. — The powder of the flower is a useful" vegetable tonic, and 
the mildest in our list. It is given in doses of one or two drachms, and is exhibited 
in the early stage of convalescence in order to ascertain whether the febrile stage of 
the disease is passed, and to prepare the way for a more powerful tonic, the gentian. 
If no acceleration of pulse, or heat of rnouth, or indication of return of fever, accom- 
panies the cautious use of the chamomile, the gentian, with carbonate of iron, may 
be safely ventured upon ; but if the gentian had been lirst used, and a little too soon, 
there might have been considerable, and perhaps dangerous return of fever. 

Charcoal is occasionally used as an antiseptic, being made into a poultice with 
Unseed meal, and applied to foul and offensive ulcers, and to cracked heels. It re- 
moves the foetid and unwholesome smell that occasionally proceeds from them. 

Charges are thick, adhesive plasters spread over parts that have been strained or 
weakened, and, being applied to the skin, adhere for a considerable time. The fol- 
Sowing mixture makes a good charge — Burgundy or common pitch, five ounces ; tar, 
six ounces; yellow wax, one ounce, melted together, and when they are becoming 
cool, half a drachm of powdered cantharides well stirred in. This must be partially 
melted afresh when applied, and spread on the part with a large spatula, as hot as 
can be done without giving the animal too much pain. Flocks of tow should .be 
scattered over it while it is warm, and thus a thick and adhesive covering will be 
formed that cannot be separated from the skin for many months. It is used for old 
sprains of the loins, and also strains of the back sinews. The charge acts in three 
ways — by the slight stimulant power which it possesses it gradually removes all 
deep-seated inflammation — by its stimulus and its pressure it promotes the absorption 
of any callus or thickening beneath ; and, acting as a constant bandage, it gives tone 
and strength to the part. 

Clysters. — These are useful and too often neglected means of hastening the evac- 
uation of the bowels when the disease requires their speedy action. The old ox- 
bladder and wooden pipe may still be employed, and a considerable quantity of fluid 
thrown into the intestine; but the patent stomach and clyster pump of Mr. Reid is 
far preferable, as enabling the practitioner to inject a greater quantity of fluid, and in 
a less time. 

Two ounces of soft or yellow soap, dissolved in a gallon of warm water, will form 
a useful aperient clyster. It will detach or dissolve many irritating substances that 
may have adhered to the mucous coat of the bowels. For a more active aperient, 
half a pound of Epsom salts, or even of common salt, may be dissolved in the same 
quantity of water. A stronger injection, but not to be used if much purgative medi- 
cine has been previously given, may be composed of an oun-ce of Barbadoes aloes, 
dissolved in two or three quarts of warm water. If nothing else can be procured, 
warm water may be employed ; it will act as a fomentation to the inflamed and irri- 
table surface of the bowels, and will have no inconsiderable effect even as an ape- 
rient. 

In cases of over-purging or inflammation of the bowels, the injection must be of a 
soothing nature. It may consist of gruel alone, or, if the purging is considerable, 
and difficult to stop, the gruel must be thicker, and four ounces of prepared or pow- 
dered chalk well mixed with or suspended in it, with two scruples or a drachm of 
^lowdered opium. 

No oil should enter into the composition of a clyster, except that linseed oil may 
«3 used for the expulsion of the asearides, or needle-worms- 



406 MEDICINE. 

In epidemic catarrh, when the horse sometimes obstinately refuses to eat or to drink, 
his strength may be supported by nourishing clysters ; but tiiey should consist of thick 
^uel only, and not more than a quart should be administered at once. A greater 
quantity would be ejected soon after the pipe is withdrawn. Strong broths, and more 
particularly ale and wine, are dangerous ingredients. They may rapidly aggravate 
the fever, and should never be administered, except under the superintendence, or by 
the direction, of a veterinary surgeon. 

The principal art of administering a clyster consists in not frightening the horse. 
The pipe, well oiled, should be very gently introduced, and the fluid not too hastily 
thrown into the intestine ; its heat being as nearly as possible that of the intestine, 
or about 96° of Fahrenheit's thermometer. 

CoLLYRiA, Lotions for the Eyes. — These have been sufficiently described when 
inflammation of the eyes was treated of. 

Copaiba, Balsam of Capivi. — The resin is obtained from a tree growing in South 
America and the West India Islands. It is expensive, much adulterated, and seldom 
used ; for its properties differ but little from those of common diuretics. 

Copper. — ^There are two combinations of this metal used in veterinary practice 
the verdigris or subacetate, and the blue vitriol or sulphate. 

Verdigris or Subacetate of Copper is the common rust of that metal produced by 
subjecting it to the action of acetic acid. It is given internally by some practitioners, 
in doses of two or three drachms daily, as a tonic, and particularly for the cure of 
farcy. It is, however, an uncertain and dangerous medicine. The corrosive subli- 
mate, with vegetable tonics, as recommended at page 138, is preferable. Verdigris 
is, however, usefully applied externally as a mild caustic. Either alone, in the form 
of fine powder, or mixed with an equal quantity of the sugar (superacetate) of lead, 
it eats down proud flesh, or stimulates old ulcers to healthy action. When boiled 
with honey and vinegar, it constitutes the farriers' Egyptiacum, certainly of benefit 
in cankered or ulcerated mouth, and no bad application for thrushes ; but yielding, as 
it regards both, to better remedies, that are mentioned under the proper heads. Some 
practitioners use alum and oil of vitriol in making their Egyptiacum, forgetting the 
strange decomposition which is produced. 

Blue Vitriol or Sulphate of Copper is the union of sulphuric acid and copper. It is 
a favourite tonic with many practitioners, and has been vaunted as a specific for glan- 
ders; while others, and we think properly, have no very good opinion of it in either 
respect. As a cure for glanders, its reputation has nearly passed away. As a tonic, 
when the horse is slowly recovering from severe illness, it is dangerous, and its 
internal use should be confined to cases of long-continued discharge from the nostril, 
when catarrh or fever has ceased. It may then be given with benefit in doses of 
from one to two drachms twice in the day, and always combined with gentian and 
ginger. It is principally valuable as an external application, dissolved in water in 
the proportion of two drachms to a pint, and acting as a gentle stimulant. If an 
ounce is dissolved in the same quantity of water, it becomes a mild caustic. In the 
former proportion, it rouses old ulcers to a healthy action, and disposes even recent 
wounds to heal m.ore quickly than they otherwise would do ; and in the latter it re- 
moves fungous granulations or proud flesh. The blue vitriol is sometimes reduced to 
powder and sprinkled upon the wound for this purpose: it is also a good application 
for canker in the foot. 

Cordials are useful or injurious according to the judgment with which they are 
given. When a horse comes home thoroughly exhausted, and refuses his food, a 
cordial may be beneficial. It may rouse the stomach and the system generally, 
and may prevent cold and fever; but it is poison to the animal when administered 
after the cold is actually caught and fever begins to appear. More to be reprobated 
is the practice of giving /re^wf/?/ cordials, that by their stimulus on the stomach, (the 
skin sympathising so much with that viscus,) a fine coat may be produced. Thfc 
<irtificial excitement of the cordial soon becomes as necessary to enable the horse to 
do even common work, as is the excitement of the dram to sustain the animal spirits 
of the drunkard. 

In order to recall the appetite of the horse slowly recovering from illness, a cordial 
may sometimes be allowed ; or to old horses that have been worked hard and used 
♦o (nese excitements when young; or to draught horses, that have exhibited slighi! 
symptoms of staggers when their labour has been unusually protracted and their stc 



MEDICINE. 40? 

machs left too long empty ; or mixed with diuretic medicine, to fine the legs of the 
over-worked and debilitated animal ; but in no other case should they obtain a place 
in the stable, or be used at the discretion of the carter or the groom. 

Corrosive Sublimate. — See Mercury. 

Creasote has very lately been introduced into veterinary practice, and is much 
valued on account of its antiseptic properties. It is obtained by the destructive dis- 
tillation of various substances, as pyroligneous acid, tar, wood, smoke, &c. Pure 
creasote is colourless and transparent; its odour is that of smoked meat, and its taste 
is caustic and burning. It coagulates the albumen of the blood, and hence has been 
lately employed in stopping hajmorrhages. It acts very powerfully on the general 
system, and quickly destroys small animals. Professor Morton gives a very inte- 
resting and faithful account of it. It is, according to him, both a stimulant and a 
tonic. In an undiluted state it acts as a caustic. When diluted it is a general ex- 
citant and an antiseptic. In the form of a lotion, a liniment, or an ointment, it has 
been useful in farcy and glanders, also in foot-rot, canker, and thrush, — mange, caries, 
excessive suppuration, and the repression of fungous granulations. As a caustic it 
acts as a powerful stimulant, and it is an antiseptic. 

Croton TiGLii Semina, Croto]< Seeds. — The croton-nut has not been long intro- 
duced into veterinary practice, although it has been used from time immemorial by 
the inhabitants of India as a powerful purgative. An oil has been extracted from it, 
and used by the surgeon ; the meal is adopted by the veterinarian. It is given in 
doses from a scruple to half a drachm, and, from its acrid nature, in the form of a ball, 
with an ounce of linseed meal. When it does operate the effect is generally observed 
in six or eight hours, the stools being profuse and watery, and the patient frequently 
griped. On account of its speedy operation, it may be given in locked-jaw and stag- 
gers : and also in dropsy of the chest or belly, from the watery and profuse stools 
vphich it produces ; but it is often uncertain in its operation, and its griping, and the 
debility which it occasions, are serious objections to it as common physic. When 
placed on the tongue of the horse in quantities varying from twenty to forty drops, it 
produces purging, but the membrane of the mouth frequently becomes violently inflamed. 
This likewise happens, but not to so great a degree, when it is given in the form of a 
drink, or in a mash. 

Demulcents are substances that have the power of diminishing the effect of acri- 
monious or stimulating substances. The first, by some oily or mucilaginous sub- 
stance, sheaths the sensible parts. The other dilutes the stimulus, and diminishes its 
power. It will rarely be difficult to determine which effect should be produced, and 
the means by w.iich it is to be effected. 

Diaphoretics are medicines that increase the sensible and insensible perspiration 
of the animal. As it regards the horse, they are neither many nor powerl'ul. Anti- 
mony in its various forms, and sulphur, have some effect in opening the pores of the 
skin, and exciting its vessels to action, and especially when assisted by warmth of 
stable or clothing, and therefore is useful in those diseases in which it is desirable 
that some portion of the blood should be diverted from the overloaded, and inflamed, 
and vital organs of the chest, to the skin or the extremities. The only diaphoretics, 
however, on which much confidence can be placed, and especially to produce condi- 
tion, are warm clothing and good grooming. 

Digestives are applications to recent or old wounds, as mild stimulants, in order 
to produce a healthy appearance and action in them, and to cause them more speedily 
to heal. A weak solution of blue vitriol is an excellent digestive; so is the tincture 
of aloes, and the tincture of myrrh. The best digestive ointment is one composed of 
three parts of calamine ointment (Turner's cerate) and one of common turpentine. 

Digitalis. — The leaves of the common foxglove, gathered about the flowering time, 
dried carefully in a dark place, and powdered, and kept in a close black bottle, form 
one of the most valuable medicines in veterinary practice. It is a direct and powerful 
sedative, diminishing the frequency of the pulse, and the general irritability of the 
system, and acting also as a mild diuretic : it is therefore useful in every inflamma- 
tory and febrile dbmplaint, and particularly in inflammation of the chest._ It is usually 
given in combination with emetic tartar and nitre. The average dose is one drachm 
of digitalis, one and a half of emetic tartar, and three of nitre, repeated twice or thrice 
in the day. . 

Dio-italis seems to have an immediate effect on the heart, lessening the number of 



408 MEDICINE. 

its pulsations; but elTecting this in a singular manner — not by causing the heart to 
beat more slowly, but producing certain intermissions or pauses in its action. When 
these become marked — when at every sixth or seventh beat, the pulsations are sus- 
pended while two or three can be slowly counted, this is precisely the effect that is 
intended to be produced, and, however ill. the horse may appear to be, or however 
ilarming this intermittent pulse may seem to the standers-by, from that moment the 
iinimal will frequently begin to amend. The dose must then be diminished one-half, 
and, in a few days, it may be omitted altogether: but the emetic tartar and the nitre 
should be continued during some days after the practitioner has deemed it prudent to 
try the effect of mild vegetable tonics. 

There is no danger in the intermittent pulse thus produced ; but there is much when 
the digitalis fails to produce any effect on the circulation. The disease is then too 
powerful to be arrested by medicine. Digitalis requires watching; but the only con- 
sequence to be apprehended from an over-dose is,, that the patient may be reduced a 
.ittle too low, and his convalescence retarded for a day or two. 

In the form of infusion or tincture, digitalis is very useful in inflammation of the 
eyes. It is almost equal in its sedative influence to opium, and it may with great 
advantage be alternated with it, when opium begins to lose its power. The infusion 
is made by pouring a quart of boiling water on an ounce of the powder. When it is 
become cold, a portion of the liquid may be introduced into tlie eye. One or two 
drops of the tincture may be introduced with good effect. This may be obtained by 
macerating three ounces of the digitalis in a quart of spirit. 

The infusion has been serviceable in mange ; but there are better applications. 

Diuretics constitute a useful but much abused class of medicines. They stimu- 
late the kidneys to secrete more than the usual quantity of urine, or to separate a 
greater than ordinary proportion of the watery parts of the blood. The deficiency of 
water in the blood, thus occasioned, must be speedily supplied or the healthy circula- 
tion cannot be carried on, and it is generally supplied by the absorbents taking up the 
watery fluid in some part of the frame, and carrying it into the circulation. Hence 
the evident use of diuretics in dropsical affections, in swelled legs, and also in inflam- 
mation and fever, by lessening the quantity of the circulating fluid, and, consequently, 
that which is sent to the inflamed parts. 

All this is effected by the kidneys being stimulated to increased action; but if this 
stimulus is too often or too violently applied, the energy of the kidney may be im- 
paired, or inflammation may be produced. That inflammation may be of an acute 
character, and destroy the patient; or, although not intense in its nature, it may by 
frequent repetition assume a chronic form, and more slowly, but as surely, do irre- 
parable mischief. Hence the necessity of attention to that portion of the food which 
may have a diuretic power. Mow-burnt hay and foxy oats are the unsuspected causes 
of many a disease in the horse, at first obscure, but ultimately referable to injury or 
inflammation of the urinary organs. Hence, too, the impropriety of suffering medi- 
cines of a diuretic nature to be at the command of the ignorant carter or groom. In 
swelled legs, cracks, grease, or accumulation of fluid in any part, and in those super- 
ficial eruptions and inflammations which are said to be produced by humours floating 
in the blood, diuretics are evidently beneficial ; but they should be as mild as possible, 
and not oftener given or continued longer than the case requires. For some cautions 
as to the administration of diuretics, and a list of the safest and best, the reader is 
referred to page 245. The expensive Castile soap, and camphor, so often resorted to, 
are not needed, for the common liquid turpentine is quite sufficient in all ordinary 
cases, and nitre and digitalis may be added if fever is suspected. 

Drinks. — Many practitioners and horse-proprietors have a great objection to the 
administration of medicines in the form of drinks. A drink is not so portable as a 
ball, it is more troublesome to give, and a portion of it is usually wasted. If the 
drink contains any acid substance, it is apt to excoriate the mouth, or to irritate the 
throat already sore from disease, or the unpleasant taste of the drug may unnecessa- 
rily nauseate the horse. There are some medicines, however, whitfi must be given 
in the form of drink, as in colic; and the time, perhaps, is not distant when purga- 
tives will be thus administered, as more speedy, and safer in their operation. In 
cases of much debility and entire loss of appetite, all medicine should be given in 
solution, for the stomach may not have sufficient power to dissolve the paper in which 
the ball is w 'ipped, or the substance of the ball. 



MEDICINE. 409 

An ox's horn, the larirer end being cut slantingly, is the usual and best instrument 
for administering drinks. The noose of a halter is introduced into the mouth, and 
then, by means of a stable-fork, the head is elevated by an assistant considerably 
higher than for the delivery of a ball. The surgeon stands on a pail or stable-basket 
on the off-side of the norse, and draws out the tongue with the left hand; he then, 
with the right hand, ntroduces the horn gently into the mouth, and over the tongue, 
and by a dexterous turn of the horn empties the whole of the drink — not more than 
about six ounces — into the back part of the mouth. The horn is now quickly with- 
drawn, and the tongue loosened, and the greater portion of the fluid will be swallow- 
ed. A portion of it, however, will often be obstinately held in the mouth for a long 
time, and the head must be kept up until the whole is got rid of, which a quick, but 
not violent slap on the muzzle will generally compel the horse to do. The art of 
giving a drink consists in not putting too much into the horn at once; introducing 
the horn far enough into the mouth, and quickly turning and withdrawing it, without 
bruising or wounding the mouth, the tongue being loosened at the same moment. A 
bottle is a disgraceful and dangerous instrument to use, except it be a flat pint bottle, 
witli a long and thick neck. 

Ferrum, Iron.' — Of this metal there are two preparations adopted by veterinarians. 
The rust, or Carbonate, is a mild and useful tonic in doses of from two to four drachms. 
The Sulphate (green vitriol or copperas) is more powerful. It should never be given 
in the early stages of recovery, and always with caution. The dose should be the 
same as that of the carbonate. The sulphate has lately been recommended for the 
cure of that deceitful stage or form of glanders, in which there is nothing to charac- 
terise the disease but a very slight discharge from the nostrils. It is to be dissolved 
in the common drink of the horse. It is worth a trial, but too sanguine expectations 
must not be encouraged of the power of any drug over this intractable malady. The 
iron should be given in combination with gentian and ginger, but never with any 
alkali or nitre, or soap, or catechu, or astringent vegetable. 

Fever. — For the nature and treatment of the fever, both pure and symptomatic, 
reference may be made to page 187. 

Forge-water used to be a favourite tonic with farriers, and also a lotion for cankei 
and ulcers in the mouth. It owes its power, if there be any, to the iron with which 
it is impregnated. 

Fomentations open the pores of the skin and promote perspiration in the part, and 
so abate the local swelling, and relieve pain and lessen inflammation. They are 
often used, and with more benefit when the inflammation is somewhat deeply seated, 
than when it is superficial. The effect depends upon the warmth of the water, and 
not on any herb that may have been boiled in it. They are best applied by means 
of flannel, frequently dipped in the hot water, or on which the water is poured, and 
the heat should be as great as the hand will bear. The benefit that might be derived 
from them is much impaired by the absurd method in which the fomentations are con- 
ducted. They are rarely continued long enough, and when they are removed, the 
part is left wet and uncovered, and the coldness of evaporation succeeds to the heat 
of fomentation. The perspiration is thus suddenly checked ; the animal suffers con- 
siderable pain, and more harm is done by the extreme change of temperature than if 
the fomentation had not been attempted. 

Gentian stands at the head of the vegetable tonics, and is a stomachic as well as 
atonic. It is equally useful in chronic debility, and in that which is consequent 
on severe and protracted illness. It is generally united with chamomile, ginger, 
and, when the patient will bear it, carbonate of iron. Four drachms of gentian, two 
of chamomile, one of carbonate of iron, and one of ginger, will make an excellent 
tonic ball. An infusion of gentian is one of the best applications to putrid ulcers. 

Ginger is as valuable as a cordial, as gentian is as a tonic. It is the basis of the 
cordial ball, and it is indispensable in the tonic ball. Although it is difficult to pow 
der, the veterinary practitioner should always purchase it in its solid form. If the 
root is large, heavy, and not worm-eaten, the black ginger is as good as the white, 
and considerably cheaper. The powder is adulterated with bean-meal and the saw 
dust of boxwood, and rendered warm and punjent by means of capsicum. 

Helleborus Albus, White Hellebore. — This is a drastic cathartic, and should 
be used with jrreat caution. It is a powerful nauseant, and low^ers both the force and 
frequency of the pulse, and is therefore given with good effect in various inflamma- 
35 3 b 



410 MEDICINE. 

lions, and particularly that of the lungs. In the hospital of the veterinary surgeon, 
or in the stalile of the gentleman who will superintend the giving and the operation 
of every medicine, it may be used with safety ; but with him who has to trust to 
others, and who does not see the horse more than once in twelve or twenty-four hours, 
it is a dangerous drug. If it is pushed a little too far, trembling and giddiness, and 
purging follow, and the horse is sometimes lost. The hanging of the head, and the 
frotliing of the mouth, and, more particularly, the sinking of the pulse, will give 
w^arning of danger; but the medical attendant may not have the opportunity of ob- 
serving this, and when he does observe it, it may be too late. Its dose varies from 
a scruple to half a drachm. In doses of a drachm it could not be given with safety; 
and yet, such is the different effect of medicines given in difl'erent doses, that in the 
quantity of an ounce it is said to be a diuretic and a tonic, and exhibited with advan- 
tao-e in chronic and obstinate grease. 

Hellkborus Niger, Black Hellebore. — ^This is used mostly as a local applica- 
lion, and as such it is a very powerful stimulant. Mr. E. Stanley, of Banbury, fre- 
quently resorts to it in fistulous affections of the poll and withers, and with consider- 
^>ble success. The abscess having formed, and exit being given to the imprisoned 
fluid, it is allowed to discharge itself, for two or three days, being dressed with an 
ordinar)' digestive ointment. When the pus assumes a laudable character, he intro- 
duces a few portions of the fibrous part of the root, passing them down to the bottom 
of the sinus, and letting them remain for a fortnight or more; in the mean time, 
merely keeping the surrounding parts clean. On examination, it will be found that 
the healing process has commenced. 

Professor Morton adds, that an ointment, formed of the powder of either the black 
or white Hellebore, in the proportion of one part of the powder to eight of lard, will 
be found exceedingly active for the dressing of rowels and setons.* 

Hemlock is used by some practitioners, instead of digitalis or hellebore, in affec- 
tions of the chest, whether acute or chronic ; but it is inferior to both. The dose of 
the powder of the dried leaves is about a drachm. 

Hydrargyrum. — This metal is found native in many countries in the form of mi 
nute globules. It also occurs in masses, and in diflferent varieties of crystallization. 
It has the singular property of being liquid in the natural temperature of our earth. 
It freezes, or assumes a singular species of crystallization, at 39° below of Fah., 
and at 6G0° above of Fah. it boils, and rapidly evaporates. In its metallic state it 
appears to have no action on the animal system, but its compounds are mostly pow- 
erful excitants, and some of them are active caustics. 

The Common Mercurial Ointment may be used for ring-worm, and that species of 
acarus which seems to be the source, or the precursor of, mange. The compound 
mercurial ointment is also useful in the destruction of the same insect. For most 
eruptions connected with or simulating mange, the author of this work has been ac- 
customed to apply the following ointment with considerable success : — 

Sublimed sulphur 1 pound. 

Common turpentine 4 oz. 

Mercurial ointment 2 oz. 

Linseed oil I pint. 

The Mercurial Ointment is prepared by rubbing quicksilver with lard, in the propor- 
tion of one part of mercury to three of lard, until no globules appear. The practi- 
tioner should, if possible, prepare it himself, for he can seldom get it pure or of the 
proper strength from the druggist. It is employed with considerable advantage in 
preparing splents, spavins, or other bony or callous tumours, for blistering or firing. 
One or two drachms, according to the nature and size of the swelling, may be daily 
well rubbed in; but it should be watched, for it sometimes salivates the horse very 
speedily. The tumours more readily disperse, at the application of a stronger stim- 
ulant, when they have been thus prepared. Mercurial ointment in a weaker state is 
sometimes necessary for the cure of mallenders and sallenders; and in very obstinate 
cases of mange, one-eighth part of mercurial ointment may be added to the ointment 
lecommended at page 384. 

Calomel, the submuriate or protochloride of mercury, may be given, combined will 

♦ Morton's Manual of Pharmacy, p. 17.'i. 



MEDICINE. 4ll 

aloes, in mange, surfeit, or worms. It is also useful in some cases of chronic couoh, 
in farcy, and in jaundice. Alone it has little purgative effect on the horse, bur it 
assists the action of other aperieats. It is given :n doses from a scruple to a drachm. 
As soon as the gums become red, or the ani.nal begins to quid or drop his hay. it 
must be discontinued. Calomel has lately gained much repute in arresting the pro- 
gress of epidemic catarrh in the horse. Mr. Percivall has succeeded in thfs attempt 
to a very considerable extent. In fact, the influence of calomel in veterinary practice 
seems to have been far too much undervalued.* 

Curnmve Sublimate, the oxymuriate or bichloride of mercury, combined with chlo- 
rine in a double proportion, is a useful tonic in farcy. It should be given in doses 
of ten grains daily, and gradually increased to a scruple, until the horse is purged 
or the mouth becomes sore, when it may be omitted for a few days, and resurned 
Some have recommended it as a diuretic, but it is too dangerous a medicine for 
this purpose. It is used externally in solution; in substance in quitter, as a stimu- 
lant to foul ulcers; and in the proportion of five grains to an ounce of rectified spirit 
in obstinate mange, or to destroy vermin on the skin. It is, however, too uncertain 
and too dangerous a medicine for the horse-proprietor to venture on its use. 

JEthiop's Mineral, the black sulphuret of mercury, is not often used in horse-prac- 
tice, but it is a good alterative for obstinate surfeit or foulness of the skin, in doses 
of three drachms daily. Four drachms of cream of tartar may be advantageously 
added to each dose. 

Infusions. — The active matter of some vegetable substances is partly or entirely 
extracted by water. Dried vegetables yield their properties more readily and per- 
fectly than when in their green state. Boiling water is poured on the substance 
to be infused, and which should have been previously pounded or powdered, and the 
vessel then covered and placed near a fire. In five or six hours the transparent part 
may be poured off, and is ready for use. In a few days, however, all infusions be- 
come thick, and lose their virtue, from the decomposition of the vegetable matter. 

The infusion of chamomile is advantageously used instead of water in compound- 
ing a mild tonic drench. The infusion of catechu is useful in astringent mixtures ; 
that of linseed is used instead of common water in catarrh and cold ; and the infu- 
sion of tobacco in some injections. 

Iodine. — This substance has not been long introduced into veterinary practice. 
The first object which it seemed to accomplish, was the reduction of the enlarged 
glands that frequently remain after catarrh, but it soon appeared that it could reduce 
almost every species of tumour. Much concerned in the first introduction of iodine 
into veterinary practice, the writer of the present work bears willing testimony to 
the zeal and success of others, in establishing the claims of this most valuable medi- 
cine. Professor Morton has devoted much time and labour to the different combina- 
tions of iodine, and they are described at length in his useful " Manual of Pharma- 
cy." lie gives the formulae of the composition of a liniment, an ointment, and a 
tincture of iodine, adapted to different species and stages of disease. He next de- 
scribes the preparation of the iodide of potassium — the combination of iodine and 
potash, — and then the improvement on that under the name of the diniodide of 
copper — the union of two parts of the iodide of potassium with four of the sulphate 
of copper. 

The action of this compound is an admirable tonic and a stimulant to the absorb- 
ent system, if combined with vegetable tonics, and, occasionally, small doses of 
cantharides. Professor .Spooner and Mr. Daws applied this compound, and with 
marked success, to the alleviation of farcy, nasal gleet, and glanders. It is pleas- 
ing to witness these triumphs over disease, a little while ago so unexpected, and now 
so assured. 

Juniper, Oil of. — This essential oil is retained because it has some diuretic pro- 
perty, as well as being a pleasant aromatic. It frequently enters into the compositi* - 
of the diuretic ball. 

Lead, Plumbum. — The Carbonate of Lead has a deleterious effect on the biped and 
the quadruped in the neighbourhood of lead works. They are subject to violent grip- 
ino- pains, and to constipation that can with great difficulty, or not at all, be overcome. 
Sumething of the same kind is occasionally observed in the cider counties, and thu 

* Veterinarian, vol. xvi., or i., new series, pp. 325, 441, and f 24. 



412 MEDICINE. 

'• painter's colic" is a circumstance of too frequent occun-ence — the occasional dread- 
ful pains, and the ravenous appetite extending to everything that comes in the v^'ay 
of the animal. Active purgatives followed by opium are the most effectual remedies. 

The Jlcetate of Lead, Plumhi Jcetas. — Sugar of lead is seldom given externally to 
the horse, but is used as a coUyrium for inflammation of the eyes. 

The Liquor Pliimbi Subacetalis, or Goulard^s Extract, or, as it used to be termed 
at the Veterinary College, the Jlqita Vegeto, is a better coUyrium, and advantageously 
lised in external and superficial inflammation, and particularly the inflammation that 
'emains after the application of a blister. 

hniE was formerly sprinkled over cankered feet and greasy heels, but there are less 
painful caustics, and more effectual absorbents of moisture. Lime-water is rarely 
used, but the Chloride of Lime is exceedingly valuable. Diluted with twenty times 
its quantity of water, it helps to form the poultice applied to every part from which 
there is the slightest offensive discharge. The fojtid smell of fistulous withers, poll- 
evil, canker, and ill-conditioned wounds, is immediately removed, and the ulcers are 
mere disposed to heal. When mangy horses are dismissed as cured, a washing with 
the diluted chloride will remove any infection that may lurk about them, or which 
they may carry from the place in which they have been confined. One pint of the 
chloride mixed with three gallons of water, and brushed over the walls and mangei 
and rack of the foulest stable, will completely remove all infection. Professor Mor- 
ton, very properly, says that the common practice of merely whitewashing the walls 
serves only to cover the infectious matter, and perhaps to preserve it for an indefinite 
length of time, so that when the lime scales off, disease may be again engendered by 
the exposed virus. The horse furniture worn by a glandered or mangy animal will 
be effectually purified by the chloride. Internally administered, it seems to have little 
or no power. 

Liniments are oily applications of the consistence of a thick fluid, and designed 
either to soothe an inflamed surface, or, by gently stimulating the skin, to remove 
deeper-seated pain or inflammation. As an emollient liniment, one composed of half 
an ounce of extract of lead and four ounces of olive oil will be useful. For sprains, 
old swellings, or rheumatism, two ounces of hartshorn, the same quantity of cam- 
phorated spirit, an ounce of oil of turpentine, and half an ounce of laudanum, may 
be mixed together ; or or an ounce of camphor may be dissolved in four ounces of 
sweet oil, to which an ounce of oil of turpentine may be afterwards added. A little 
powdered cantharides, or tincture of cantharides, or mustard powder, will render 
either of these more powerful, or convert it into a liquid blister. 

Linseed. — An infusion of linseed is often used instead of water, for the drink of 
the horse with sore-throat or catarrh, or disease of the urinary organs or of the bowels.' 
A pail containing it should be slung in the stable or loose box. Thin gruel, however, 
is preferable ; it is as bland and soothing, and it is more nutritious. Linseed meal 
forms the best poultice for almost every purpose. 

Magnesia. — ^The sulphate of magnesia, or Epsom Salts, should be used only in 
promoting the purgative effect of clysters, or, in repeated doses of six or eight 
ounces, gently to open the bowels at the commencement of fever. Some doubt, 
however, attends the latter practice ; for the dose must occasionally be thrice repeated 
before it will act, and then, although safer than aloes, it may produce too much irri- 
tation in the intestinal canal, especially if the fever is the precursor of inflammation 
uf the lungs. 

Mashes constitute a very important part of horse-provender, whether in siclcness 
or health. A mash given occasionally to a horse that is otherwise fed on dry meat 
prevents him from becoming dangerously costive. To the over-worked and tiied 
horse, nothingr is so refreshing as a warm mash with his usual allowance of corn in it 
The art of getting a horse into apparent condition for sale, or giving him a round and 
plump appearance, consists principally in the frequent repetition of mashes, and 
from their easiness of digestion and the mild nutriment which they afford, as well as 
tneir laxative effect, they form the principal diet of the sick horse. 

Thev are made by pouring boiling water on bran, and stirring it well, and then 
covering it over until it is sufliciently cool for the horse to eat. If in the heat of 
summer a cold mash is preferred, it should, nevertheless, be made with hot water, 
nnd then suffered to remain, until it is cold. This is not always sufliciently attended 
'.o by the groom, who is not aware that the efficacy of the mash depends principally 



MEDICINE. 413 

on the change which is effected in the bran and the other ingredients by the boiling 
water rendering them more easy of digestion, as well as more aperient. If the horse 
refuses the mash, a few oats may be sprinkled over it, in order to tempt him to eat 
it, but if it is previously designed that corn should be given in the mash, it should 
be scalded with the bran, in order to soften it and render it more digestible. Bran 
mashes are very useful preparatives for physic, and they are necessary during the 
operation of the physic. They very soon become sour, and the manger of the horse, 
of whose diet they form a principal part, should be daily and carefully cleaned out. 

When horses are weakly and much reduced, malt mashes will often be very pala- 
table to them and very nutritive : but the water that is poured on a malt mash should 
be considerably below the boiling heat, otherwise the malt will be set, or clogged 
together. If the owner was aware of the value of a malt mash, it would be oftener 
given when the horse is rapidly getting weaker from protracted disease, or when he 
is beginning to recover from a disease by which he has been much reduced. The 
only exception to their use is in cases of chest affection, in which they must not 
be given too early. In grease, and in mange accompanied by much emaciation, malt 
mashes will be peculiarly useful, especially if they constitute a principal portion of 
the food. 

Mustard, Sinapis. — This will be found occasionally useful, if, in inflammation 
of the chest or bowels, it is well rubbed on the chest or the abdomen. The external 
swelling and irritation which it excites may, to a greater or less degree, abate tho 
inflammation within. 

MviiRH may be used in the form of tincture, or it may be united to the tincture of 
aloes as a stimulating and digestive application xo Avounds. Diluted with an equal 
quantity of water, it is a good application for canker in the mouth, but as an internal 
medicine it seems to be inert, although some practitioners advocate its use, combined 
with opium, in cases of chronic cough. 

Nitrous ^ther. Spirit of, is a very useful medicine in the advanced stages of 
fever, for while it, to a certain degree, rouses the exhausted powers of the animal, and 
may be denominated a stimulant, it never brings back the dangerous febrile action 
which was subsiding. It is given in doses of three or four drachms. 

Olive Oil is an emollient and demulcent. Its laxative effect is very inconsider 
able and uncertain in the horse. 

Opium. — However underrated by some, there is not a more valuable drug on our 
list. It does not often act as a narcotic except in considerable doses ; but it is a pow- 
erful antispasmodic, sedative, and astringent. As an antispasmodic, it enters into 
the cholic drink, and it is the sheet-anchor of the veterinarian in the treatment of teta- 
nus or locked-jaw. As a sedative it relaxes that universal spasm of the muscular 
system which is the characteristic of tetanus ; and, perhaps, it is only as a sedative 
ihat it has such admirable effect as an astringent, for when the irritation around the 
mouths of the vessels of the intestines and kidneys is a-llayed by the opium, the undue 
purging and profuse staling will necessarily be arrested. 

Opium should, however, be given with caution. It is its secondary effect that is 
sedative, and, if given in cases of fever, its primary effect in increasing the excita- 
tion of the frame^nay be very considerable and highly injurious. In the early and 
acute stage of fever, it would be bad practice to give it in the smallest quantity ; but 
when the" fever has passed, or is passing, there is nothing which so rapidly subdues 
the irritability that accompanies extreme weakness. It becomes an excellent tonic, 
because it is a sedative. 

If the blue or green vitriol, or cantharides, have been pushed too far, opiuni, sooner 
than any other drug, quiets the disorder they have occasioned. It is given in doses 
of one or two drachms, in the form of ball. Other medicines are usually combined 
with it, according to the circumstances of the case. 

Externally, it Is useful in ophthalmia. In the form of decoction of the poppy-head . 
it may constitute the basis of an anodyne poultice; but it must not be given in union 
with any alkali, with the exception of chalk, in over-purging; nor with the supera- 
cetate of lead, by which its powers are materially impaired ; nor with sulphate of 
tine, or copper, or iron. i . 

From its high price it is much adulterated, and it is not always met with in a state 
of purity. The best tests are its smell, its taste, its toughness and pliancy, its fawr. 
01 brown colour, and its weight, for it is the heaviest of all the vegetable extracts 
35* 



114 MEDICINE. 

except gum arabic ; yet its weight is often fraudulently increased by stones and bits 
of lead dexterously concealed in it. The English opium is almost as good as the 
Turkish, and frequently sold for it ; but is distinguishable by its blackness and soft- 
ness. 

Pal,m Oil, when genuine, is the very best substance that can be used for making 
masses and balls. It has a pleasant smell, and it never becomes rancid. 

Pitch is used to give adhesiveness and firmness to charges and plasters. The 
common pitch is quite as good as the more expensive Burgundy pitch. The best 
plaster for sandcrack consists of one pound of pitch and an ounce of yellow bees- 
\vax melted together. 

Physic. — The cases which require physic, the composition of the most effectual 
and safest physic-ball, and the mode of treatment under physic, have been already 
lescribed. 

Potash. — Two compounds of potash are used in veterinary practice. The Nitrate 
of Potash {Nitre) is a valuable cooling medicine and a mild diuretic, and, therefore, 
it should enter into the composition of every fever-ball. Its dose is from two to four 
drachms. Grooms often dissolve it in the water. There are two objections to this : 
either the horse is nauseated and will not drink so much waler as he ought; or the 
salt taste of the water causes considerable thirst, and disinclination to solid food. 
Nitre, whilst dissolving, materially lowers the temperature of water, and furnishes a 
very cold and useful lotion for sprain of the back sinews, and other local inflamma- 
tions. The lotion should be used as soon as the salt is dissolved, for it quickly be- 
comes as warm as the surrounding air. The Bitartrate of Potash {Cream of Tartar") 
is a mild diuretic, and, combined with vEthiop's mineral, is used as an alterative in 
obstinate mange or grease. The objection, however, to its use in such an animal as 
the horse, is the little power which it seems to exercise. 

Poultices. — Few horsemen are aware of the value of these simple applications in 
abating inflanunation, relieving pain, cleansing wounds, and disposing them to heal. 
They are applications of the best kind continued much longer than a simple fomenta- 
tion can be. In all inflammations of the foot they are very beneficial, by softening 
»he horn hardened by the heat of the foot and contracted and pressing on the internal 
and highly sensible parts. The moisture and warmth are the useful qualities of the 
poultice; and that poultice is the best for general purposes in which moisture and 
warmth are longest retained. Perspiration is most abundantly promoted in the part, 
the pores are opened, swellings are relieved, and discharges of a healthy nature pro- 
cured from wounds. 

Linseed meal forms the best general poultice, because it longest retains the mois- 
ture. Bran, although frequently used for poultices, is objectionable, because it so 
soon becomes dry. To abate considerable iuflammation, and especially in a wounded 
part, Goulard may be added, or the linseed meal may be made into a paste with a 
decoction of poppy-heads. To promote a healthy discbarge from an old or foul ulcer; 
or separation of the dead from the living parts, in the process of v/hat is called coring 
out ; or to hasten the ripening of a tumour that must be opened ; or to cleanse it when 
it is opened, — two ounces of common turpentine may be added to a pound of linseed 
meal : but nothing can be so absurd, or is so injurious, as the addition of turpentine 
to a poultice that is designed to be an emollient. The drawing poultices and stop- 
pings of farriers are often highly injurious, instead of abating inflammation. 

If the ulcer smells offensively, two ounces of powdered charcoal may be added to 
the linseed meal, or the poultice may be made of water, to which a solution of the 
chloride of lime has been added in the proportion of half an ounce to a pound. As 
an emollient poultice for grease and cracked heels, and especially if accompanied by 
much unpleasant smell, there is nothing preferable to a poultice of mashed carrota 
vith charcoal. For old grease some slight stimulant must be added, as a little yeast 
or the grounds of table-beer. 

There are two errors in the application of a poultice, and particularly as it regards 
the legs. It is often put on too tight, by means of which the return of the blood fron. 
the foot is prevented, and the disease is increased instead of lessened; or it is too hot 
and unnecessary pain is given, and the inflammation aggravated. 

Powders. — Some horses are very difficult to ball or drench, and the violent strug 
gle that would accompany the attempt to conquer them may heighten the fever or 
inflammation. To such horses powders must be given in mashes. Emetic tartar an^ 



MEDICINE. 415 

digitalis may be generally used in cases of inflammation or fever; or emetic tartar 
for worms ; or calomel or even the farina of the croton nut for physic : but powders 
are too often an excuse for the laziness or awkwardness of the carter or groom. The 
horse frequently refuses them, especially if his appetite has otherwise begun to fail; 
the powder and the mash are wasted, and the animal is unnecessarily nauseated. All 
medicine should be given in t!ie form of ball or drink. 

Raking. — This consists in introducing the hand into the rectum of the horse, and 
drawing out any hardened dung that may l)e there. It may be necessary in costive- 
ness or fever, if a clyster pipe cannot be obtained ; but an injection will better effect 
the purpose, and with less inconvenience to the animal. The introduction of the 
hand into the rectum is, however, useful to ascertain the existence of stone in the 
bladder, or the degree of distension of the bladder in suppression of urine, for the 
bladder will be easily felt below the intestine, and, at the same time by the heat of 
the intestine, the degree of inflammation in it or in the bladder may be detected. 

Resin. — The yellow resin is that which remains after the distillation of oil of tur- 
pentine. It is used externally to give consistence to ointments, and to render them 
slightly stimulant. Internally it is a useful diuretic, and is given in doses of five or 
six drachms made into a ball with soft soap. The common liquid turpentine is, how- 
ever, preferable. 

Rowels. — The manner of rowelling has been already described. As exciting 
inflammation on the surface, and so lessening that which had previously existed in a 
neighbourii% but deeper-seated part, they are decidedly inferior to blisters, for they 
do not act so quickly or so extensively ; therefore they should not be used in acute 
inflammation of the lungs or bowels, or any vital part. When the inflammation, 
however, although not intense, has long continued, rowels will be serviceable by pro- 
ducing an irritation and discharge that can be better kept up than by a blister. As 
promoting a permanent, although not very considerable discharge, and some inflam- 
mation, rowels in the thighs are useful in swelled legs and obstinate grease. If fluid 
is thrown out under the skin in any other part, the rowel acts as a permanent drain. 
When sprain of the joint or the muscles of the" shoulders is suspected, a rowel in the 
chest will be serviceable. The wound caused by a rowel will readily heal, and with 
little blemish, unless the useless leather of the farrier has been inserted. 

Secale cornutum, the Ergot of Rye. — This is well known to be an excitant ii> 
assisting parturition in cattle, sheep, and dogs. It has been used with success in the 
mare by Mr. Richardson, of Lincoln. It should only be applied in difficult cases, 
and the dose should be two drachms, combined with some carminative, and given 
every hour. 

Sedatives are medicines that subdue irritation, repress spasmodic action, or deaden 
pain. We will not inquire whether they act first as stimulants : if they do, their 
effect is exceedingly transient, and is quickly followed by depression and diminished 
action. Digitalis, hellebore, opium, turpentine, are medicines of this kind. Their 
effect in different diseases or stages of disease, and the circumstances which indicate 
the use of any one of them in preference to the rest, are considered under their respec- 
tive titles. 

Soda. — The Carbonate of Soda is a useful antacid, and probably a diuretic, but it is 
not much used in veterinary practice. The Chloride of Soda is not so eflScacious for 
the removal of unpleasant smells and all infection as the chloride of lime; but it is 
exceedingly useful in changing malignant and corroding and destructive sores into the 
state of simple ulcers, and, in ulcers that are not malignant, it much hastens the cure. 
Poll evil and fistulous withers are much benefited by it, and all farcy ulcers. It is 
used in the proportion of one part of the solution to twenty-four of wgter. 

SoDii CxiLORiDUM, Common Salt, is very extensively employed in veterinary prac- 
tice. It forms an efficacious aperient clyster, and a solution of it has been given as 
an aperient drink. Sprinkled over the hay, or in a mash, it is very palatable to sick 
horses ; and in that languor and disinclination to food which remain after severe illness, 
%w things will so soon recall the appetite as a drink composed of six or eight ounces 
of salt in solution. To horses in health it is more useful than is generally imagined, 
as promoting the digestion of the food, and, consequently, condition. Externally ap 
plied, there are few better lotions for inflamed eyes than a solution of half a drachm 
of salt in four ounces of water. In the proportion of an ounce of salt to the same 
quantity of water, it is a good embrocation for sore shoulders and backs ; and if il 



116 MEDICINE. 

does not always disperse warbles and tumours, it takes away much of the tenderness 
of the skin. 

SoD^ Sulphas, — Sulphate of Soda. — Glauber's Salt, — This medicine is seldom used 
in the treatment of the horse. It appears to have some diuretic property. 

Soap is supposed to possess a diuretic quality, and therefore enters into the compo- 
sition of some diuretic masses. See Resin. By many practitioners it is made an 
ingredient in the physic-ball, but uselessly or even injuriously so; for if the aloes are 
finely powdered and mixed with palm oil, they will dissolve readily enough in the 
nowels without the aid of the soap, while the action of the soap on the kidneys will 
impair the purgative effect of the aloes. 

Starch may be substituted with advantage for gruel in obstinate cases of purging, 
ooth as a clyster, and to support the strength of the animal. 

Stoppings constitute an important, but too often neglected part of stable manage- 
ment. If a horse is irregularly or seldom worked, his feet are deprived of moisture ; 
ihey become hard and unyielding and brittle, and disposed to corn and contraction 
and founder. The very dung of a neglected and filthy stable would be preferable to 
habitual standing on the cleanest litter without stopping. In wounds, and bruises, 
and corns, moisture is even more necessary, in order to supple the horn, and relieve 
its pressure on the tender parts beneath. As a common stopping, nothing is better 
than cow-dung with a fourth part of clay well beaten into it, and confined with splents 
from the binding or larger twigs of the broom. In cases of wounds a little tar may 
be added ; but tar, as a common stopping, is too stimvilating and drying, o Pacs made 
of thick felt have lately been contrived, which are fitted to the sole, and, swelling on 
being wetted, are sufficiently confined by the shoe. Having been well saturated with 
water, they will continue moist during the night. They are very useful in gentlemen's 
stables; but the cow-dung and clay are suflicient for the farmer. 

Strychnia. — This drug has frequently been employed with decided advantage in 
cases of paralysis in the dog; and lately, and with decided advantage, it has been 
administered to the horse. The dose is from one to three grains, given twice in the 
day. 

Sulphur is the basis of the most effectual applications for mange. It is an excel- 
lent alterative, combined usually with antimony and nitre, and particularly for mange, 
surfeit, grease, hidebound, or want of condition; and it is a useful ingredient in the 
cough and fever ball. When given alone, it seems to have little effect, except as a 
laxative in doses of six or eight ounces ; but there are much better aperients. The 
black sulphur consists principally of the dross after the pure sulphur has been sepa-« 
rated. 

Tar melted with an equal quantity of grease forms the usual stopping of the farrier. 
It is a warm, or slightly stimulant, and therefore useful, dressingfor bruised or wounded 
feet; but its principal virtue seems to consist in preventing the penetration of dirt and 
water to the wounded part. Asa common stopping it has been considered objection- 
able. From its warm and drying properties it is the usual and proper basis for thrush 
ointments ; and from its adhesiveness, and slightly stimulating power, it often forms 
an ingredient in applications for mange. Some practitioners give it, and advantageously, 
with the usual cough medicine, and in doses of two or three drachms for chronic cough. 
The common tar is as effectual as the Barbadoes for every veterinary purpose. The 
oil, or spirit (rectified oil) of tar is sometimes used alone for the cure of mange, but it 
is not to be depended upon. The spirit of tar, mixed with double the quantity offish 
oil, is, from its peculiar penetrating property, one of the best applications for hard and 
brittle feet. It should be well rubbed with a brush, every night, both on the crust 
and sole. 

Tinctures. — The medicinal properties of many substances are extracted by spirit 
of wine, but in such small quantities as to be scarcely available for internal use iir 
veterinary practice. So much aloes or opium must be given in order to produce effect 
on the horse, that the quantity of spirit necessary to dissolve it would be injurious or 
might be fatal. As applications to wounds or inflamed surfaces, the tinctures of aloes, 
digitalis, myrrh, and opium, are highly useful. 

Tobacco, in the hands of the skilful veterinarian, maybe advantageously employed 
in cases of extreme cosliveness, or dangerous cholic ; but should never be permitted 
to be used as an external application for the cure of mange, or an internal medicine tc 
promote a fine coat. 



MEDIGIXE. 41'^ 

Tonics are valuable medicines when judiciously employed; but, like cordials, they 
have been fatally abused. Many a horse recovering from severe disease has been 
destroyed by their too early, or too free use. The veterinary surgeon occasionally 
administers them injuriously, in his anxiety to gratify the impatience of his employer. 
The mild vegetable tonics, chamomile, gentian, and ginger, and, perhaps, the carbonate 
of iron, may sometimes be given with benefit, and may hasten the perfect recovery of 
the patient; but there are few principles more truly founded on reason and experience, 
than, that disease once removed, the powers of nature are sufficient to re-establish 
health. Against the more powerful mineral tonics, except for the particular purposes 
that have been pointed out under the proper heads, the horse proprietor and the vete- 
rinarian should be on his guard. 

Turpentine. — The common liquid turpentine has been described as one of the best 
diuretics, in doses of half an ounce, and made into a ball with linseed meal and pow- 
dered ginger. It is added to the calamine or any other mild o.ntment in order to render 
it stimulating and digestive, and, from its adhesiveness and slight stimulating power 
it is an ingredient in mange ointments. Tlie oil of turpentine is an excellent antispas- 
modic. For the removal of cholic it stands unrivalled. Forming a tincture with 
cantharides, it is the basis of the sweating blister for old strains and swellings. As a 
blister it is far inferior to the common ointment. As a stimulant frequently applied it 
must be sufficiently lowered, or it may blemish. 

Wax. — The yellow wax is used in charges and some plasters to render them less 
brittle. 

Zinc. — The impure carbonate of zinc, under the name of Calamine Powder, is used 
in the preparation of a valuable healing ointment, called Turner's Cerate. Five parts 
of lard and one of resin are melted together, and when these begin to get cool, two 
parts of the calamine, reduced to an impalpable powder, are stirred in. If the wound 
is not healthy, a small quantity of common turpentine may be added. This salve 
justly deserves the name which it has gained, "The Healing Ointment." The 
calamine is sometimes sprinkled with advantage on cracked heels and superficial 
sores. 

The sulphate of zinc. White Vitriol, in the proportion of three grains to an ounce 
nf water, is an excellent application in ophthalmia, when the inflammatory stage is 
passing over ; and quitter is most successfully treated by a saturated solution of white 
vitriol being injected into the sinuses. A solution of white vitriol of less strength 
forms a wash for grease that is occasionally useful, when the alum or blue vitriol does 
not appear to succeed. 

ZiNGiBERis Radix. — Ginger Boot. — This is an admirable stimulant and carminative. 
It is useful in loss of appetite and flatulent cholic, while it rouses the intestinal canal 
to its proper action. Tlie cordial mass resorted to by the best surgeons consists of 
equal parts of ginger and gentian beaten into a mass with treacle. 



I 



.THE ASS AND THE MULE, 



BY J. S. SKINNER. 



' He would 

Have made thnm mules: wno iiave iheii ptove^er 
Only for bearing burdens ; and sore blows 
For sinking under them." 



Against these humble animals there seems with many, to be a prejudice, more cruel, if 
not more inveterate, tlian that which prompts every son of Adam, whether he meet him on 
ihe ]iigh-way or the bye-way, to " bruise the serpent's head !" Can it be that these 
abiding antipathies to both, are perpetuated by the force of scriptural injunctions against tiie 
life of the one and the procreation of the other ? " Thou shall not let thy cattle gender with 
a diverse kind," saith the Scriptures : now, though tius command may be admitted as binding 
upon the Jews not to breed mules, does it follow that a christian is forbidden the kind treat- 
ment and judicious itse of tliem ? The same chapter and verse which denounces this 
experiment upon the procreative faculties of God's creatures, also warns the husbandman not 
to " sow mingled seed" — but what farmer, whether Jew or Gentile, refuses to reap a good 
crop of mixed clover and timothy? and besides, did not King David, a man after God's own 
heart, indicate his care for liis son, and intend it as a compliment for botii him and the mule, 
when he gave the order, " take with you the servants of your Lord, and cause Solomon my 
son to ride upon mine own mule, and bring him down to Gihon?" Let me then invoke the 
liberality of my readers to cast aside all prejudice against this useful and too often abused 
hybrid, and impartially to hear me " for my cause." 

To all, and there are many, who entertain a scornful contempt for the whole asinine 
family, might be commended Sterne's pathetic story of "The Dead Ass," for a touching' 
picture of faithful service, and of mutual friendship in the humblest walks of life — "Shame 
on the world ! said I to myself. Did we love each other as this poor soul loved his 
Ass — 't would be something." 

America, as to its Agriculture, may be likened to a gallant sliip, moored in a beautiful 
harbour, whose owners have no means to buy her cargo or hire sailors to man and send het 
to sea. The mildew bliglits her sails, and worms eat out her bottom. So it is with our 
lands ; with millions on millions of acres, the growth of our population and national wealth 
is lamentably retarded for want of force to put them in good and profitable tillage. 
There is no country where labour, and all labour-saving animals and contrivances, are so 
much a desideratum as in ours ! Hence the necessity and the usefulness of every discussion 
which siiiill teach the land-holder Iiow and in what form — with what animal or implement, 
he can with the least outlay, command the greatest amount of productive power applicable to 
agriculture. That power, in a word, whether animate or inanimate, wliicli will work the 
longest and the cheapest and with most cifect. Among animals, is it not in the mule thov 
we find this power or machine ? This, reader, i.' the subject of our inquiry : and first it 
seems proper to look into its natural history ana qualities, to see whether tlicre be in fact 
any ground of preference between one and another, or whether a mule is a mule ! all being 
alike, as too many seem to suppose; and tinally to inquire and explain in what the differ- 
ence of quality, imparling difference of value, consists — ruch, reader, is the object of this 
dissertation. 

Agriculturists, even tho^e who have enjoyed opportunities of becoming more famiiiar 
with the qualities and uses of this animal, seem to reason, as already hinted, or rather to 
conclude without reason, that all mules are alike ; with the name and the sight of all is alike 
associated th? idea of jumping and kicking and all sorts of devilment incarnate I Hence 
has arisen tiie difficulty, the limited employment and the slowness in realising the improve- 
ments of which this animal is susceptible, like others, even the proud "lord of the creation," 
'»y attention to breed and to education ! 

We must be allowed to premise that we have not taken the subject in hand in any vain 
belief that we can add anything new to what has been written upon heir natural history , 
•' ^ (419) 



420 THE ASS AND THE MULE. 

but rather with tlie hope of makings some impression on the public mind, and inducing a 
higher appreciation of these animals, by presenting at one view the opinions, some of them 
hitherto unpubUshed, and believed to be very striking, of gentlemen who have enjoyed rare 
opporfimities to judge of the different races of the Ass, and of the temper, habits and capa- 
bilities of the Mule. True, the Editor professes to be himself not altogether without expe- 
ri-jnce on some of these points ; having often, when a boy, been mounted on the back of 
one, and sent, on Saturday (always on Saturday) in spite of all pouting and sulking, to the 
weaver, the shoemaker, the tailor, or the country store. On tiicse mournful occasions, llie 
sense of iiardship at being disappointed of some well-concerted scheme of rural sport, found 
vent, it may be easily imagined, in acts of spitefulness (not always unretaliated) towards the 
innocent mule — the poor beast being beaten and the rider sometimes thrown over his head! 
until now, that though near forty years have passed away since the close of tliis war of 
puerile injustice and mulish resentment, it may yet be questioned whether it be exactly 
fiiir, that one of the parties should assume to be the limner of the other I We will en- 
deavour, however, in weighing the subject, to hold the scales with even hand ; and here, 
lest it be elsewhere omitted, let one acknowledgment be made, and noted by the advocates 
of the more sightly and favoured horse, — tiiat though the mule may, as already suggested, 
be the cause of falls in others, no man ever yet saw a mule fall down! but we must not 
anticipate. 

As already stated, the first inquiry would seem to be as to the progenitors of the mule, 
to decide how far, on these, depend the qualities and value of the progeny. This point being 
discussed, tlie subject leads us to consider the question of rearing and breaking — his age, 
strength and general usefulness compared with other animals. On all these points we shall 
rely as before admitted on the views of intelligent writers, and of gentlemen of close obser- 
vation and of the highest respectability with whom we have recently corresponded. Before 
proceeding however to quote authorities on these points, there is one proposition or conelus'on 
which reading and inquiry have led us to adopt, and which may as well be here expressed, 
without stopping to trouble the reader with all the particular grounds of it. It is that the 
best mules are produced by the union of the Jack with the mare, rather than from cohabita- 
tion between the Stallion and the Jennet. Independently of any particular facts, and of the 
few instances in which the Stallion is known to have been so employed, (that alone warrant- 
ing the inference against its eligibility) we should form the conclusion here announced, that 
the better produce would be, generally from the smaller sire and the larger dam ; on the clear 
principles of breeding laid down by Professor Cline of London, in his essay on breeding 
domestic animals, which is elsewhere referred to and quoted in our introduction to the work 
on the Horse. 

In the annals of American agriculture at least, the essay on the mule, which may be 
regarded as the most elaborate and of the highest authority, is one written by S. W. Pomeroy, 
Esq., a gentleman who, whether farming, as then, near the " Literary Emporium," or as 
now, more profitably employed, as we learn and hope, in heaving coal on the banks of the 
Ohio; brings light to every circle in which he moves. Of an essay so meritorious, we may be 
justified in telling the history; and the more so as by so doing we shall give to the positions 
it maintains more weight with the reader than would any dictum of ours. 

The writer of this,, then the Editor of the old American Farmer, being himself bred on a 
"plantation" where mules were bred and in constant use, and anxious to have the minds of 
his numerous patrons disabused and enlightened as to the true qualities and value of this, as 
compared with other and more favoured animals for the usual purposes of husbandry, with- 
out difficulty persuaded the late venerable Charles Carroll of Carrolllon to offer a premium 
for the best essay on that subject. The competitors were numerous, but the award of the 
plate, with its appropriate devices and inscriptions, was unanimously and without hesitation, 
to S. W. Pomeroy, then of Brighton Massachusetts. It is to that essay we shall now have 
free recourse ; and first as to 

THE DIFFERENT RACES OF JACKS. 

It seems to be a well-established fact, that different races of the Ass exist with properties 
as distinctly marked as those which characterise the various species of camel. According 
to the learned Doctor Harris, author of the " Natural History of the Bible," four different 
races of asses are recognised in the original Hebrew Scriptures : viz. I'ara, Chamor, Aton, 
■and Orud. 

We find, says the author of the prize essay referred to, that at a very early period of sacrea 
history, the common domestic ass, Chamor, was employed in all the menial labours of a 
patriarchal family, while a nobler and more estimable animal (Aton) was destined to carry 
the patriarchs, the well-born, and those on whom marks of distinction were to be conferred. 
They constituted an important item in a schedule of pastoral wealth of those times. 
David, we are told, had an officer of high dignity appointed expressly to superintend his stud 
of high-bred asses ! Atonoth. 



THE ASS AND THE MULE. 421 

The difFerenoo botween the different races, for wliich all writers of research anJ the most 
observant tra reikis mni agriculturists contend, may be plainly traced in the portraits drawn 
by G. W. Park Custis, Esq., of Arlington, of the two Jacks, the Royal Gift, and the Knight 
OF Malta, presented to General Washington about the year 1787 — of these Mr. Custis 
says, " The Gifty witii a jennet, was a present from the king of Spain, and said to have been 
selected from the royal stud. The Knight I believe was from the 31arquis de Lafayette, 
and shipped from Marseilles. 

"The Gift was a huge and ill-sliaped Jack, near sixteen hands high, very large head, clumsy 
linibs, and to all appearance little calculated for active service ; he was of a grey colour, 
probably not young when imported, and died at Mount Vernon but little valued for liis mules, 
which were unwicldij and dull, 

" The Knight was of a moderate size, clean limbed, great activity, the fire and ferocity of a 
tiger, a dark brown, nearly a black colour, white belly and muzzle, could be managed only 
by one groom, and that always at considerable personal risk. He lived to a great old age, 
and was so infirm towards the last as to require lifting. He died on my estate, in New 
Kent, in the state of Virginia, in the year 1802 or '3. His mules were all active, spirited, 
and serviceable, and from stout mares attained considerable size. 

The Knij^^ht of Malta, here mentioned by Mr. Custis, is believed unquestionably to have 
been " the first Maltese Jack ever brought to the United States." The second one, says Mr. 
Pomeroy, came in the Frigate Constitution on her return, as he thinks, from the Mediter. 
ranean, and was sold, it is believed, in the District of Columbia. Since that time a number 
have been introduced by officers of the Navy, and in mercliant-ships. 

The learned Professor Wilson, in an article in tlie Encyclopedia Brittanica, on the natural 
history of quadrupeds and whales, says of the Ass : " The races of eastern origin are much 
more beautiful, witli glossy skins, carrying their heads loftily, and moving tlieir limbs in a 
very graceful manner. They accordingly fetch a very high price." 

There is no one within the range of our acquaintance whose dealings and whose experi- 
ence on these subjects, equal tiiose of General James Shelby of Kentucky. Owning and 
residing upon a magnificent estate of "blue grass land," its resources have been in a good 
measure dedicated to rearing mules and cattle of improved breeds. The writer had the 
pleasure to make him a visit in 1839 ; and while partaking festively and intellectually of the 
hospitalities of his mansion, to learn much of the mule trade, in its various branches. It 
was like going to New Bedford to be instructed in all tlie art and mystery of the whaling 
business ! The general's residence is eight miles from Lexington ; and it may be taken as a 
proof of no mean powers of performance in light harness, that we were taken to his house in 
his ovi'n carriage by a pair of his mules, then in common family use in that way, within the 
hour, and without a touch of the whip. 

On the point under consideration, the different breeds of Jacks, General Shelby's opinion 
is positive, and should carry with it all the weight that habit of close observation and large 
experience can impart. He maintains, without question, that the Ass belongs to a family, 
possessing as many varieties as that of the horse; the size, form, and general appearance in 
the one being as dissimilar, in different races, as in the other. By judiciously crossing, says 
he, the different varieties of horses, other varieties have been obtained, better adapted to the 
particular purposes of the breeder — so likewise may the Jack be improved. This last sug- 
gestion is in strict accordance with the fact stated by Mr. Custis, who, in his letter to Mr. Pome- 
roy, after exemplifying the remarkable difference of properties which distinguished the Royal 
Gift and the Knight of Malta, says that General Washington bred a favourite Jack called 
Compound from the cross of Spanish and Maltese, putting the Knight of Malta sent out by 
General Lafayette to the large jennet sent out by the king of Spain along with the Royal 
Gift. The Jack produced by this cross, Mr. Custis says " was a very superior animal, very 
loner bodied, well set, with ail the qualities of the Knight and the weight of the Spanish 
breed — he was sire of some of the finest mules at Mount Vernon, and died from accident. 

In full support of these views and descriptions of difference of breed in Jacks, we have 
yet in reserve an authority on which we place the highest confidence and value. It is that 
of J. N. Hambleton, Esq., of the United States Navy — whose professional duties carry him 
to different quarters of the world, and who, moreover, carries with him on his travels very 
rare advantages and habits, such as, be it said, en passant, it behoves all our young officers 
to acquire and to practise — he has been studious to gain the command of languages, which 
he takes with him, as so many keys, to unlock and examine the stores that contain whatever 
is curious or useful, wherever he goes. With these advantages he combines an inquisitive 
disposition and the faculty of clear discrimination. What fruitful sources, these, of Intel 
lectual enjoyment ! what sure guarantees of extraordinary information and usefulness ! 

Mr. Hambleton, on the question of different breeds of Asses, states, as the result of inquiry 
and personal observation during years of service and travel along the shores of the Mediter- 
ranean, that "The Maltese Ass is without doubt the best— he has greater activity and en- 
durance than the coarse Jack of Spain and France; and in his fine limbs and deer-like fornv, 
36 



422 THE ASS AND THE MULE. 

nas immense power-the other breeds are often clumsy and sluggish.— it is th- b.ood hors" 
uga^^t Concstoga. In Minorca the farmers were extremely anxious to breed .rX Jack 
w.nch our ofhcers of the nayy had brought from Malta, and confessed their superiority - 

V'Zl 7". T, "J" "/' !^'^'^' "'^ '^'""'^ ^li'^' ^"-^y- The former is always most esteemed. 

/ paid (or rctcr Stmple wo hundred and lifty Spanish dollars, and he cost me five hundred 

I'.re. Jt was considered a high price, but he was known to be the best Jack of his a^e in 

the sland. H,s sire was carried to England for Admiral Rowley." The Jack here spoken 

ot, tcter vSunple, is one of, it not the finest we have ever seen. Mr. H udds in'a 

faini.i.r l.-ttcr m answer to one addressed to him on the subjects of tiiis memoir <ren 

eially, some interesting facts which we take the liberty to transcribe in tlie unstudied Ian' 

(Tuage (and the better lor that) in which they are written by one friend to anotlier. As to' 

newel -known indifference, not to say antipathy, evinced 'by some Jacks to cohabit with a 

mare she being of a "diverse kind," he says, " { have heard that it was common for jacks 

to eluse mar« in Spain, and hence the risk of buying them untried. They do not like to 

sell their breeders, and ask high prices for them. In Majorca I have heard of °ome tha 

were held as high as $1000. I sent in two from Gibraltar which came Tom Ronda in An 

dalus.a : one was a grey, and the other milk-white with a sorrel belly. I was told hat he 

the white, was of an excellent strain, originally from Barbary. He was short-legged, very' 

broad over the back, and compactly made ; and took on fat like a pig. He was not clumsy 

o? litrv h-^^H ""t'" ^ '''' Tl V"^'^^^-'-'^'^')' ^^ was very s'la^ck, and on tha coun't 

f K 1 or" ""f" "*" ^°°'^' ^"' ^'"''^ ""^ ^'^'^ 'P'''^ of tl'°se of Peter Simple. Some 

of the latter from good mares can compare with the Kentucky mules in size." 

We shall now bind all that has been asserted in support of the fact that Jacks are of dif- 
ferent races and tempers, and that the Maltese, among those within our reach and with which 
we are familiar, is the best, by the following quotation from a friendly letter, written to use 
his own expressive phrase c«rr6«tecaZa/no, "just as if we were sitting under a tre; alon^ 
shore," from Col. N. Goldborough of Maryland, whose attention to all such mattoi-s is known 
to be as critical as his judgment in them is allowed to be sound and supei ior 

Of Asses and Mules, says the Col., " I know but little of the natural history of the former 
but have an experience of some thirty years of the latter. The Maltese j/ck in the pro^ 
duction of mules holds the same rank with the Arabian as to horses. I have never s'^en 
a dull mule got by the Jack I purchased of you, even from notoriously sluggish mires 1 
have often wondered that the mule had so much spirit, when the usual qualiffes attributed to 
the ass are taken into consideration. I have bred the same mare at diff'erent periods to the 
ass, and to the blood horse-the horse of fine spirit too, and the progeny of the ass has pos! 
sessed as much spirit and in one instance far more than that of the horse." It would be 
superfluous to multiply authorities or opinions in proof or in description of different raceS 
of Jacks, possessing distinct qualities as to conformation and temper: than those already 
quoted, none can be higher or more conclusive. It was, however, dLmed nee sTry o saj 
thus much, because If, as we expect to show, the mule be highly worthy of more ffener^ 
regard as an animal whose employment is attended with great economy, is it not essential 
hat those who may be led to breed or purchase, should understand that their vakie no less 
han that of the horse is aff^ected by and depends in a great measure upon breedT.nd ha 
If this fact be not kept constantly in mind, both animals are liable to deterioration "eadino 
in time, as with respect to the mule it has already done, to disparagement a iTi^ jecti^n^ 
Having indicated, by he opinion of the most competent judges, how Such the progenyX 
pends for its value on the quality of the sire, it will be seen in the sequel that the Suence 
of the mare is no less than that of the Jack-we have heard large mule traders con end t^a! 
was greater and more obvious It is doubtless the greater prevalence of blood inZxln. 
ucky marcs, fi.r example, which stamps the mules of that state with a blood-like look and 
air of superiority which so plainly distinguish them from the coarser mules of Ohio-vvhere 
racing, until very lately, has been considered almost an "abomination in the sight of the Lord » 
\V e proceed now to view the mule as he is, in a practical point of yiew-that is in respect 
of the cost and mode of rearing him-his capacities and uses : to this end we shaP K 
leave to puoiish, without stopping to separate and systematise the facts they contain and the 
arguments they advance, some portions of letters from the friends already spoken of as well 
as further quotations from respectable writers who have given their attention to this 'subject 
than which It IS not easy to think of one more interesting to the American husbandmar 

rJf^' §'"' ""'''["! °!. th^'""^"'" ^'^" '"PP'^ °^ ^^^'^y'''"'^ ^"d ^''« yet greater demknd 
for the Southern plantations haye for years past been Kentucky, and more recently Ohb 
Before the commencement of this century, the breeding of the mule for sale in our own 
country, and for the plantations in the West Indies, had been confined to New-England ^ of 
its history there-the sort of jack employed, and kind of mule then and there produced 'the 
ollowing account is given in the prize essay already spoken of, and which we commend to 

t q^alLfof'Xe'mufe"" °' ''' "^"""^ ^"' ''" ^^^"^^^^ °^ ''' -'^-'« inquirie.lnS 



THE ASS AND THE MULE. 428 

In Sir George Staunton's account of Lord Macartney's embassy to China, we are told 
Ihat mules are valued in tliat economical empire at a mucli liig-lier price than horses. In our 
own country, prior to the war of the revolution, a few Jacks of an ordinary kind were im- 
ported — a small number of mules bred; and all exported to the West Indies. I have refer 
ence to New-England, asl am not aware that any attention was paid to the system in the 
Middle or Soutliern States, thougli it is not improbable that some valuable mules may have 
oecn raised by the farmers and planters for their own use. When peace took place, the price 
of mules in the West Indies excited attention to the breeding of them, which was principally 
confined to Connecticut; and several cargoes of the small race of Jacks were imported from 
..no Cape de Verd Islands, and St. Michael's, one of the Azoies. It should be observed that 
the exportation of jacks from Spain, or any of her colonies, was strictly prohibited, and con- 
tinued to be until aflnr the Peninsular war. There might have been, however, a few smug- 
gled from the Spanish part of Hispaniola into Cape Frangois, and from thence introduced, 
but they were vastly inferior to the Spanish Jacks. From this miserable stock a system of 
breeding mules commenced, the best calculated to deteriorate any race of animals that has 
been, or could be devised, since their creation. The purchaser of a Jack, when about to 
commence mule dealer, made little inquiry concerning him but of his capacity to propagate 
a mule. He placed him in a district where there was the greatest number of mares of quali- 
ties so inferior that tlieir colts would not compensate their owners for the expense of putting 
them to a horse, and contracted to purchase their mules at four months old. Those are kept 
in herds, with precarious shelter in winter, having^ ample opportunities afforded them to 
mature and transfer that propensity for kicking, which seems at first merely playful, into an 
habitual means of defence, to be exercised when the biped or any other race of animals 
approach them. In tliis kicking seminary they remain two years, and are then driven to 
market. At subsequent periods, a few Jacks of higher grades were procured, from which a 
small number of good-sized mules were bred, and a few of them broke. The breed of Jacks 
has somewhat improved, and mule dealers are now located in most of the New-England 
states and some parts of New- York. But the system as above detailed, with few exceptions, 
has continued ; and it is from such a race of Jacks, and such a system of breeding and ma- 
nagement, that the mules have been produced, with which the farmers and planters of Mary- 
land and Virginia, and the Southern States, have been supplied from New-England ; and 
such have furnislied a criterion for a great portion of our countrymen to form an estimate 
of the value and properties of this degraded animal. 

On the share of the mare, in affecting the value of tiie mule, Mr. Custis says emphatically, 
that General Washington bred nmles from "his best coach mares; and found the value of the 
mule to bear a just proportion to the value of the dam. Four mules sold at the sale of his 
effects for upwards of $800, and two more pair at upwards of $400 each pair. One pair of 
these mules was nearly sixteen hands high." — Now, although it be not here affirmed that 
these " best coach mares" were blood mares, the fact may be very safely assumed that they 
were deep in the blood, when we consider that the General himself was of the " race-horse 
region," — a member and officer of the jockey club at Alexandria — sometimes acting as judge 
of the race — fond of the turf and of the chase ; in which, according to one, of all men 
living, most familiar with his habits, he was "always superbly mounted, in true sporting 
costume, of blue coat, scarlet vest, buckskin breeches, top-boots, velvet cap and whip with 
long thong, he took the field at day dawn, with his huntsman Will Lee, his friends and 
neighbours ; and none rode more gallantly in the chase, nor with voice more cheerly awak. 
ened echo in the woodland, than he who was afterwards destined, by voice and example, to 
cheer his countrymen in their glorious struggle for independence and empire." — Thus 
mounted on his famous hunter Blue-skin, says the author of his yet unpublished memoirs, 
Washington was always " in at the death, and yielding to no man the honour of the brush." 
BeL.,g himself brecider and runner of thorough-bred stock, and well acquainted with the good 
effect of a generous sprinkling of blood, as well for the road as for the battle-field, it may be 
fairly inferred that these "best coach mares" had a heavy dash of it, from which were bred 
mules that commanded $200 each, and were nearly sixteen hands high, "active and spirited." 

It is well remembered as tiie opinion of the late Frederick Skinner, (blessed be his me- 
mory,) father of the writer of this memoir, who sent his jennets several years from Calvert 
County, to the Jacks at Mount Vernon, and who was withal a connoisseur in all such cases, 
— it was his oflen-expressed conviction that the activity, endurance, and value of mules was 
greatly enhanced when bred from mares deep in the blood. But we cannot dismiss our re- 
spected and cautious author of the prize essay, without availing yet more largely of the 
result of his careful researches and reflections, founded on personal experience, and so we 
proceed to transcribe his remarks on the several points of breeding and rearing — economy 
of keep — steadiness to labour — docility of temper — exemption from disease — and longevity of 
the animal. 

The impressions received, says he, when on a visit to the West Indies in my youth, by observ 
ing in the sugar plantations, the severe labour performed by mules in cane miHs induced me, 



424 THE ASS AND THE MULE. 

when I commenced farming, to purcliase the first well-broke mule I could light on ; and 
notwithstanding he was so small as to require a vehicle and harness constructed purposely 
for him, his services were found so valuable, and tlie economy of using tliose animals so 
evident, that I was stimulated to great exertions tor procuring several others of larger 
size: in this I succeeded, after great ditficulty, to such an extent, as to have liad more labour 
performed by them on farm and road for thirty years past, than any person, I presume, in 
New England ; and every day's experience has served to fortify my conviction of the supe- 
rior utility of tlie mule over the horse, for all the purposes for which I have proposed him as 
a candidute. And it siiould be considered that those I have used were of an ordinary breed, 
vastly inferior to such as may be easily produced in our country, by attention to the intro 
duction of a suitable race oi' Jacks, and a proper system of breeding and management. 

The question occurs, how is this to be etfecled ? I will premise, that there exists a strong 
analogy between three varieties of the horse, and those of the domestic ass, considered the 
most valuable. We have the Arabian, the hunter, and the stout cart-horse. There is the 
heavy Spanish Jack, with long slouching ears, which Mr. Custis has described, that answers 
to the cart-horse ; another Spanish breed called the Andalusian, with ears shorter and erect, of 
tolerable size, plenty of bone, active, more spirited, and answering to the hunter. Then 
comes the Arabian Jack, with ears always erect, of a delicate form, fine limbs, and full of 
fire and spirit. Judicious crosses from these varieties, will be requisite to produce such kind 
of mules as may be wanted for general purposes. From the small Jack of African origin, 
with a list down iiis back and shoulders, are bred a small race of mules, by far the most 
hardy of any. With attention to selection in breeding the Jacks, with, perhaps, a dash of 
some cross of the foregoing description, a stock of mules. may be produced, preferable to all 
others for the light lands and cotton culture of the middle and southern states. 

To procure any number o? Arabian Jacks from their native country, is hardly practicable 
at the present time. Egypt has been celebrated by Sonnini and other travellers, for superb 
Jacks of the Arabian breed, which probably has been often improved by those introduced 
by the pilgrims from Mecca. I apprehend no great difficulty in obtaining them from tliat 
country. There is, however, no question but the Maltese Jacks are of the Arabian race, 
more or less degenerated. The most of those brought to this country that I have seen, were 
selected on account of their size, and had been used to the draught. I should rcconmiend 
the selection of those that are esteemed most suitable for tlie saddle, as likely to possess 
greater ^wriiy of blood. A Jack of this kind was, a number of years since, imported from 
Gibraltar, that had been selected by a British officer at Malta; and very much resembled the 
Knight of Malta, described by Mr. Custis. I found, upon a careful examination, that he 
differed but little from the description I had heard and read of the trut Arabian race ; indeed 
I could discover some prominent points and marks, that agreed with those found, by Profes- 
sor Pallas, to belong to the Hemionus or wild mule of Mongalia. From this Jack I have 
bred a stock, out of a large Spanish Jennet of the Andalusian breed, that corresponds very 
minutely with Mr. Custis's description of Compound, bred by General Washington, and 
also a 7nule that now, not three years old, stands fifteen hands, and has other points of great 
promise. 

My attention has been but lately directed to breeding mules ; and those intended only for 
my own use. The system adopted is to halter them at four months, and have the males 
emasculated before six months old ; which has great influence on their future conduct, and 
is attended with much less hazard and trouble, than if delayed until they are one or two 
years old, as is the general practice. If they are treated gently, and fed occasionally out of 
the hand, with corn, potatoes, &c., they soon become attached ; and when they find that 
" every man's hand is not against them," will have no propensity to direct their heels against 
him, and soon forget they have the power. In winter they should be tied up in separate 
stalls, and often rubbed down. By such treatment there is not more danger of having a 
vicious mule than a vicious horse — and I am decidedly of opinion, that a high-spirited mule 
so managed, and well broke, will not jeopard the lives or limbs of men, women, or children 
by any means so much as a high-spirited horse, however well he may have been trained. 

The longevity of the mule has become so proverbial, that a purchaser seldom inquiiea 
his age. Pliny gives an account of one, taken from Grecian history, that was eighty years 
old ; and though past labour, followed others that were carrying materials to build the temple 
of Minerva at Athens, and seemed to wish to assist them ; which so pleased the people, that 
they ordered he should have free egress to the grain market. Dr. Rees mentions two that 
were seventy years old in England. I saw, myself, in the West Indies, a mule perform his 
task in a cane mill, that his owner assured me was forty years old. I now own a mare 
mule tioenty-fve years old, that I have had in constant work twenty-one years, and can discover 
no diminution in her powers; she has within a year past often taken upwards of a ton 
weight in a wagon to Boston, a distance of more than five miles. A gentleman in my 
neighbourhood has owned a very large mule about fourteen years, that cannot be Jess than 



THE ASS AND THE MULE. 425 

iwenty-eight years old. He informed me a few days since, tliat he cauld not perceive the 
least failure in him, and would not exchange him for any farm horse in the country. Ana 
I am just informed, from a source entitled to perfect confidence, that a highly respectable 
g-entieman and eminent agriculturist, near Cenlreville, on the eastern shore of Maryland, 
owns a mule that is thirty-Jive years old, as capable of labour as at any former j)eriod. 

From what has been stated respecting the longevity of the mule, I think it may be fair'y 
assumed, that he does not deteriorate more rapidly atler twenty years of age than the horse 
after ten, allowing the same extent of work and similar treatment to each. The contrast in 
the mule's frcednin from malady or disease, compared with tlie horse, is not less striking. 
Arthur Young, during his tour in Ireland, was informed that a gentleman had lost several 
fine mules, by feeding them on wheat straw cut. And I have been informed that a mule- 
dealer, in the western part of New- York, attributed the loss of a number of young mules, in 
a severe winter, when his hay was exhausted, to feeding them exclusively on cut straw and 
Indian-corn meal. In no other instance have I ever heard or known of a mule being 
attacked with any disorder or complaint, except two or three cases of inflammation of the 
intestines, caused by gross neglect in permitting them to remain exposed to cold and wet, 
when in a high state of perspiration after severe labour, and drinking to excess of cold 
water. 

From his light frame and more cautious movements, the mule is less subject to casualties 
than the horse. Indeed it is not improbable that a farmer may work the same team of mules 
above twenty years, and never be presented with a.farrier''s bill, or find it necessary to exer- 
cise the art himself 

Sir John Sinclair, in his " Reports on the Agriculture of Scotland," remarks that " if the 
whole period of a horse's labour be fifteen years, the first six may be equal in value to the 
remaining nine ; therefore a horse of ten years old, after working six years, may be worth 
half his original value." He estimates the annual decline of a horse to be equal to fifty per 
cent, on his price every six years, and supposes one out of twenty-five that are regularly 
employed in agriculture, to die every year : for insurance against diseases and accidents. 
He considers five acres of land, of medium quality, necessary for the maintenance of each 
horse, and the annual expense, including harness, shoeing, farriery, insurance and decline in 
value, allowing him to cost $200, to exceed that sum about /lue per cent., which is the only 
difference between the estimate of this illustrious and accurate agriculturist, and that of a 
respectable committee of the Farmers' Society of Bar well district. South Carolina, who in a 
report published in the Carleston Courier, of the 23d of February last (1825,) state, that" the an- 
nual expense of keeping ahorse is equal to his value." The same committee also state, that, "at 
four years old a horse will seldom sell for more than the expense of rearing him." That 
"the superiority of the mule over the horse, had long been appreciated by some of their most 
judicious planters ; that two mules could be raised at less expense than one horse ; that a mule 
is fit for service at an earlier age, if of sufficient size ; will perform as much labour ; and if 
attended to when first put to work, his gait and habits may be formed to suit the taste of the 
owner." This report may be considered a most valuable document, emanating, as it does, 
from enlightened practical farmers and planters, in a section of our country where we may 
suppose a horse can be maintained cheaper than in Maryland, or any state farther north. 

I am convinced that the small breed of mules will consume less, in proportion to the labour 
they are capable of performing, than the larger race; but I shall confine the comparison to 
the latter — those that stand from fourteen and a half to rising of fifteen hands, and equal to 
any labour that a horse is usually put to. From repeated experiments, in the course of two 
winters, I found that three mules of this description, that were constantly at work, consumed 
about the same quantity of hay, and only one-fourth the prox^ender that was given to two 
middling-sized coach horses, moderately worked. And from many years' attentive observa- 
tion, I am led to believe that a large sized mule will not require more than from three-fifths 
to two-thirds the food, to keep him in good order, that will be necessary for a horse performing 
the same extent of labour. Although a mule will work and endure on such mean and hard 
fare, that a horse would soon give out upon, he has an equal relish for that which is good ^ 
nnd it is strict economy to indulge him, for no animal will pay better for extra keep by extra 
work. But if by hard fare, or hard work, he is reduced to a skeleton, two or three weeks, 
rest and good keeping will put him in flesh and high condition for labour. I have witnessed 
several such examples with subjects twenty years old ; so much cannot be said of a horse at 
half that age. The expense of shoeing a mule, the year round, does not amount to more than 
one-third that of a horse, his hoofs being harder, more horny, and so slow in their growth, 
that the si oes require no removal, and hold on till worn out ; and the wear, from the lightness 
of the animal, is much less. 

In answer to the charge generally prevalent against the mule, that he is " vicious, stubborn 
and slow," I can assert, that out of about twenty that have been employed on mv estate at 
different periods during a course of thirty years, and those picked up, chiefly on account of 
36* 3d 



426 THE ASS AND THE MULE, 

their size and spirit, wherever tliey could be found, one only had any viiious p.-opensilies, 
and those might have been subdued by proper management when young. 1 have always 
found them truer pullers and quicker travellers, witii a load, than horses. Their vision and 
nearing is much more accurate. I have used them in my family carriage, in a gig, and 
under the saddle ; and liave never known one to start or run from any object or noise ; a 
fault in the horse that continually causes the maiming and death of numbers of human 
beings. Tlie mule is more steady in his draught, and less likely to waste his strength than 
the horse; hence more suitable to work with oxen; and as he walks faster, will habituate 
them to a quicker gait. But for none of the purposes of agriculture does his superior.'ty 
appear more conspicuous than ploughing among crops ; his feet being smaller, and follow 
each otlier so much more in a line, that he seldom treads down the ridges or crops. The 
facility of instructing him to obey implicitly the voice of his driver or the ploughman, is as- 
tonishing, 'i'he best oloughcd tillage land I ever saw, I have had performed by two mules 
tandem without lines or driver. 

There is one plausible objection often urged against the mule, that "on deep soils and deep 
roads, his feet being so much smaller than those of the horse, sink farther in :" but it should 
be considered that he can extricate them with as much greater facility. 

Few can be ignorant of the capacity oftiie mule to endure labour in a temperature of Aea< 
that would be destructive to the horse, who have any knowledge of the preference for him, 
merely on that account, in the West Indies, and in the Southern States. 

It is full time to bring our comparison to a close; which I shall do by assuming the posi- 
tion, that the farmer, who substitutes inules for horses, will have this portion of his animal 
labour performed, with the expense of one spire of grass, instead of two ; which may be 
equal, so far, to making " two spires grow where one grew before." For although a large- 
sized mule will consume somewhat more than half the food necessary for a horse, as has 
been observed, yet if we take into the account the saving in the expense of shoeing, farriery, 
and insurance against diseases and accidents, we may safely affirm, that a clear saving of 
one-half can be fully substantiated. But, in addition to this, the mule farmer may calculate, 
with tolerable certainty, upon the continuation of his capital for thirty years; whereas the 
horse farmer, at the expiration of fifteen years, must look to his crops, to his acres, or a 
Bank, for the renewal of his — or, perhaps, what is worse, he must commence horse-jockey at 
an ea'ly period. 

'm ***** * * * * 

I cannot resist the impulse to exhibit the mule in one other point of view. P'or the move- 
ment of machinery, the employment of this animal, when judiciously selected, has met with 
a most decided preference, in comparison with the horse, independent of the economy of using 
him. And if we consider the rapid and probably progressive increase of labour-saving ma- 
chines, in every department where they can be made subservient to the requirements of so? 
ciety, it is evident there will be a corresponding demand for animal power, as well as for that, 
more potent, derived from the elements ; and although the latter may vastly predominate, yet 
should the horse be employed, and his increase for other purposes continue, as it now does, 
in the ratio of population, tlie number, at no very distant period, may become as alarming in 
our own, as it is at present in our mother country. And notwithstanding we may feel secure, 
from the extent of our territory, and extreme diversity of soil and climate, but, above all, 
from being in possession of Indian-corn, — the Goloen Fleece, found by our ^^ Pilgrim Fa- 
thers,^'' wiien they first landed on these shores ; yet such peculiar advantages may not insure 
us against the visitations of one of the most distressing calamities that a feeling community 
can possibly be subjected to." 

The reader cannot fail to be struck with the strong corroborative proof which is brought 
in support of the views of tiiis well-informed writer, after a lapse of seventeen years, in the 
testimony which follows, from no less instructive and intelligent observers. On the pre- 
ceding points generally, we now present the answers, of recent date, unstudied in style, but 
deliberate as to facts ; received in reply to, and corresponding in order with interrogatories 
propounded in desultory form to gentlemen vvliose names we have already taken the freedc/ni 
to introduce to the reader — beginning with the letter from General Shelby, whose testimony 
embraces the practical knowledge derived from many years of opportunity to view the subject 
well in all its aspects. " As to mules" says the General, their qualities may be greatly varied 
from the same Jack, whether the diminutive donkey of three feet, or the Jack of Spain of 
sixteen hands, by reason of the great variety of mares bred to him. The Maltese Jack of 
fourteen hands, I consider entitled to the same rank and dignity in his race that is accorded 
to toe Arabian Horse in his. A cross between him and the Spanish Jack of sixteen hands 
will be found to combine all the essential properties of size, form and action, and to facilitate 
the breeding of mules possessmg those requisites — I need only add that, in all respects 
whether in breeding, rearing, breaking, using and in selecting — the subject of the mule 
should be considered as in the same light precisely as that of the horse — therefore the groundt 
of pi-eference between one Jack and another; in other words, their good and bad points, resul' 



THE ASS AND THE MULE. 427 

from .he combination of sufficienf, size, form and action, and not from any one of tliose quali 
ties. — Tiie same as to mules. 

Jacks have sold in Kentucky as high as $5000. Their value at this time (April, 1812) ia 
nominal — sixteen hands is the largest size — fifteen is quite common — iflules of seventeen 
hands are sometimes to be met with. The quality of the mule is improved by the blood of 
the mare. It is quite common to work mares while going to the Jack, while in foal, and 
while suckling. Mules should be weaned at about five montiis old — we feed our mules on 
grain, corn, oats, or rye, the latter in the form of chop, from season to season until sold. I 
mean during tiie winter, our blue-grass being all-sufficient during the rest of the year. It is 
necessary, however, to grain feed them on the grass through the summer they are fattened 
for market — we sell the majority of our stock the fall after they are two — mostly to the cotton 
planters — a few of late to the Pennsylvania iron works, and a few to Cuba; tlie remainder 
we sell at a year older. The present prices at a given age are as variant as that of horses 
cattle, or any thing else whose value depends upon its quality, and the demands and mone- 
tary condition of tiie country — sales were effected last fall at from $35 to $125. I have known 
mules sell at weaning-time for $150, and when grown as high as $300. They should be 
broke at the age you would break a horse ; and, according to my observation, by the same 
system. They eat as much as horses, and reward a liberal allowance as well, though he 
may, when unavoidable, be able to withstand privation better. I have known mules to travel 
ten miles within the hour in light harness. I drove a pair from Lexington to the Blue Lick 
in six hours, stopping one hour by the way — the distance is forty miles. What may be the 
precise difference in " the age of the mule as compared with the horse, under the same treat- 
ment, on a plantation," I cannot say ; the advantage, however, would be on the side of the 
former — 1 know of no particular inconvenience in using them in a carriage. 

The 7nule trade in Kentucky is of about forty years' standing. For the first twenty years 
the number increased gradually, to about eight hundred ; during the next fifteen or sixteen 
years, it went up to four or five thousand; since when, it has gone back to where it was 
twenty years ago. Our farmers who breed mules, prefer to sell them when they put their 
mares to the Jack, or at weaning time. The price rose gradually from twenty to fifty 
dollars for colts. My last lot cost me in 1838 fifty dollars, and the season of my Jack given 
in. The mares were selected, and the colts bargained for in the season of 1837. When the 
price went down with everything else a few years back, they discontinued, in a great degree, 
the breeding of them ; so that our present prices result from a greatly insufficient supply for 
the ordinary demand. I sold my stock of three year olds, (seventy-three head) last fall at 
$70. I was anxious to retain two or three pair (not the largest) at $250 a pair, but the 
purchaser objected — but he was equally anxious to select for me some twenty head (and not 
the least) at thirty-five dollars. 1 declined taking them. The number of mules annually 
exported from Kentucky, may be set down at the v/holc number raised — as the small number 
broke to service in this state, are sure, at last, to find their way to a foreign market — at a 
rough guess, I would fix the nelt average value, in market, of our mules, at about $70. 

The reason why mules have been raised in such numbers in Kentucky more than in other 
states, is the better adaptation of our soil and climate to the production of grain and grass 
than any other state, and for which we can obtain a market only in the form of live stock. 
The " cost of raising a inule to be three years old, when corn is twenty-five cents per bushel," 
charging from the usual time of weaning, 25th of September, may be computed at about 
thirty dollars, including a fair equivalent for grazing and salting. I have not known of a 
case of a female mule breeding — I wisii you would tell me on what testimony the Norfolk 
Dase rests [it shall be done] I am a sceptic. — Our Jacks are doing but little this season. — 
rhey stand at about five dollars to mares, and from that to fifty dollars for Jennies. — The 
proportion of foals from a Jack and a horse, does not vary materially, in a given number of 
mares." 

So much for the views and opinions of one who has, perhaps, bought and sold a greater 
aumber of mules than any individual in the United States. We now present, in like man- 
aer, without leave of the' writer, in so many words, and without any studied formality of 
Jiction, a letter from Mr. Hambleton, which the reader will agree needs no higher 
polish of the pen, or greater amplification, to give it interest and value. 

"I am now, March 5th, 1842, raising three mules, and their ration is four ears of corn a 
day, each, and straw a discretion. This from the 1st of October, to the 30th of April, when 
they will go to grass, would be about one and a quarter barrels each of corn, allowing seven 
hundred ears to the barrel. At $3 per barrel, one and a quarter barrels are $3.75 the first year 
second year add one third, $5 ; the third year add one third, $6.62 =$14.37, the cost for corn 
at three years old. As our farmers never sell straw, and consider it a favour for any animal 
lo work it up into manure, the expense of that is not counted. When two years old, the 
ration should be augmented one-third— you may smile at my statistics, but I can assure you 
these colt& &eep in good order on this allowance. Eight years ago, I bought two three-yea.' 



128 THEASSANDTHEMULE. 

olds from a Ncw-England drove, that had never Caten any grain. I gave $105 for the 
pair, and there is one of them that I would not take $100 for now. Five ears of corn at a 
feed is sufficient lor a working mule witli corn blades. The}' will keep Ikt on it under the 
Beverest labour — 1 liave worked them cigiit years, exclusively ; never had one sick or lame, 
and find llieni fully efficient for any kind of tiirni labour, in this region (Talbot County, 
Maryland.) Our soil is extremely stiff, but a pair of mules will carry a plough through the 
tou<»-hest sward ; and in carting, will move the heaviest loiids. In Ibrming our large com- 
post beds of manure (sometimes 300 loads in a bed,) and having the raw materials to haul, 
first under the cattle, and again to the field afler it is made, you may know that our teams 
have little idle time. After the ground is broke, a single mule carries the plough in culti. 
vating corn, or ploughing in wheat. Kentucky mules, of large size, three years old, sold last 
year in this county for S200 a pair: — now they would not bring as much. I paid for one, 
raised by a neighbour, four years old, $70 ; and after he was perfectly broke, refused $100 for 
him. They are easier broke than horses, and do not kick or bile. Negroes, not accustomed 
to them, regard them as wild beasts, are afraid of them, and thus many are spoiled in 
breaking. 

"Mules are more used in Spain and Portugal than in any other countries I have visited. 
The king of Spain used them for his carriage when I was in Madrid — and most of the 
grandees. In Lisbon I was told $1500 was often paid for a pair of carriage mules. The 
Dutchess of Braganza (Don Pedro's widow,) was a decided mule-woman, and drove six of the 
most splendid greys I ever saw. Dona Maria used English horses. I went through her 
stables witii her coachman, wiio was an Englishman. He told me that in that mountainous 
country, native horses were tlie best for service — mules better than either. I travelled in 
the Diligence from Barcelona to Madrid, via Valencia, 400 miles, and back. Mules were 
used the whole route, six to the team, and travelled as fast as our stages usually do. Their 
public vehicles are much heavier than ours. 

" They have a beautiful race of asses in Egypt — small but exquisitely formed, and of great 
spirit. They are much used for the saddle. If you should ever go to Alexandria, you will 
never forget the importunity of the Jackass boys at the landing, where there are always 
hundreds ready for service. Our haekmen at a railroad depot are nothing to them ; and 
they all speak a little English. — " This a fine Jack, Sir, don't take that one, that fellow 's a 

d d rogue," &c. The Egyptian Ass is generally of a mouse colour, with a black streak 

down the back and cross on the shoulder — some of them blue, (sacre hleu.) 

"I cannot inform you the average number of mares impregnated in Talbot by Jacks. If 
I could, the criterion' would not be fair — as it is known that an old Jack is much more cer- 
tain tlian a young one; and they are not in their prime till fifteen.* Mule.s, I think, would 
bring more at tiiree years old than horses from the same dams. A respectable-looking man 
told me at the fair at Ellicott's mills, that he knew a Jack then covering at Pittsburg, that 
was sixty years old. Would it not be well to try to verify this ? Judge Brackenridge could 
assist you in doing it. — My brother Edward told me that he kept a Jennet and Stallion some 
weeks together, but he would not notice her. Against this, I heard of a case of a Stallion 
covering a Jennet without producing a colt. It appears to be a mere matter of taste. When 
abroad I could get no satisfactory information as to breeding mules; but am of opinion that 
the best mules are not from the horse and jennet. I was told that they were so scary and 
timid as to be of little value. Your Jack is always the leader of a caravan of camels in Asia 
Minor. In Syria, I travelled from Bcyrout to Damascus, 70 miles, and back, on a mule, over 
the Lebanon mountains. I could give you no idea of the badness of the road — the elevation 
is 6000 feet above the sea. The owner of our mules (a man about my size, and consequently 
above saddle -weight,) rode a small Jack, and carried sundry bags filled with barley and cut 
straw. I doubt whether your old sorrel that ran away with Campino, could have carried 
bim as safely. In our expeditions to Bulbec, over the same mountains, and to Jerusalem, 
we had mules. In Genoa the mules are large, but coarse. In Italy tiiey are little used in 
carriager^, and I believe not much in France; but they "go their death on them" in the 
Spanish possessions, Cuba, &c. 

" The relative expense of keeping, I think, is as 5 to 8 ; or, to be on the safe side, a mulii 
can be kept at one-third less." 

If the preceding views, in which the attentive reader will have noticed a remarkable coin 
cidence generally, needed any further confirmation or support, none could be adduced more 
conclusive than the following, from Col. N. Goldsborough. The more especially so with 
«11 who, having the pleasure of his acquaintance, unite in their respect for his candour, and 
unci in deference to his superior judgment in such matters. 

" I regard," says he, " the point as settled, that the mule is superior to the horse, for all 

* Mares, grazing on clover, are supposed not to breed well. 



THE ASS AND THE MULE. 429 

agricultural uses and purposes ; especially where not crushed nearly to dcatii, by (lie brutai 
conduct of man. The disposition to miscliief proceeds from neglect. Because it is a mule, 
it wants nothing to eat, Ibrsooth I My mules are not more mischievous than horses of the 
same family ; (i. e.) from the same mares. 

" Sir John Sinclair has somewhere said, that wheat straw is unsuited to the nature of the 
mule — that it is not eaten kindly, and does not agree with the animal. I must respectfully 
dissent from such high authority. My mules live on nothing else through tlie winter, with 
the addition of a little corn, and are always in good condition. They will haul the cart in 
all suitable weather, on six ears of corn at a feed, and plenty of clcaii wheat straw. They 
require less grain than the horse. I need not say to you how much longer they live and do 

good wo^i^. More free from disease — not so liable to gall — superior siearfi/jess of draft 

and, when properly broke, treated and managed, will walk over as much ground in a day 

blood horses to the contrary notwithstanding. The mule is perhaps nowhere so remarkable 
as at the sweeps of a thrcshivfr-machine, where steadiness of dralt is all-important. Horses 
walking in a circle gall sorely where mules do not. I will add that the nujle, in its three 
year old form, must be worked with moderation. It is scarcely capable of doing as much 
work as the horse at the same tender age. The many dull and sluggish ones that you see, 
are rendered so, by being crushed in spirit before being gradually inured to work ; and they 
ever after remain so, the habit being once formed. Upwards of twenty years aoo, I liad the 
largest mule ever seen on our shore. He was from one of Gordon's Jacks. When three 
years old, he was put in the plough, and worked finely, and possessed good spirit. Some 
weeks after, the weather i)ecame very hot — he was overworked — became dull, and finally 
could not be worked with any satisfaction, alongside of any animal on the farm. He was 
doomed to work, solus, in the manure-cart, and in his prime I sold him. But two other 
mules bred from the same marc, had first-rate spirit; and this I attribute to their not beincr 
exposed to the same injurious treatment. One of them, now twenty Jive years old, is among 
the most efficient animals on my farm ! What would a horse be worth at the same age '/" 

The Colonel in what he ascribes to Sir John Sinclair about the deleterious effect of wheat 
straw as food for the inule, perhaps confounds him, in his recollection, with Sir Arthur 
Young, both known to him as voluminous and eminent writers on British Agriculture 
The latter, during his tour in Ireland, was informed that a gentleman had lost several fine 
mules by feeding them on wheat stravi' cut. Mr. Pomcroy, too, was told that " a mule-dealer 
in the western part of Now- York, attributed the loss of a number of young mules to their 
being fed exclusively on cut straw and Indian-corn meal, during a severe winter, when his 
hay was exhausted." He goes on to say, "in no other instance have I ever heard or known 
of a mule being attacked with any kind of disorder or complaint, except two or three cases 
of inflammation of the intestines, caused hy gross neglect in permitting them to remain ex- 
posed to cold and wet when in a state of perspiration, after severe labour ; and drinking to 
excess of cold water. Fr.un his light frame and more cautious movements, the mule is less 
subject to casualties than the horse. Indeed it is not imjwssible that the farmer may work 
the same team of mules atjove twenty years and never be presented with a farrier's bill, or 
find it necessary to exercise the art himself" We are here prompted to add, by way of 
caution to the reader against that horrible disease, the glanders (fully treated in this work 
on the Horse,) that within two years we were painfully made acquainted with the case of a 
drunken Irish ditcher, bringing a glandered horse, (which was not worth, if well, a $5 Owl- 
Creek bank-note,) on a gentleman's farm, on West River, to stay while he was to open some 
old ditches. — The vile beast communicated his disorder, nor was it arrested until five valua- 
ble horses, and as many first-rate young mules, fell victims to the loathsome disease. 

On the point of mischief in the mule, however, we cannot but think that Col. G.'s spirit 
of resentment at the injustice with which this valuable creature is too often denounced and 
outraged, has led him, in a measure, to overlook some of his natural proclivities. Si.uie of 
these are doubtless the more excusable as being exercised in the right of sclf-protectii.ii — 
such for instance as dropping a negro over his head, when he attempts to beat him there; 
and then kicking at him to make him lie still, as paddy does the eel, what won't lie still to 
<^be skinned- But after all, we suspect, that if a skilful craniologist would examine the skull ot 
<i mule, he would somewhere find, more enlarged than the rest, that apartment in which the 
great artificer has stored away that quality called obstinacy, for which, be it noted, 7nulishnes$ 
is occasionally used as a synonyme — and of this opinion, we dare say, was a certain Abbess 
of Anuouillets, spoken of by Sterne, who knew something of mu'e as well as human nature 
— as our tricnd will agree, when he recollects the story he tells of the expedients to which 
the Abbess and the Nun resorted, to get the mules, " who had taken the stud" to go ahead, when 
night was coming, in the absence of the muleteer, and they were afraid of being ravished. — He 
will there see what " a shrewd, crafty old devil" of a mule will sometimes do when — it wc n't do 
any thing else ; and then for mischief — another friend and warm advocate admits that they 
are " rank poison zipon, young calves f And as for jumping, it hai certainly been said thai 



430 THE ASS AND THE MULE. 

with yoke and clog on, they will yet roll down, or roll over a fence ! But this argument 
proves too much, ibr will not many horses do the like ? After all, it may be fairly argued 
that in most cases the liabit oi jumping is first prompted by starvation ; and that with mules 
as with man, bad habits are more easily acquired than laid aside ; to lay tiie spirit of jumping 
there is nothing like a good supply olWhat is vulgarly called '' belly ti?nher ; " and when 
the farmer complains that his stock destroy his crops, he may well be suspected of having 
been himself, in some degree, the avitiior ot the miscljicf he deprecates. It is ten to one but 
you will find him deficient in good feiding or good fencing ; and he who neglects the one, is 
sure to have greater necessity ibr attention to ihe other. " For want of a nail the shoe was 
lost — for want of a shoe the horse was lost," Siiith poor Richard. 

Any reader may make for himself an estimate of tlie saving to be realized by the substitu- 
tion of mule for horse power, to any given extent. For ourselves, we cannot suppose it to 
be less than $15 per head per annum in fivonr of the mule, for mere difference of keep — for 
we must take into the calculation not only the difi'crence in the grain consumed, but that 
coarser ibrage will subsist the mule — he moreover needs no grain when not at work, ibr it is 
characteristic of his family, on one side of the house, to browse on furze and thistles, and 
almost any coarse herbage. How many things, rejected by the more fastidious taste of the 
horse, is gladly eaten by the Ass — " whose house I have made the wildernsss, and the barren 
land his dwelling: the range of the mountains is his pasture, and he seeketh after every 
green thing." The average saving among any given number of the two animals, in stabling, 
grooming, smithery and farriery, will make no inconsiderable item in the bill of costs, in 
favour of the mule; and when to these is added how much oilencr the capital in the horse i/s 
altogether sunk, and "swallowed up" in the grave — the difference, in favour of the mule, is 
80 striking and remarkable, tliat the wonder is that the conviction of it is not carried out in 
the agricultural economy of the country, to the almost universal adoption of mule power. — 
Have we not the evidence, that as a general rule it riiay belaid down, that a mule at twenty. 
five is as hearty, and capable of labour, as a horse atlwelve / Has not Boz made somebody 
ask Sammy Veller, or some one else, the question — Did you ever see a dead donkey ? Did 
you ever see any body that ever saw a dead donkey? Let any one take up the census and 
figure out the cost of supporting ail the horses in the United States, and then strike off one- 
third of that sum, which would be saved by substituting them with mules, and he cannot fail 
to be amazed to think how many good and beneficent things might be accomplished by such 
a savings fund. Let him calculate wiiat an enormous sum this saving would pay the interest 
of. True, the census has been taken in many cases with so little skill, and so much care- 
lessness, that it is impossible to found upon it any calculations on statistical and economical 
questions of the highest interest. — In regard, Ibr example, to the very subject in hand — on 
turning to it, for data to form an opinion of the waste of national means which is committed 
by the use of horses instead of mules, for the common drudgery and uses of agriculture — a 
question of obvious importance, and one which any political economist might suppose would 
be raised by any curious inquirer or practical statesman; wiiat do we find ? Truly, that 
those who have taken the census, have mingled horses and mules under one head, and left 
the investigator of one of the most important problems in politico-ugiicultural economy 
without any means for its solution approachin;j to exactness! In the state of New-York, 
for example, instead of giving for eacli county the number of each, both horse and mule, the 
census tells us the gross number of " horses and mules !" Of these, jumbled together, 
the number is set down at 474,543. — In Maryland, " horses and mules," 92,220. — In tha 
vrhole Union, horses and mules, 4,335,6(J9. As befbre remarked, every reader may work his 
own sum. In Maryland we suppose it to be a large allowance to say that of the 92,220 
"horses and mules," there are in the whole state 17,220 of the latter, leaving 75,000 horses. 
In South Carolina the expense of the mule is rated at one-half that of the horse — but sup- 
posing the horse to be more expensive than the mule by only $10 per annum, and here is an 
unnecessary annual outlay, or deduction from the agricultural resources of the state, of 
$750,000 ! : In how many years would that sum extinguish the state debt ? How long would it 
require, with such a sum, to finish the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal — cutting one, pari passu, 
from Georgetown to Baltimore, which ought to be done ? How many schools would such a 
sum establish — how much knowledge would it diffuse, and power create 1 for nothing is truer<i* 
than the French maxim, le savoir est puissance 1 Who will say that our theme, in this view 
of the subject, does not swell at once into a question of national wealth arjd importance, that 
ought to command the regard of every friend and promoter of the agricultural and of the 
public interest? 

Observers, of much more than ordinary experience, entertain the belief that a mule can 
be kept in good order, at the same work, on one-half the quantity of corn or oats necessarv 
for a horse, provided he stands at hay, of which he will consume, they say, at least twenty- 
five per cent, more than a horse. 

At Ellicott's large iron works the feed for one horse is ten common-sized ears of corn three 
times a day, while that for a mule is seven ears twice a day ; and so, it may be added, while 
horses and mules were employed on portions of tlie Baltimore and Ohio Rail-Road, the feed. 



THE ASS AND THE MULE. 431 

OS has been stated by one of the superintendents, was two bushels of chop (rye) and one 
bushel of corn a day for six horses : the same number of mules g^ttting one and a-half bushels 
corn only — our informant entertains tlie common impression that soft food is not suitable for 
the mule, and that chopped rye, especially, is ill-adapted to his constitution, scourino- him, as 
it is said to do negroes, who have a great aversion to the substitution of corn with occasional 
rations of rye, when the owner happens to have a larger supply of the latter than of the 
former; unground grain, in a word, of whatever kind, answers best for the nmle — though it 
may be contended that when ground the stomach can extract more completely its nutiitioua 
qualities, it is not to be forgotten that tiie toll for grinding is in no case less tlian an eighth 
for the miller, besides rats, and the labour of sending to mill ! 

The impressions of Mr. Andrew Ellicott, as to the economy and powers of the mule, so- 
licited because of his extraordinary opportunities to speak upon the subject, cannot be better 
given than in his own words : 

"A mule, with one feed of six quarts of oats or rye, and furnished with good hay, will be 
supported in good order. A team of six mules, kept at hay, can be supported witli one bushel 
and a half of ship-stuft' with cut straw — or with one bushel of corn, divided into two feeds, 
per day. They do not require water in as great quantity, or as often as a horse, but they 
thrive better by being watered often. 

"A mule weighing 7001bs., at the Patuxcnt Furnaces, carries daily fifteen tons of ore, one 
and a half tons of shells, slag and sand ten tons, and three tons of siftings and dirt from the 
ore kilns. — The ore and shells are hauled up an elevation of thirty feet, and a distance of three 
hundred yards; the balance of the above quantities is hauled about the same distance, tliough 
at less elevation. This one mule has been at work at this rate since 1836, a period of six 
years. 

" Mules are not subject to ' Botts.' Bleeding at the mouth will cure them of nearly every 
disease ; and by being turned out on pasture, will recover from almost any accident. This 
is wonderfully the case. Out of about one hundred mules, at the works, we have not lost, 
on an average, one in two years. We do not recollect ever to have seen a "wind-broken" 
ene. They are scarcely ever defective in the hoofs, and although we keep them regularly 
shod, it is not near so important to do so, as in the case of a horse. Their skin is tougher 
than that of a horse, and, consequently, are not so much worried by flies, nor do they suffer 
as much with the heat of summer. They are 'truer' in starling, and never give up if well 
driven. They are driven in the stages between Winchester and Staunton in Virginia. 

"The instinct of the mule is very strong; and he has a much better memory, belter judg- 
ment, and requires, in a greater degree, kind treatment. The manner in which he has been 
treated by his driver can always be told by the temper he exhibits in the presence of that 
functionary. If well-used, they are very docile and tractabie, and show an attachment for 
their care-takers — but if abused, or beaten, become exceedingly vicious and unmanageable, 
and manifest, for a long time, a recollection of such treatment. We have known them kick 
at, and endeavour to injure, one who has beaten them, after a lapse of tliree weeks. If they 
go astray, they may generally be found by pursuing a direct course towards the place from 
whence they were purchased. Their driver can go into their stable, after they become ac- 
quainted with him, at all hours in the night, without molestation, while it would be very 
dangerous for a stranger to attempt it. 

"The ugly-headed mule, or that approximating the nearest to the Jack, is the hardiest, 
while the handsomest and largest is generally interior in value to the rniddle-sized. Our 
teams are very often out from sunrise to late in the night — not feeding at noon, and are in 
first rate order." 

Here, as well as anywhere else, may be introduced the proof in support of the "Norfolk 
case of tiie breeding mule," referred to by General Shelby. Whatever doubt may arise here- 
after, there is none now, of the truth of the fuel. Were it worth the trouble, the testimony 
might be had of yet living witnesses, the principal one, a most respec'able farmer and gen- 
tleman, having died since this account was published. 

We are indebted for a copy of the memoir of this extraordinary case from Ruffin's Maga- 
2\ne, where it would not have gained admittance if not well founded, to the kindness of thai 
observant naturalist, and zealous oromoter of useful industry — Doctor G. B. Smith, of Balti. 
more. 

Baltimore, April 1, 1842. 

Dear Sir: — I comply with your request with pleasure. The case of breeding by a muip 
is recorded authentically in the Farmer's Register, volume 2, page 389 ; and volume 3. 
page 440. Supposing it no more thap probable that you have not the Register to relli to, 
uid having half an hour's leisure, I proceed to copy the articles : — 



432 THE ASS AND THE MULE. 

From the Farmer^s Register, Vol, 2, page 3. 

A BREEDING MULE. 

To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. 

Spring Hill, Nansemoud County (Va.,) May 2d, 1S34. 

A Circumstance has occurred on my plantation, which seems to be against the general 
principles of nature. On the 23d of April, 1834, a female mule of mine had a colt, never 
suspected by nic, until I saw its birth. I had worked her hard all last year, upon the farm, 
and on the rail-road, through the winter, hauling marl, and all the month of March, hauling 
loffs from a distance of two miles, si.\ loads a-day, and thirty logs each load, making twenty- 
four miles each day. She was at work all April, hauling out manure, until the 23d. On 
that day I had gone, a little before night, from the labours of the day, owing to one of my 
family being sick ; and about 5 o'clock in the evening, the boy that drove the mule, came 
running to the house, saying that Jenny (for that was her name) had a colt. I went out, 
and in a few minutes thereafter, the thivg (for I know not what to call it,) was delivered, 
and is doing well. I never suspected the mother's being with foal, because I thought it con- 
trary to nature, though I had for four or six weeks observed that her belly was enlarged, and 
so much so, that the cart had to be altered, as it rubbed her. She showed no other signs — 
so I did not suspect it. She has little or no bag, though I believe she gives a plenty of suck, 
as her cldld is now getting fat. At first it was very poor. Now you will ask what is the 
father of it? I cannot say — but believe, a colt of mine, now three years old. He ran out on 
Sundays, with the mules, and the black boy tells me that there was cause for such an effect. 
So it is, the mule has a colt, and it is exactly like the young stallion. If this is a matter of 
curiosity, you may give publicity to it, under my name. Hundreds can prove the fact, and 
several can testify that they were present at the birth. 

John Thompson Kilby. 

P S. The mother certainly is a mule, for she was foaled mine, and is now ten years old. 



From the Farmer^ s Register, Vol. 2, page 389. 

DEATH OF THE MULE'S COLT. 

To the Editor of the Farmer's Register. 

Nansemond, 22d October, 1834, 
As the birth of the phenomenon, my mule-colt, was recorded in your Register, so I wilJ 
with your permission, record his death, that the learned may speculate upon it. He waa 
born, as I informed you, and as will he seen in your Register of May or June, 1834, on the 
23d of April, 1834; and died on the 20th of October, 1834, at night. The particulars are as 
follows : on Friday evening late, I was informed that the mule-colt was sick ; upon examin- 
ing him, I thought he had the staggers. He was freely bled, and put in a lot, and went to 
eating fodder; it was now dark, and I determined that in the morning I would commence 
blistering, purging, and the use of injections, which I have never known to fail if taken in 
lime. But in the morning he had the lockjaw, and so nothing could be done effectually for 
him, and he died on the Monday nigiit following. He was weaned, and running in a good 
pasture with a horse-colt, also just weaned, which is doing well. Now was it the staggers, or 
what disease ? Or was ever a colt delivered of a mule known to live ? I should have been 
much pleased to raise it, and to have known if it could continue its species. 

John T. Kilby. 



From the Farmer''s Register, Vol. 2, page 440. 

ANOTHER COLT FROM A MULE. 

To the Editor of the Farmer's Register. 

Spriiig Hill, Nansemond County, Va., 17th September, 1835. 
Permit me to record in your Register, the birth of a second mule colt of mine, on the 13th 
of August, 1835. The same mule brought a fine /e?naZe colt, jet black, save a star in its 
forehead, and one foot white. It partakes, as did the other, more of the horse than of the 
mule, and is a much finer colt. It can be seen in my pasture by any and every one. 

John T. Kilbv. 



THE ASS AND THE MULE. 433 

From the Farmer^s Register, Vol. 4, page 357. 

DEATH OF THE SECOND MULE'S COLT. 

To the Editor of the Farmer's Register. 

Spring Hill, Nansemond County,, (Va.,) Aug. 26, 18^6. 
Dea: Sir : — Permit me to record, in your Regfister, the death of my second colt, the issue 
of a mare mule, by a liorse. The colt was born in August, 1835, and died on this day, hav- 
ing been sick two or three days. Having lost one, I was desirous of raising this. It was 
m fine order — the mother doing nothing, upon a good pasture. It is true, the mother nor 
the colt had not been housed until the night before it was taken sick. I had another colt 
running in the same pasture, treated in the same way, and is as yet doing well. Everything 
was done for the mule's colt that could be done, but it suffered much and died at last. A 
passage could not be gotten through it, and when dead, I had it opened and all timt could be 
discovered, was, that everything that had been given it was then in its stomach and had 
never passed on to the bowels. It was blistered on its forehead — the blister drew well, but 
in vain : and a question arises with me — can an offspring delivered of tlie body of a mongrel 
be raised ? That question I should like to hear solved by those better informed upon that 
subject than I am. If it should be thought to be possible to raise one, I will then try the 
mare mule with a Jack, as suggested by A. B. C. (in No. 4, vol. 4,) whose opinion I should 
like to have upon this subject. John T. Kilby. 

There, sir — you have the whole history of the breeding mule, so far as published to my 
knowledge. It seems to me, you ought to write to Mr. Kilby to furnish the subsequent 
nistory of this mule, and the success that may have attended any subsequent attempt to breed 
and raise the foal. I would enclose the letter to Mr. Ruflin, who knows K.'s post-ofSce, and 
will forward it to him." 

We should have have done so, but that we have understood that Mr. Kilby has since deceased. 
There are, we may observe, a few other such cases recorded " in the books," but in al» 
they seem to have come into the world as unwelcome and monstrous exceptions to a general 
decree ; and then to have soon perished, as if Providence would stamp with early decay, a'J 
fruits of a passion so universal and intense, whenever it is gratified in violation of its edicts, 
and in a way that would engender infinite disorder and confusion. 

J. Si S> 



THE EN» 

3lE 



INDEX. 



Aaron Burr, performance of, 57; height of, 
65. 

Acetabulum, description of the, 280. 

Acini, description of, 231. 

Acetic acid, its properties, 398. 

Adeps, properties of, 399. 

^tliiop's mineral, an alterative, 411. 

/Etlmsa cynapium, poisonous, 226. 

Age, natural, of the horse, 150 ; of the horse 
as indicated by the teeth, 145 ; other indi- 
cations of, 150. 

Air, a supply of pure, necessary for the health 
of the horse, 366. 

Alcohol, its medicinal properties, 399. 

Aloes, Barbadoes, far preferable to Cape, 399 ; 
description of the different kinds of, 400 ; 
principal adulterations of, 401 ; tincture of, 
its composition and use, ib. 

Alteratives, the best, 401 ; nature and effect 
of, ib. 

Alum, the use of, in restraining purging, 401 ; 
solution of, a good wash for grease, ih.; 
burnt, a stimulant and caustic for wounds, 
ib. 

American Turf Register, 24 ; Sir Archy in- 
debted to for his fame, 25 ; established by 
Mr. Skinner in 1829, 24; value of horses 
before its establishment, 25. 

Americus, performance of, 57, 58. 

American Trotter, 49 ; miscellaneous exam- 
ples of, 58 ; pedigrees of, 54. 

America, best races in, 35 ; best pacing in, 58. 

American turf, opinions of B. O. Tayloe, 23, 
24, 32. 

Ammonia, given in flatulent colic, 401 ; va- 
pour of, plentifully extricated from dung 
and urine, most injurious to the eyes and 
lungs, ib. 

Ancliylosis of bones, what, 172. 

Andrewetta, race won by, 38. 

Animal poisons, an account of, 225. 

Animals, zoological divisions of, 67. 

Anise-seed, its properties, 401. 

Anodyne, opium the only one to be depended 
on, 402. 

Antea-spinatus muscle, description of the, 260. 

Antimonial powder, a good febrifuge, 402. 

Antimony, black sulphuret of^ method of de- 
tecting its adulterations, 402; used as an 
alterative, ib. ; tartarized, used as a nau- 
seant, diaphoretic and worm medicine, ib. 

Antispasmodics, nature of, 402. 

Apoplexy, nature and treatment of, 95. 

Aqueous fluid, an, why placed in the laby- 
rinth of the ear, 81 ; humour of the eye, 
description of the, 89. 

Arabian, Lindsay's, 34; P?-ny, 24; Darley, 
21 ; Godolphin, 21 ; Ass, 4:i4. 



Arbaces, race won by, 38. 

Arched form of the skull, advantage of, 77. 

Ariel, race won by, 36. 

Arietta, race won by, 37. 

Arm, description of the, 261 ; action of, ex. 
plained on the principle of the lever, 257, 
262; extensor muscles of the, 261, 262; 
flexor muscles of the, 263; full and swell- 
ing, advantage of, ib. : should be muscular 
and long, 261 ; fracture of the, 328. 

Arsenic, medical use of, 402 ; treatment under 
poison by, 227. 

Arteries, description of the, 161 ; of the arm, 
261 ; of the face, 124 ; neck, 161 ; shoulder 
255. 

Ascaris, account of the, 240. 

Ascot course, length of the, 41. 

Ass, history of, 419 ; account of two presented 
to Gen. Wasliington, 421 ; opinion of him 
by Prof. Wilson, ih.; ditto by Gen. Shelby, 

421, 426 ; ditto by J. N. Hambleton, Esq., 
421,427; ditto by Col. N. Goldsborough, 

422, 428 ; the Arabian, 424 ; price of, 427 ; 
cruel prejudice against, 419 ; mentioned in 
scripture, ib.; different races of, 420. 

Astor, race won by, 38. 
Astragalus, account of the, 285. 
Atlas, anatomy of the, 157. 
Auscultation, the importance of, 193. 
Awful, performance of, 57 ; height of, 65. 

Back, general description of the, 171 ; proper 

form of the, ib. ; long and short, compara- 

five advantages of, 172; anatomy of the, 

171 ; muscles of the, 173. 
Backing, of the colt, 356 ; a bad habit of the 

horse, usual origin of it, ih. 
Back-sinews, sprain of the, 269 ; thickening 

of the, constituting unsoundness, 395. 
Balie Peyton, race won by, 38. 
Balls, the manner of giving, 402; the manner 

of making, ib. 
Barbary horse, description of, 21. 
Barbs or paps, treatment of, 154. 
Bark, Peruvian, the properties of it, 403. 
Barley, considered as food for the horse, 375. 
Barnacles, use of the, as a mode of restraint, 

345. 
Ear-shoe, description and use of, 341. 
Bars, description and office of the, 29~ ; proper 

paring of, for shoeing, 299 ; folly of cutting 

them away, 298; removal of, a cause of 

contraction, ib. ; corns, ib. 
Basilicon ointment, 403. 
Bay horses, description of, 387. 
Bay Malton, performances of, 30. 
Beach horses, 26. 
Beacon course, length of, tl. 

435; 



436 



INDEX. 



Beans, good for hardly worked horses, and 
that liave a tendency to purge, 376, 379 ; 
should always be crushed, 376. 

Bearing-rein, the use and abuse of, 140. 

Bees-wing, race won by, 37. 

Beet, the nutritive matter in, 379. 

Belladonna, extract of, 403. 

Bendigo, race won by, 36. 

Bcrtrand, race won by, 38. 

Bethune, race won by, 36. 

Betsy Baker, performance of, 57 ; height of, 65. 

Biceps fenioris, account of the, 282. 

Bile, account of the, 230, 231. 

Billy, performance of, 58. 

Bishoping the teeth, description of, 149. 

Biting, a bad habit, and how usually acquired, 
357, 

Bit, the, often too sharp, 140 ; sometimes got 
into the mouth, 358. 

Bitting of the colt, 252. 

Black horses, description and character of, 
387. 

Black Joke, performance of, 59. 

Black Maria, races won by, 36, 37, 38. 

Blacknose, races won by, 37. 

Bladder, description of the, 245 ; inflamma- 
tion of, symptoms and treatment, 246 ; 
neck of, ib. ; stone in the, ib. 

Bleeding, best place for general, 189, 345; 
directions for, 161, 189; from veins rather 
than arteries, 161 ; finger should be on the 
pulse during, ib. ; importance of, in inflam- 
mation, ib. ; at the toe described, 190 ; com- 
parison between the fleam and lancet, 189. 

Blindness, usual method of discovering, 89 ; 
discovered by the pupil not dilating or con- 
tracting, ib. ; of one eye, ib. 

Blistering all round at once, barbarity and 
danger of, 347, 404 ; aft^er firing, absurdity 
and cruelty of, 346, 361. 

Blisters, best composition of, 346 ; the differ- 
ent kinds and uses of, ib. ; best mode of 
applying, ib.; caution with regard to their 
application, i6. ; the principle of their ac- 
tion, 403; use of, in inflammation, 346; 
comparison between them and rowels and 
setons, 350. 

Blood, change in after bleeding, 190 ; changes 
in during respiration, 179 ; coagulation of, 
189; horses, very subject to contraction, 
308; spavin, nature and treatment of, 188. 

Bloody urine, 245. 

Blue Dick, races won by, 38. 

Cog spavin, nature and treatment of, 189, 287, 
288. 

Bole- Armenian, medical use of, 403. 

Bones, strength does not depend on the size 
of, 28. 

Bone-spavin, nature and treatment of, 288. 

Bonny Boy, performance of, 58. 

Bonnets-o' Blue, race won by, 36. 

Boston, race won by, 39. 

Bots in the stomach, natural history of, 224 ; 
cot usually injurious, ib. 

Bowels, inflammation of the, 235. 

Brain, description of the, 78; its cortical and 



cineritious composition, ib. ; the office of 
each, 78, 79 ; compression of the, 76, 94 
pressure on the, ib. : inflammation of the, 98. 

Bran, as food for the horse, 376. 

Breaking in should commence in the second 
winter, 251 ; description of its various 
stages, ib. ; necessity of gentleness and pa- 
tience in, 251, 252 ; of the farmer's horse, 
251 ; of the hunter or hackney, ib. 

Breast, muscles of the, 175. 

Breathing, the mechanism of, 179. 

Breeding, qualities of the mare of as much 
importance as those of .he horse, 248; the 
peculiarity of form and constitution inhe 
rited, ib. ; in-and-in, observations on, 26, 249. 

Breeds, good effects of crossing them, 29 ; 
bad effects of ditto, ib. 

Broken down, what, 270. 

Broken knees, treatment of, 391 ; method of 
judging of the danger of, ib. ; when healed 
not unsoundness, but the form and action 
of the horse should be carefully examined, i6. 

Broken wind, nature and treatment of, 213, 
influenced much, and often caused by the 
manner of feeding, 215; how distinguished 
from thick wind, ib. 

Brooklyn Maid, performance of, 57. I 

Bronchial tubes, description of the, 166. 

Bronchitis, nature and treatment of, 205. 

Bronchocele, account of, 197. ' 

Bronchotomy, the operation of, 165. 

Brood mare, description of the, 248; should 
not be too old, ib. ; treatment of, after co- 
vering, 250 ; after foaling, ib. 

Brown horses, description oY, 387. 

Brown, Capt. Thomas, opinions of with re- 
gard to climate, 32. 

Bryony, dangerous, 226. 

Buckeye, race won by, 37. 

Buccinator muscle, description of the, 125. 

Bull, the, Thompson's description of the, 54. 

Cabbage, the nutritive matter in, 379. 

Caecum, description of the, 229. 

Cadmus, race won by, 37. 

Calamine powder, account of, 417. 

Calculi in the intestines, 238. 

Calkins, advantages and disadvantages of, 

336 ; should be placed on both heels, ib. 
Camden, race won by, 37. 
Camphor, the medical use of, 403. 
Canker of the foot, nature and treatment of, 

320. 
Cannon, or shank-bone, description of the, 267 
Cantharides, form the best blister, 225, 404 , 

given for the cure of glanders, 225, 404. 
Capillary vessels, the, 185. 
Capivi, balsam of, 406. 
Capped hock, nature and treatment of, 278 - 

description of, 278, 290 ; although not al 

ways unsoundness there should be a special 

warranty against it, 391. 
Capsicum Berries, their stimulating efTect, 

404. 
Carbon of the blood got rid of in resoiratior 

206. 



INDEX, 



43- 



Carbonate of iron, a mild tonic, 409. 

Carraways, a good aromatic, 404. 

Carrots, excellent effects of in disease, 378 ; 
ihe nutritive matter in, 379. 

Cartilages of the foot, description and action 
of the,,300; ossifieation of the, 321, 394; a 
cause of unsoundness, 394. 

Caruncula lacrymalis, the, 117. 

Cascarilla Bark, a tonic and aromatic, 404. 

Cassandra, race won by, 36. 

Castley, Mr., on restiveness in the horse, 353. 

Castor-oil, not a purgative for the horse, 404. 

Castration, method of, 254 ; proper period for, 
ib. ; the operation by torsion, ih. 

Cataract in the eye, nature of, 90 ; cannot be 
operated on in the horse, ib. ; method of 
examination for, ib. ; the occasional appear- 
ance and disappearance of, 120. 

Catarrh, description and treatment of, 192 ; 
distinguished from glanders, 193 ; distin- 
guished from inflammation of the lungs, 
192; epidemic, 197. 

Catarrhal fever, nature and treatment of, 
192. 

Catechu, a good astringent, method of giving, 
and adulterations of, 404. 

Catheter, description of one, 247. 

Cato, performances of, 57 ; height of, 65. 

Caustic, an account of the best, 405, 

Cawl, description of the, 231. 

Cenlreville Trotting course, 63. 

Cerebellum, description of the, 78. 

Cerebrum, description of the, 78. 

Chalk, its medicinal use in the horse, 4u5. 

Chaff, attention should be paid to the good- 
ness of the ingredients, 373 ; best coniposi- 
tion of, ib. ; when given to the hard-worked 
horse, much time is saved for repose, ih. ; 
quantity of necessary for different kinds of 
horses, ib. 

Chamomile, a mild tonic, 405 

Chancellor, performances of, 59. 

Channel of the jaws, what, 144. 

Charcoal, useful in a poultice, and as an anti- 
septic, 405. 

Charges, composition and use of^ 405. 

Charlotte Temple, performances of, 57; heiglit 
of, 65. 

Chest, anatomy of the, 167 ; proper form of 
the, 168, 169; cut of the, 167 ; the import- 
ance of depth of, 167 ; narrow and rounded, 
comparison between, 169 ; the broad chest, 
170 ; founder, description of, 175, 

Chestnut horses, varieties of, 387, 

Chinked in the chine, what, 172. 

Chloride of lime, an excellent disinfectant, 
412 ; of soda, useful in unhealthy ulcers, 
415. 

Chorea, 109, 

Choroid coat of the eye, description and use 
of the, 87. 

Chyle, the formation of, 229. 

Ciliary processes of the eye, description of 
the, 89. 

Cineritous matter of the brain, nature and 
function of the, 79. 
37* 



Clara Howard, races won by, 37, 38. 

Clicking, cause and remedy of, 362. 

Clipping, recommendation of, 383, 

Clips, when necessary, 337, 

Clover, considered as an article of food, 378 
379, 

Clysters, the composition and great usefulness 
of, 405 ; directions as to the administration 
of, ib. 

Coat, fine, persons much too solicitous to pro 
cure it, 371. 

Cocktail horse, mode of docking, 351, 

Coffin-bone, description of the, 300 ; the la- 
mellffi, or leaves of, ih. ; fracture of, 383, 

Coffin-joint, sprain of, 277, 

Cold, common, description and treatment of, 
192. 

Colic, flatulent, account of, 234 ; spasmodic, 
description and treatment of, 232, 

Colocynth, is poisonous, 226. 

Colon, description of the, 229, 230. 

Colour, remarks on, 386. 

Colt, early treatment of the, 251 ; mules, death 
of, 454, 455. 

Columbus, performances of, 57 ; height of, 65, 

Complexus major, description of the, 159 ; 
minor, description of the, 160. 

Concave-seated shoe, the, described and re- 
commended, 337. 

Confidence, performances of, 57 ; height, 65, 

Conium maculatum, poisonous, 226. 

Conjunctiva, description of the, 87 ; appear- 
ance of, how far a test of inflammation, ib. 

Consumption, account of, 215. 

Contraction of the foot, nature of, 305, 391 ; 
tlie peculiarity of the lameness produced 
by, 308 ; how far connected with the navi- 
cular disease, 307 ; is not the necessary 
consequence of shoeing, ib. ; produced by 
neglect of paring, 306 ; wearing the shoes 
too long, 305 ; want of natural moisture, 
306 ; the removal of the bars, ib. ; not so 
much produced by litter as imagined, 307 ; 
the cause rather than the consequence of 
thrush, 305 ; best mode of treating, 308, 309 ; 
rarely permanently cured, 309 ; does not 
necessarily imply unsoundness, 391 ; al- 
though not necessarily unsoundness, should 
have a special warranty against it, ib. ; blood 
horses very subject to, 308. 

Convexity of the eye, the proper, not sufii- 
ciently attended to, 87. 

Copaiba, account of the resin, 406. 

Copper, the combinations of, used in veteri- 
nary practice, 406. 

Corded veins, what, 136. 

Cordials, the use and abuse of, in the horse, 
406. 

Cornea, description of the, 87 ; mode of exa- 
mining the, ib. ; its prominence or flatness, 
ib.; should be perfectly transparent, ib. 

Corns, the nature and treatment of, 317 ; pro 
duced by cutting away the bars, ib.; not 
paring out the foot between the crust and 
bars, ib. ; pressure, ib. ; very difficult to 
cure, 318; constitute unsoundness, 391. 



438 



INDEX. 



Coronary ligament, description of the, 297 ; 
the crust principally produced from, ib. ; 
ring, description of the, ib. 

Coronet, description of the, ib. 

Corrosive sublimate, treatment under poi- 
son by, 227 ; a good tonic for farcy, 227, 
411. 

Cortical substance of the brain, description 
and fraction of, 78. 

Cough, the nature and treatment of, 209, 210 ; 
constitutes unsoundness, 392 ; the occasional 
difficulty with regard to this, 395. 

Cow hocks, description of, 291. 

Cradle, a safe restraint upon tlie horse when 
blistered, 347. 

Cramp, the nature and treatment of, 106. 

Cream-coloured horses, account of, 38G ; pecu- 
liarity in their eyes, 88. 

Cream of tartar, a mild diuretic, 414. 

Creasote, its use in veterinary practice, 407. 

Creath, races won by, 36, 37. 

Crib-biting, description of, 361 ; causes and 
cure, ib. ; injurious to the horse, ib, ; con- 
stitutes unsoundness, 361, 392. 

Cricoid cartilage of the windpipe, the, 163. 

Cropping of the ear, absurdity of, 81. 

Crossing the breeds, good effect of, 29 ; bad 
effects of ditto, ib. 

Crotoii, the farina of, used as physic, 407. 

Crust of the foot, description of the, 295 ; com- 
position of the, 296; consisting within of 
numerous horny plates, 298; proper degree 
of it, slanting, 296; proper thickness of the, 
ib.; brittleness of, remedy for, 298; the 
cause of sandcrack, 311. 

Crystalline lens, description of the, 90. 

Cub, race won by, 37. 

Cuboid bones, description of the, 285. 

Cuneiform bones, description of the, 77, 
285. 

Curbs, nature and treatment of, 287 ; consti- 
tute unsoundness, 392. 

Cuticle, description of the, 381. 

Cutis, or true skin, account of the, ib. 

Cutting, cause and cure of, 275, 276, 362 ; 
constitutes unsoundness, 393 ; away the 
foot, unfounded prejudice against, 306. 

Dandriff, the nature of, 381. 

Darley Arabian, 21. 

Deafness, 122. 

Depressor labii inferioris muscle, description 
of the, 125. 

Diabetes, the nature and treatment of, 245. 

Diaphoretics, their nature and effects, 407. 

Diaphragm, description of the, 176; rupture 
of, 177 ; its Connexion with respiration, 178. 

Digestion, the process of it described, 222. 

Digestives, their nature and use, 407. 

Digitalis, highly recommended in colds and 
all inflammatory complaints, 407. 

Dilator magnus lateralis muscle, description 
of the, 265 ; naris lateralis muscle, descrip- 
tion of the, ib. 

Distance, 42. 

Diuretic medicines, the use and abuse of, 408. 



Docking, method of performing, 350. 

Dogs, danger of encouraging them about the 

stable, 100. 
Doncaster course, tiie length of, 42. 
Don Juan, performances of, 57. 
Dosoris, race won by, 37. 
Drinks, how to administer, 408; comparison 

between them and balls, ib. 
Dropsy of the chest, 219 ; of the heart, 183. 
Drover, performance of, 58. 
Drum of tiie ear, description and use of the, 

81. 
Duane, race won by, 39. 
Dun horse, account of the, 386. 
Duodenum, description of the, 229 ; diseases 

of the, ib. 
Dura mater, description of the, 78. 
Dutchman, performances of, 57, 60, 61, 62; 

height of, 65. 
Dutchess, performances of, 57. 
D. D. Tompkins, performances of, 57; height 

of, 65. 
Duvall, Judge G., services rendered to the 

turf by, 25. 

Ear, description of the external parts, 81 ; in- 
ternal parts, ib. ; bones of the, description 
and use of, 81, 82; labyrinth of the, 81 ; 
indicative of the temper, ib. ; clipping and 
singeing, cruelty of, ib.; treatment of 
wounds or bruises of, 121 ; cruel operations 
on the, ib. 

Earl of Margrave, race won by, 37. 

Eclipse, his performances, 30, 39, 41 ; was a 
high-blower. 

Edwin Forrest, performances of, 57; height 
of, 65. 

Elasticity of the ligament of the neck, 77. 

Elaterium, poisonous, 226. 

Elbow, (he proper form and inclination of, 
264 ; capped, 261 ; fracture of, 328 ; punc- 
tured, 262. 

Ellen Thompson, performances of, 57. 

Emetic tartar, used as a nauseant, diaphoretic, 
and worm medicine, 402. 

Empress, performance of, 59. 

Enamel of the teeth, account of the, 145. 

English Eclipse, 24. 

Englisii steeple-chase, description of, 50. 

English aristocracy, advantages of, 32. 

English trotters, examples of, 51. 

Ensiform cartilage, the, 169. 

Entanglement of the intestines, description 
of, 239. 

Enteritis, account of, 235. 

Epidemic catarrh, nature and treatment ofj 
197 ; malignant, nature and treatment o^ 
203. 

Epiglottis, description of the, 163. 

Epilepsy, nature and treatment of, 109. 

Epsom salts, used as a purgative, 41Si, 

Epsom course, the length of, 41. 

Ergot of rye, the action of, 415. 

Ethmoid bone, description of the, 77. 

Euphorbium, the abominable use of it, 226. 

Eutaw, race won by, 39. 



INDEX. 



430 



Ewe-necl5, unsightliness and inconvenience 
of, 160 

Exchanges of horses stand on the same ground 
as sales, 397. 

ICxercise, directions for, 371 ; the necessity 
of regular, ib. ; want of, producing grease, 
294 ; more injury done by the want of it 
than by the hardest work, 372. 

Expansion shoe, description and use of the, 
341 

Extensor pedis muscle, description of the, 
284. 

Eye, description of the, 82 ; cut of the, 86 ; 
fracture of the orbit of the, 93 ; healthy 
appearance of the, 85 ; diseases of the, 116 ; 
inflammation of, common, 117; ditto, spe- 
cific, ib.; ditto, causes, 118; ditto, medical 
treatment of, 118, 119; ditto, untractable 
nature of, 119, 120; ditto, consequences 
of, 119 ; ditto, marks of recent, 393 ; ditto, 
constitutes unsoundness, ib. ; ditto, heredi- 
tary, 119 ; method and importance of exa- 
mining it, 87, 90; indicative of the temper, 
82; the pit above, indicative of the age, 71 ; 
muscles of the, 92. 

Eyebrows, substitute for, 83. 

Eyelashes, description of, 83 ; folly of singe- 
ing them, 84. 

Eyelid, description of, S3, 84. 

Eyelids, diseases of the, 116. 

Exostosis on the orbit of the eye, 94. 

Face, description of the, 122; cut of the mus- 
cles, nerves, and blood-vessels of, 125. 

Falling in of tlie foot, what, 304. 

False quarter, nature and treatment of, 313. 

Fanny Wyatt, race won by, 39. 

Farcy, a disease of tlie absorbents of the skin, 
136, 137; connected with glanders, 136; 
both generated and infectious, 138 ; symp- 
toms of, 137; treatment of, 138; buds, 
what, 137 ; the effect of cantharides in, 
138, 139 ; diniodide of copper, 138. 

Fashion, perfi)rmance of, 39 ; the winner of 
tlie race of races, 33. 

Feather-weight, a, 42. 

Feeding, high, connected with grease, 294; 
regular periods of, necessity of attending 
to, 379 ; manner of, has much influence on 
broken wind, 214. 

Feet, the general management of, 380 ; atten- 
tion to, and stopping at night, recommend- 
ed, ib. 

Felt soles, description and use of, 341. 

Femur, fracture of the, 329. 

Fetlock, description of the, 275. 

Fever, idiopathic or pure, 187; symptoms of, 
ib.; symptomatic, 188. 

Fibula, description of the, 283. 

Filly by Imp. Trustee, race won by, 37. 

Firing, the principle on which resorted to, 
347 ; mode of applying, ib. ; should not 
penetrate the skin, 349 ; absurdity and 
cruelty of blistering after, ib. ; horse should 
not be used for some months after, ib. 

Fistula lacrymalis, 84; in the poll, 157. 



Fits, symptoms, causes, and treatment of, 
109. 

Fleam and lancet, comparison between them, 
189. 

Flexor of the arm, description of the, 263; 
metatarsi muscle, description of the, 284; 
pedis perforatus, the perforated muscle, de- 
scription of the, 263, 284 ; pedis perforans, 
the perforating muscle, description of the, 
264, 269, 284. 

Fiirtilla, race won by, 38. 

Flying Childers, the ne plus ultra of success 
reached in his days, 29. 

Foal, early treatment of, 251 ; early handling 
of, important, ib. ; importance of liberal 
feeding of, ib. ; time for weaning, ih. 

Fomentations, theory and use of, 409. 

Food of the horse, observations on, 372 ; a list 
of the usual articles of, 374 ; should be ap- 
portioned to the work, 373. 

Foot, description of the, 295 ; diseases of the, 
302 ; canker, 320 ; corns, 317; contraction, 
305; false quarter, 313; founder, acute, 
302 ; chronic laminitis, 304 ; inflammation, 
ib. ; navicular joint disease, 309 ; overreach, 
312; prick, 315; pumiced, 304; quitter, 
313; sandcrack, 311; thrush, 318; tread, 
312; weakness, 321 ; wounds, 315 

Forceps, arterial, the use of, 190. 

Forehead, the different form of, in the ox and 
horse, 78. 

For.e-legs, description of, 255; diseases of 
them, 267 ; proper position of them, 278. 

Forge-water occasionally used, 409. 

Form, on the improvement of, 28. 

Founder, acute, symptoms, causes, and treat- 
ment of, 302; chronic, nature and treat- 
ment of, 304. 

Foxglove, strongly recommended in colds, 
and all fevers, 407, 408. 

Fracture of the skull, treatment of, 93 ; gene- 
ral observations on fractures, 322 ; of the 
skull, 323; orbit of the eye, 324; nasal 
bones, ib.; superior maxillary or upper jaw- 
bone, 325; inferior ditto, ib.; spine, 326; 
ribs, t6. ; pelvis, 327; tail, 328; limbs, i6.; 
shoulder, ib. ; arm, ib. ; elbow, ib. ; femur, 
329 ; patella, ib. ; tibia, ib. ; hock, 330 ; le^, 
ib.; sessamoid bones, 331; pastern, ib.; 
lower pastern, 332; coffin bone, 333; navi- 
cular bone, ib. 

Frog, horny, description of the, 299 ; sensible, 
description of the, 299, 301 ; ditto, action 
and use of the, 299 ; pressure, question of 
the, ib.; proper paring of, for shoeing, ib., 
diseases of the, ib. 

Frontal bones, description of the, 70; sinuses, 
description of the, 73; ditto, perforated to 
detect glanders, ib. 

Furze, considered as an article of food, 178, 

Gallatin, race won by, 37. 

Gall, account of the, 231 ; bladder, the horse 

has none, ib. 
Gall-stones, 243. 
Gazan, race won by, 37. 



440 



INDEX. 



Gentian, the best tonic for the horse, 40D. 
GeorjTe Martin, races won by, 36, 38. 
Gibbing-, a bad liabit, cause of, and means of 

lessening', 356. 
Gigs, formation of, 154. 
Ginger, an excellent aromatic and tonic, 409, 

417. 
Give and take plate, 42. 
Glanders, nature of, 129, 131 ; symptoms, 74, 

129, 134; slow progress of, 129, 131 ; ap- 
pearances of the nose in, 74, 129, 131 ; de- 
tected by injecting the frontal sinuses, 73 ; 
how distinguished from catarrh, 131 ; ditto 
from strangles, ib. ; connected with farcy, 

130, 132; treatment of, 135; causes, 133; 
both generated and contagious, 133, 134, 
429 ; oflenest produced by improper stable 
management, 133; mode of communica- 
tion, 134; prevention of, 135 ; account of 
its speedy appearance, 132, 133. 

Glands, enlarged, it depends on many circum- 
stances whether they constitute unsound- 
ness, 393. 

Glass-eye, nature and treatment of, 121. 

Glauber's salt, its effect, 416. 

Glutaei muscles, description of the, 281, 282. 

Godolphin Arabian, Sir Archy regarded as 
the, of America, 25. 

Goulard's extract, the use of it much over- 
valued, 412. 

Gracilis muscle, description of the, 281, 284. 

Grains, occasionally used for horses of slow 
Work, 375. 

Grapes on the lieels, treatment of, 294. 

Grasses, neglect of the farmer as to the pro- 
per mixture of, 377. 

Grease, nature and treatment of, 292 ; cause 
of, ib, ; farmer's horse not so subject to it 
as others, 294 ; generally a mere local com- 
plaint, 293. 

Greenwich Maid, performances of, 57 ; height, 
65. 

Grey Eagle, race won by, 37. 

Grey Medoc, race vi'on by, 39. 

Grey horses, account cf the different shades 
of, 386. 

Grinders, construction of the, 145. 

Grinding, of the food, accomplished by the 
mechanism of the joint of the lower jaw, 
146 ; swallowing without, 360. 

Grogginess, account of, 275. 

Grooming, as important as exercise to the 
horse, 370 ; opens the pores of the skin, and 
gives a fine coat, 371 ; directions for, ib. 

Grunter, the, description of, 215 ; is unsound, 
392. 

Gullet, description of the, 221 ; foreign bodies 
in, 223. 

Gum-arabic, for what purposes used, 398. 

Gutta jserena, nature and treatment of, 121. 

Habits, vicious or dangerous, 353. 

Hcematuria, 245. 

ilair, account of the, 381 ; question of cutting 

it from the heels, 295. 
Haras, established by Napoleon, 33. 



Haunch, description of the, 279 ; wide, ad- 
vantage of, ib, ; injuries of the, ib, ; joint, 
singular strength of it, ib. ; also of the thigh 
bones, advantage of the oblique direction 
of, ib. 

Haw, curious mechanism of the, 85; diseases 
of, 117; absurdity and cruelty of destroy- 
ing it, 85, 86. 

Hay, considered as food, 373 ; mowburnt, in 
jurious, 377 ; old preferable to new, ib. 

Head, anatomy of the, 70 ; the numerous 
bones composing it, the reason of this, 70, 
71 ; section of the. 72 ; beautiful provision 
for its support, 76. 

Healing ointment, account of the, 417. 

Hearing of the horse, the very acute, 81. 

Heart, description of the, 181 ; its action de 
scribed, 182; inflammation of the, 183 
dropsy of the, ib. 

Heels, question of cutting the hair froin them, 
295 ; low, disadvantage of, 322 ; proper par- 
ing of, for shoeing, 334; washing of the. 
producing grease, 294. 

Height of trotting horses, 64. 

Hellebore, white, used in inflammation of the 
lungs and fevers, 409 ; black, its use, ib. 

Hemlock, given in inflammation of the chest," 
410. 

Henry, match won by, 57 ; height, 65. 

Hepatic duct, the, 231. 

Hernia, the nature and treatment of, 240. 

Hide-bound, the nature and treatment of, 383. 

High-blower, a description of the, 195, 315 ; is 
unsound, 392. 

Hind legs, description of the, 279. 

Hip-joint, the great strength of the, 280. 

Hips, ragged, what, 279. 

Hobbles, description of the best, 344. 

Hock, the advantage of its numerous separate 
bones and ligaments, 290 ; capped, 278, 
291 ; cow, ib. ; description of the, 285 ; en- 
largement of the, nature of and how affect- 
ing soundness, 286, 393; inflammation of 
the small bones of, a frequent cause of 
lameness, 286, 287 ; the principal seal of 
lameness behind, 286; lameness of it, with- 
out apparent cause, 290 ; fracture of, 330. 

Hogs' lard, properties of, 399. 

Hoof, cut of the, 295 ; description of the, 296. 

Horn of the crust, secreted principally by the 
coronary ligament, 298 ; once separated 
from the sensible part within, will never 
again unite with it, ib. 

Hornet, sting of the, 225. 

Horse, the first allusion to him, 17; in England 
and America, 17; English, 20; Barb, 21; 
the different colours of the different breeds, 
386 ; his fossil remains found in every part 
of the world, 17, 31 ; the general manage- 
ment of, 366 ; sublime account of, by Job, 
18; first mention of race-horse in English 
annals, 21 ; Arabian race, 27, 28 height 
of trotting, 64; price of, in Solomon's time, 
18 ; sagacity of, ib. ; can see almost in dark^ 
ness, 88 ; English, improved under William 
the Conqueror, 2^ , 22 • zoological descrip 



INDEX. 



441 



tion of, 67 ; numerous in Britain at the in- 
vasion of the Romans, 20. 

Horse, Flanders, introduced by King John, 
?.2; Lombardy, imported by Edward II., 
tb ; Spanish, imported by Edward III., ib. ; 
Flemish, characteristics of, ib. ; Darby Ara- 
bian, 24 ; revolution in the system of breed- 
ing brought about by the invention of gun- 
powder, 22 ; first classification for war, the 
turf, the chase, the road, and the coach, ib. ; 
value of before the establishment of the 
Turf Register, 25 ; Beach, anecdotes of, 26; 
thrives best within or near the torrid zone, 
31 ; influence of climate and food on the 
form and character of, 31 ; value of since 
the establishment of the Turf Register, 32 ; 
ancestors of the present stock of American, 
40 ; good blood in, important in a military 
point of view, 33 ; prevalence of blood of, 
in Lee's Legion, 33; American trotting, 
49 ; superiority of the American trotting 
over the English, 49, 51 ; speed of, 50, 51. 

Houri, {Imp.), race won by, 36. 

Humerus, description of the, 260. 

Hunter, the, general account of, 48 ; proper 
degree of blood in, ib, ; form of, ib. ; spirit 
of, ib. ; English, ib.; shoe, description of 
the, 340. 

Hunting Park course, 64. 

Hydrocyanic acid, poisoning by it, 226; its 
occasional good service, 399. 

Hydrothorax, symptoms and treatment of,219. 

Ileum, description of the, 229. 

Inflammation, nature of, 185; treatment of, 
186 ; hot or cold applications to, guide in 
the choice of, ib. ; importance of bleeding 
in, 185, 345; when proper to physic in, 
186 ; of the bowels, 235 ; ditto, distinction 
between it and colic, 233 ; brain, 98 ; eye, 
117 ; foot, 302 ; kidneys, 244 ; larynx, 193 ; 
lungs, 206; stomach, 223; trachea, 194; 
veins, 161. 

Influenza, nature and treatment of, 197. 

Infusions, manner of making them, 411. 

Insanity, 115. 

Intercostal muscles, description of the, 169. 

Intestines, description of the, 228. 

Introsusception of the intestines, treatment 
of, 238. 

Invertebrated animals, what, 67. 

Iodine, usefulness of, in reducing enlarged 
glands, 411. 

Iris, description of the, 89. 

Iron, the carbonate of, a mild and useful 
tonic, 409 ; sulphate of, a stronger tonic, 
ib. ; ditto, recommended for the cure of 
glanders, ib. 
tchiness of the skin should always be re- 
garded with suspicion, 390. 

Jacks. See the Ass. 
James's powder, 402. 

Jaundice, symptoms and treatment of, 243, 244. 
Jaw, the lower, admirable mechanism of, 142 ; 
upper, description of, 141 
3f 



Jejunum, description of the, 229. 

Jerry, performance of, 58. 

Jim Bell, races won by, 36, 39. 

Jockeys, superiority of American, 51, 65. 

Jockey Club, rules and regulations of, 42 

John Barcombe, race won by, 39. 

John Causin, race won by, 36. 

John R. Grymes, race won by, 37. 

Jointed shoe, the description and use of, 34i 

Jugular vein, anatomy of the, 190. 

Jumper, the horse-breaker, anecdotes of his 

power over animals, 353. 
Juniper, oil of, use of, 411. 

Kate Kearney, her dam sold for 13 pounds 
tobacco currency, 24 ; her fame established 
by Col, J. M. Sclden, ib. 

Kicking, a bad and inveterate habit, 358. 

Kidneys, description of the, 243; inflamma- 
tion of, symptoms and treatment of, 244. 

King Pippin, anecdotes of him as illustrating 
the inveterateness of vicious habits, 354, 

Knee, an anatomical description of the, 2fi4; 
tied in below, 269 ; broken, treatment oi 
265, 391. 

Knowledge of the horse, how acquired, 69. 

Labyrinth of the ear, description and use of 

the, 81. 
Lachrymal duct, description of the, 84 ; gland, 

description and use of the, ib. 
Lady Clifden, race won by, 39. 
Lady Suffolk, performances of, 57, 63, 64 ; 

height of, 65. 
Lady Victory, performances of, 57 ; height 

of, 65. 
Lady Warrington, performances of, 57 ; height 

of, 05. 
Lady Kate, performances of, 58. 
Lamellae or lamintB, horny, account of the, 

298 ; fleshy, account of the, ib. ; weight of 

the horse, supported by the, ib. 
Lameness, shoulder, method of ascertaining, 

255 ; from whatever cause, unsoundness, 

393. 
Lampas, nature and treatment of, 142 ; cruelty 

of burning the bars for, ib. 
Laminae of the foot. See Lamellce. 
Lancet and fleam, comparison between them, 

189. 
Laryngitis, chronic and acute, 193. 
Larynx, description of the, 163 ; inflammation 

of the, 193. 
Laudanum, the use of in veterinary practice, 

413. 
Lead, the compounds of, used in veterinary 

practice, 411, 412; extract of, its power 

much overvalued, 412; sugar of, use of, ib.; 

white, use of, ib. 
Leather soles, description and use of, 341. 
Ii-g, cut of the, 112; description of the, 267; 

fracture of the, 332. 
Legs, fore, the situation of, 255 ; hind, anato- 

mical description of the, ib. ; swelled, 291. 
Levator humeri muscle, description of th« 

160, 259. 



442 



INDEX. 



Lever, muscular action explained on the | 
principle of it, 257. 

Ligament of the neck, description and elasti- 
city of tlie, 76. 

Liglit, the degree of, in tlie stable, 369. 

Limbs, fracture of the, 328. 

Lime, the chloride of, exceedingly useful for 
bad smclHiig wounds, &c., 412 ; the chlo- 
ride of, valuable in cleansing stables from 
infliction, if). 

Lindsay's Arabian, 34. 

Liniments, the composition and use of, ib. 

Linseed, an infusion of, used in catarrh, 376, 
412; meal forms the best poultice, 412, 
414. 

Lips, anatomy and uses of the, 139 ; lips the 
hands of the horse, ib. 

Litter, the, cannot be too frequently removed, 
368 ; proper substances for, 369 ; contrac- 
tion not so much produced by it as some 
imagine, 307. 

Liver, the anatomy and use of it, 230 ; diseases 
of the, 241. 

Liverpool, account of the course at, 42. 

Locked jaw, symptoms, cause, and treatment 
of, 103. 

Locomotive, performances of, 57 ; height of, 
65. 

Loins, description of tlie, 172. 

Lonofissimus dorsi muscle, description of the, 
173. 

Lucern, considered as an article of food, 378. 

Lumbricus teres, the, 240. 

Lunar caustic, a very excellent application, 
402. 

Lungs, description of the, 181 ; symptoms of 
inflammation of the, 206 ; causes of, ib. ; 
how distinguished from catarrh and dis- 
temper, 207, 208 ; treatment of, 208, 209 ; 
importance of early bleeding in, 209 ; blis- 
ters preferable to rowels or setons in, 210 ; 
consequences of, 210, 212, 215. 

Madness, the symptoms and treatment of, 
100. 

Magnesia, the sulphate of, 412. 

Mallenders, the situation of, 278; the nature 
and treatment of, 291. 

Mammalia, the, an important class of animals, 
67. 

Manchester, account of the course at, 42. 

Mane, description and use of the, 160. 

Mange, descri[)tion and treatment of, 388; 
causes of, 388, 389 ; ointment, recipes for, 
ib. ; highly infectious, 389 ; method of 
purifying the stable after, ib. 

Manger-feeding, the advantage of, 373. 

Mare, put to the horse too early, 248, 250 ; 
deterioration' in, 249 ; her proper form, ib. ; 
breeding in-and-in, ib.; time of being at 
heat, 250 ; time of going with foal, ib. ; best 
time for covering, ib. ; management of, 
when with foal, ib. ; management of, after 
foaling, 25C. 

Maria Duke, race won by, 36. 



Mark of the teeth, what, 14G. 
Marsk, his performances, 30. 
Mashes, importance of their use, 412; besi 
method of making them, ib. 

Masscter muscle, description of the, 125, 144, 

Master Henry, race won by, 38. 

Matchem, his performances, 30. 

Maxillary bones, anatomy of the, 141 , frac- 
tures of, 325. ' 

Meadow grasses, the quantity of nutritive 
matter in, 379. 

Medicines, a list of the most useful, 398. 

Medullary substance of the brain, its nature 
and function, 72, 78, 79. 

Megrims, cause, 94; symptoms, 95; treat- 
ment, ib. ; apt to return, ib. 

Melt, description of the, 231. 

Mercurial ointment, the use of, in veterinary 
practice, 410. 

Mercury, its use in epidemic catarrh, 201. 

Mesentery, description of the, 229. 

Metacarpals, description of the, 267. 

Midriff, description of the, 176. 

Minstrel, race won by, 36. 

Mischief, performance of, 59. 

Miss Foote, races won bj', 39. 

Mount Holly, performance of, 58. 

Modesty, performance of, 57 ; height of, 65. 

Moisture, want of, a cause of contraction, 
307. 

Moon-blindness, the nature of, 117. 

Moulting, the process of, 385 ; the horse 
usually languid at the time of, ib.; no sti- 
mulant or spices should be given, ib. ; mode 
of treatment under, ib. 

Mounting the colt, 253. 

Mouth of the horse, description of the bones 
of, 141 ; should be always felt lightly in 
riding, ib.; importance of its sensibility, ib, 

Mowburnt hay injurious, 377. 

Mule, the, 419; as he is, 422; value of, in 
China, 423 ; value of the breed of Gen. 
Washington, ib. ; more valuable when bred 
from blooded mares, ib. ; longevity of, 424 ; 
Pliny's account of a, ib. ; does not deterio- 
rate more rapidly after twenty years of age 
than the horse after ten, 425 ; health of, ib. ; 
economy in food, &c., ib. ; is more steady 
in his draught than the horse, 426 ; trade 
in Kentucky, 427 ; his obstinacy, 429 ; bad 
habits, 429, 430 ; number of in tjie United 
States, 430 ; a breeding, 432 ; birth of two 
colts, ib.; death of ditto, 432, 433. 

Muriatic acid, its properties, 399 

Muscles of the back, description of the, 173; 
breast, ditto, 175 ; eye, ditto, 92 ; face, ditto, 
125; neck, ditto, 158; ribs, ditto, 169; 
shoulder-blade, 255; lower bone of the 
shoulder, ib. ; the advantageous direction 
of, more important than their bulk, 266, 
257, 258 ; should be large, 28. 

Muscular action, the principle of 261. 

Mustard, the use of, 413. 

Myrrh, the use of, for canker and vr^ounds, 
413. 



INDEX, 



443 



Nasalis labii supcrioris muscle, description 

of the, 125, 
Nasal bones, fracture of, 324 ; description of, 
72. 

gleet, 127. 

polypus, 126. 

Navicular bone, description of the, 301 ; the 

action and use of it, ib. 
Navicular joint, disease, nature and treatment 
of the, 309 ; how far connected with con- 
traction, 310 ; the cure very uncertain, ib. ; 
fracture of, 333. 
Neck, anatomy and muscles of the, 158, 159 ; 
description of the arteries of the, 161 ; de- 
scription of the veins of the, ib. ; bones of 
the, 158 ; proper conformation of the, ib, ; 
comparison between long and short, 159 ; 
loose, what, ib. 
Nerves, the, construction and theory of, 70 ; 
spinal, the compound nature of, 79 ; of the 
face, 125. 
Neurotomy, or nerve operation, object and 
effect of it, 111 ; manner of performing it, 
112 ; cases in which it should or should not 
be performed, 113; a vestige of the per- 
formance of it, constitutes unsoundness, 
394. 
Niciiing, the method of performing, 351 ; use- 
less cruelty often resorted to, 352. 
Nimrod, his objection to clipping, 383 ; ad- 
mits the superiority of American trotters, 
49, 51. 
Nitre, a valuable cooling medicine, and mild 

diuretic, 414. 
Nitric acid, for what employed, 399. 
Nitrous aether, spirit of, a mild stimulant and 

diuretic, 413. 
Norman Leslie, match won by, 57 ; height of, 

65. 
Nose, description of the bones of the, 122, 
123 ; spontaneous bleeding from, ib. ; tlie 
importance of its lining membrane, 123, 
191 ; the nose of the horse slit to increase 
his wind, 124. 
Nosebag, importance of the, 379. 
Nostrils, description of the, 122 ; peculiar in- 
flammation of the membrane of the, 74; 
the membrane of, important in ascertaining 
disease, 126, 191; importance of an ex- 
panded one, 124 ; slit by some nations to 
increase the wind of the horse, ib. 
Nutriment, the quantity of, contained in the 
different articles of food, 379. 

ATS, the usual food of the horse, 374, 379 ; 
should be old, heavy, dry, and sweet, 374, 
375; kiln-dried, injurious to the horse, 
375 ; proper quantity of, for a horse, ib. 

Oatmeal, excellent for gruel, and sometimes 
used as a poultice, 375. 

Occipital bone, description of the, 74. 

CEnanthe fistulosa, poisonous, 226. 

ffisophagus, description of tlie, 221. 

Olfactory nerves, the importance of them, 124. 

Olive oil, an emollient, 413. 

Omega, races won by, 38, 39. 



Omentum, description of the, 231. 
Oneida Chief, performance of, 58. 
Opacky of the eye, the nature and treatment 

of, 118. 
Operations, description of the most important, 

344. 
Ophthalmia, 117. 
Opium, its great value in veterinary practice, 

412 ; adulterations of it, ib. 
Orbicularis muscle of the eye, description of 

it, 92. 
Orbit of the eye, fracture of, 93. 
Os femoris, account of, 282. 
Ossification of the cartillages, cause and treat- 
ment of, 321. 
Over-reach, the nature and treatment of, 312, 

362 ; often producing sandcrack or quittor 

363. 
Ozena, account of, 128. 

Pachvdermata, an order of animals, 68. 
Pack-wax, description of the, 76, 157. 
Palate, description of the, 163. 
Palm-oil, the best substance for making up 

bails, 414. 
Palsy, the causes and treatment of, 109. 
Pancreas, description of the, 243. 
Paps or barbs, 154. 
Parietal bones, description of the, 74. 
Paring out of the foot for shoeing, directions 

for, 334 ; neglect of, a cause of contraction, 

306. 
Parotid gland, description of the, and its dis- 

eases, 125, 153. 
Parsnips, the nutritive matter in, 379 
Passenger, race won by, 37. 
Pastern, upper, fracture of, 331 ; lower, frac 

ture of, 332 ; description of the, 272, 276; 

bones of the, ib. ; cut of the, 272 ; proper 

obliquity of the, 274. 
Patella or stifle bone, description of the, 283 , 

fracture of, 329. 
Paul Pry, performance of, 58. 
Pawing, remedy for, 363. 
Payment of the smallest sum completes the 

purchase of a horse, 396. 
Peacemaker, race won by, 37. 
Peas, somtimes used as food, but should be 

crusiied, 376, 379. 
Pectineus muscle, the, 281. 
Pectorales muscles, description of the, 175,260 
Pedigrees of American trotters, 54. 
Pelhani, performance of, 58. 
Pelvis, fracture of the, 327. 
Pericardium, description of the, 181. 
Peronaeus muscle, description of the, 284. 
Perspiration, insensible, no medicines will 

certainly increase it, 385. 
Pharynx, anatomy of the, 157. 
Phrenitis, 98. 

Phthisis pulmonalis, description of, 215 
Physic balls, method of compounding the 

best, 401 ; should never be given in inflam 

mation of the lungs, 181. 
Physicking, rules for, 237. 
Pia mater, description of the, 78. 



444 



INDEX. 



Pied horse, account of the, 386. 

Pigmentum riigruni, account of the, 88. 

Piper, description of the, 215. • 

Pit of the eye, the, indicative of the age, 71. 

Pitch, its use for charges and plasters, 414. 

Pithing, a humane method of destroying ani- 
mals, 158. 

Pleura, description of the, 179. 

Pleurisy, the nature and treatment of, 181, 
217. 

Pneumonia, the nature and treatment of, 206. 

Poisons, account of the most frequent, 226, 
227 ; tests of the different ones, 227. 

Poll-evil, the cause and treatment of, 157 ; 
importance of the free escape of the mat- 
ter, ib. 

Popliteus muscle, description of the, 284. 

Porter's Spirit of the Times, opinion of, 51. 

Postea spinatus muscle, description of tiie, 
260, 

Post Boy, race won by, 37. 

Post Match, 42. 

Potash, the compound of, 414. 

Potatoes, considered as an article of food, 378, 
379. 

Poultices, their various compositions, manner 
of acting, and great use, 414. 

Powders, comparison between them and balls, 
415. 

Pressure, race won by, 37. 

Pressure on the brain, effect of, 94. 

Prick, in the foot, treatment of, 315 ; injuri- 
ous method of removing the horn in search- 
ing for, 317. 

Prussic acid, treatment of poisoning by, 226. 

Puffing the glims, a trick of fraudulent horse- 
dealers, 71. 

Pulse, the natural standard of the, 184; vari- 
eties of the, ib.; importance of attention to 
the, 185 ; tiie most convenient place to feel 
it, ib. ; the finger on the pulse during the 
bleeding, ib. 

Pumiced feet, description and treatment of, 
304; do not admit of cure, ib.; constitute 
unsoundness, 394. 

Pupil of the eye, description of the, 89 ; the 
mode of discovering blindnets in it, ib. 

Purchase, to complete the, there must be a 
memorandum, or payment of some sum, 
however small, 396. 

Purging, violent, treatment of, 235. 

Quarters of the horse, description of the, 
281 ; importance of their muscularity and 
depth, ib. ; foot, description of, 297 ; the 
inner, crust thinner and weaker at, 298 ; 
folly of lowering the crust, ib. 

Quidding the food, cause of, 363; unsound- 
ness while it lasts, 394. 

Quinme, the sulphate of, 403. 

Quittor the nature and treatment of, 313 ; the 
treatment often long and difficult, exercis- 
ing the patience both of the practitioner 
and owner, 314; 315; is unsoundness, 394. 

RiBiEs, sjrmptoms of, 100 



Race-courses, different lengths of, 41. 

Races, among the Arabs, 27 ; best in America 
on record, 35 ; at mile lieats, 36 ; at two 
mile heats, 37 ; at three mile heats, 38 ; at 
four mile heats, 39 ; miscellaneous exam- 
ples of, 40 ; prejudices against, 33. 

Racers may beget trotters, 52, 53. 

Racks, no openings should be allowed above 
them, 367. 

Radius, description of the, 261. 

Ragged-hipped, what, 279 ; no impediment to 
action, ib. 

Raking, the operation of, 415. 

Rattler, matches won by, 57, 59 ; height of, 65. 

Reality, race won by, 37. 

Rearing, a dangerous and inveterate habit, 
359. 

Recti muscles, of the neck, description o^ 
158; of the thigh, 280. 

Rectum, description of the, 229, 230. 

Red Bill, races won by, 36, 38. 

Reins, description of the proper, 140. 

Resin, its use in veterinary practice, 415. 

Respiration, description of the mechanism 
and effect of, 179. 

Respiratory nerves, the, 79. 

Restiveness, a bad habit, and never cured, 
353 ; anecdotes in proof of its inveterate. 
ness, 353, 354. 

Retina, description of the, 91. 

Retractor muscle of the eye, description of it,92, 

Rheumatism, 110. 

Rifle, performance of, 57. 

Ribbed-home, advantage of being, 171. 

Ribs, anatomy of the, 168, 169. 

Richard of York, race won by, 37. 

Ringbone, the nature and treatment of, 277 
278 ; constitutes unsoundness, 394. 

Ripple, race won by, 38. 

Ripton, matches won by, 57, 63, 64; heighi 
of, 65. 

Roach-backed, what, 172. 

Roan horses, account of, 386. 

Roaring, the nature of, 194, 215 ; curious his- 
tory of, 195 ; constitutes unsoundness, 392 ; 
from tight reining, 196; from buckling in 
crib-biting, ib.; treatment of, 197. 

Robin Hood, race won by, 36. 

Rocker, race won by, 37. 

Rolling, danger of, and remedy for, 363. 

Roman nose in the horse, what, 122. 

Round-bone, the, can scarcely be dislocated, 
282. 

Round course, length of, 41. 

Rowels, manner of inserting, and their opera- 
tion, 415 ; comparison between them, blis- 
ters, and setons, 350. 

Rules and regulations of the New York 
Jockey Club, 42. 

Rules and regulations of the New York 
Trotting Club, 54. 

Running away, method of restraining, 359. 

Rupture, treatment of, 240 ; of the suspensory 
ligament, 193. 

Rye-grass, considered as an article of food, 
378. 



INDEX. 



14a 



Saddles, tlie proper const"- jCtion of, 174; 
points of, ib. 

Suddle-backed, what, 172; galls, treatment of, 
175. 

Saddling^ of the colt, 253. 

Sailor Boy, race won by, 36. 

Sainfoin used as an article of food, 378 

Sal ammoniac, the medical use of, 401. 

Sciliva, its nature and use, 153. 

Salivary glands, description of the, ib. 

Sallenders, nature and treatment of, 291. 

Sally Shannon, race won by, 37. 

Sally Miller, match won by, 57 ; height of. 
Go. 

Sally Walker, race won by, 38. 

Salt, use of in veterinary practice, 415; value 
of, mingled in the food of animals, 377. 

Sandal, Mr. Percivall's, 343. 

Sandcrack, the situation of, 278 ; the nature 
and treatment of, 311; most dangerous 
when proceeding from tread, 312 ; liable to 
return, unless the brittleness of the hoof is 
remedied, 313 ; constitutes unsoundness, 
394. 

Sarah Bladen, race won by, 38. 

Sarah Washington, race won by, 38. 

Sartorius muscle, description of the, 281. 

Savin, dangerous, 226. 

Scapula, description of the, 255. 

Sclerotica, description of the, 87. 

Scouring, general treatment of, 234. 

Screwdriver, performances of, 57 ; height of, 
65. 

Seeale cornutum, the effect of, 415. 

Sedatives, a list of them, and their mode of 
action, 415. 

Serratus major muscle, description of the, 
168, 255, 259. 

Sessamoid bones, admirable use of in obviating 
concussion, 273 ; fracture of, 331. 

Setons, mode of introducing, 349 ; cases in 
which they are indicated, ib. ; comparison 
between them and rowels and blisters, 350. 

Shakspearc, performance of, 57 ; height of, 
65. 

Shank-bone, the, 267. 

Shark, his performances, 30, 36. 

Shoe, the concave-sea;ed, cut of, 338; de- 
scribed and recommended, 337 ; the man- 
ner in which the old one should be taken 
off, 334 ; tiie putting on of the shoe, 335 ; 
it should be fitted to the foot, and not the 
liot to the shoe, ib.; description of the 
.lindcr, 337 ; the unilateral, or one side 
nailed shoe, 339 ; the bar shoe, 340 ; the 
tip, 341 ; the hunting, 340 ; the jointed, or 
expansion, 341. 

Shoeing, not necessarily productive of con- 
traction, 307 ; preparation of the foot for, 
333 ; the principles of, 334. 

Shoulder, anatomical description of the, 255 ; 
slanting direction of the, advantageous, 
256, 257 ; when it should be oblique, and 
when upright, 258 ; sprain of the, 255 ; 
lameness, method of ascertaining, ib.; frac- 
ture of the. 328 
38 



Shoulder-blade, muscles ot the, 2t»5 , why 
united to the chest by muscle alone, ib.; 
lower bone of the, description of, 260; mus- 
cles of the, 262, 263. 

Shying, the probable cause of, 91, 363; treat- 
ment of, 364 ; on coming out of the stable, 
description of, ib. 

Side-line, description of the, 344. 

Sight, the acute sense of, in the horse, 80. 

Silver, the nitrate of, an excellent caustic, 
402. 

Singeing, recommendation of, 383. 

Sinuses in the foot, necessity of following 
them as far as they reach, 319 ; frontal, of 
the head, 72. 

Sir Archy, indebted for liis fame to American 
Turf Register, 25 ; regarded as the Godol- 
phin Arabian of America, ib. 

Sir Lovel, race won by, 37. 

Sir Peter, match won by, 57 ; height of, 65. 

Sir William, race won by, 37. 

Sitfasts, treatment of, 174. 

Skeleton of the horse, description of the, 68, 
69. 

Skin, anatomical description of the, 381 ; 
function and uses of it, 381, 382 ; pores of 
it, 385 ; when the animal is in health, ia 
soft and elastic, 382. 

Skull, anatomical description of the, 70 ; arch- 
ed form of the roof, 77 ; fracture of the, 93, 
323. 

Slipping the collar, remedy for, 365, 366. 

Smell, the sense and seat of, 124 ; very acute 
in the horse, ib. 

Snewing, Mr., his advocacy of clipping, 383 

Soap, its use in veterinary practice, 41 6. 

Soda, chloride of, its use in ulcers, 415 ; sul- 
phate of, ib. 

Sole, the horny, description of, 298 ; descent 
of, ib. ; proper form of, ib. ; management 
of, in shoeing, ib. ; the sensible, 299 ; felt 
or leather, their use, 341. 

Sore-throat, symptoms and treatment of, 193, 

Sorrow, {imp.), race won by, 37. 

Soundness, consists in their being no disease 
or alteration of structure that does or is 
likely to impair the usefulness of the horse. 
390, 391 ; considered with reference to the 
principal causes of unsoundness, 391. 

Spasmodic colic, nature and treatment ofi 
232. 

Spavin, blood, the nature and treatment of, 
188; is unsoundness, 394; bog, cause, na- 
ture and treatment of, 188, 189, 287 ; bone, 
288; why not always accompanied by 
lameness, 289 ; is unsoundness, 394. 

Spavined horses, the kind of work they are 
capable of, 289. 

Speedy-cut, account of, 269. 

Sphenoid bone, description of the, 77. 

Spinalis dorsi muscle, description of the, 173 

Spine, description of the, 167; fracture of 
326. 

Spirit of the Times, remarks of, 30. 

Spleen, description of the, 231, 243. 

Splenius muscle, description of the, 158. 



446 



INDEX. 



Splint, nature and treatment of, 268, 278 ; 
when constituting unsoundness, 395 ; bones, 
description of the, 268. 
Sprain of the back sinews, treatment of, 269, 
278; sometimes requires firing, 271; any 
remaining thickening constitutes unsound- 
ness, 395 ; sprain of the shoulder, 255. 

Stables, dark, an occasional cause of inflam- 
mation of the eye, 119; iiot and foul, a 
frequent one of inflammation of the eye, 
ib.; ditto, lungs, 367; ditto, glanders, 133, 
134; should be large, compared with the 
number of horses, 367 ; the management 
of, too much neglected by the owner of the 
horse, ib. ; the ceiling of, should be plaster- 
ed, if there is a loft above, ib. ; should be so 
Contrived that the urine will run off, 369 ; 
the stalls should not have too much decli- 
vity, ib. ; should be sufficienlly light, yet 
without any glaring colour, 369, 370. 

Staggers, stomach, symptoms, cause, and 
treatment of, 95, 96, 379 ; generally fatal, 
96; producing blindness, 98; sometimes 
epidemic, ib.; mad, symptoms and treat- 
ment, ib. 

Staling, profuse, cause and treatment of, 245. 

Stallion, description of the proper, for breed- 
ing, 248 ; size and form of, prescribed by 
Henry VIII., 22; contests between, 26. 

Starch, useful in superpurgation, 416. 

Stargazer, the, 159. 

Sternum, or breast-bone, description of the, 
168,260. 

Stifle, description of the, 283; accidents and 
diseases of the, 285. 

Stomach, description of the, 221, 222; very 
small in the horse, 222 ; inflammation of 
the, 223 ; pump recommended in apoplexy, 
97. 

Stone in the bladder, symptoms and treatment 
of, 246 ; kidney, ib. 

Stoppings, the best composition of, and their 
great use, 416. 

Stranger, performance of, 38. 

Strangles, symptoms and treatment of, 154; 
distinguished from glanders, 131 ; the im- 
{wrtance of blistering early in, 155. 

Strangury, produced by blistering, 347 ; treat- 
ment of, ib. 

Strawberry horse, account of the, 386. 

Stringhalt, nature of, 107; is decidedly un- 
soundness, 109, 395. 

Structure of the horse, importance of a know- 
ledge of, 69. 

Strychnia, account of, 416. 

Stud-book, English, reliance to be placed on, 
23. 

Stureshly, race won by, 37. 

Stylo-maxillaris muscle, description of the, 
125. 

Sublingual gland, description of the, 154. 

Submaxillary glands, description of the, 153 ; 
artery, description of the, 126. 

Sub-sea pulo hyoideus muscle, description of 
the, 125. 

^ngar of lead, use of, 4IS 



Sullivan, the Irish whisperer, ar.ecdotes of hia 
power over the horse, 354; the younger, 
did not inherit the power of his father, an- 
ecdote of this, 355. 

Sulphate of copper, use of in veterinary prac- 
tice, 406 ; iron, 409 ; magnesia, 412 ; zinc, 
417. 

Sulphur, an excellent alterative and ingre- 
dient in all applications for mange, 416. 

Surfeit, description and treatment of, 387 ; im- 
portance of bleeding in, 388. 

Suspensory ligament, beautiful mechanism 
of the, 275; rupture of the, 276; suspen- 
sory muscle of the eye, description of the, 
92. 

Swallowing without grinding, 360. 

Swelled legs, cause and treatment of, 291 ; 
most frequently connected with debility, 
292. 

Sweetbread, description of the, 231. 

Sympathetic nerves, description of the, 80. 

Tail, anatomy of the, 167; fracture of the, 
328 ; docking, 350 ; nicking, 351. 

Tar, its use in veterinary practice, 416. 

Tares, a nutritive and healthy food, 377. 

Tartar, cream of, 413. 

Tayloe, B. O., his views of the American turf, 
23, 24, 32. 

Tears, the secretion and nature of the, 84 ; 
how conveyed to the nose, ib. ; sometimes 
shed by the horse from pain and grief, ib. 

Teeth, description of the, as connected with 
age, 144; at birth, i6. ; 2 months, it. ; 12 
months, 145; 18 months, 146; the front 
sometimes pushed out, that the next pair 
may sooner appear, and the horse seem to 
be older than he is, 147 ; 3 years, 146; 3^ 
years, 147 ; 4 years, ib. ; 4^ years, 148 ; 
5 years, ib.; 6 years, ib.; 7 years, 149; 
8 years, ib^ ; change of the, 1 46 ; enamel 
of the, 145 ; irregular, inconvenience and 
danger of, 151 ; mark of the, 145; frauds 
practised with regard to the, 147 ; diseases 
of the, 151. 

Temper denoted by the eye, 82 ; by the ear, 
80. 

Temperature, sudden change of, injurious in 
its effect, 367. 

Temporal bones, description of the, 74. 

Tendons of the leg, 267. 

Tetanus, symptoms, causes and treatment o£ 
103. 

Thick wind, nature and treatment of, 212 
214, 215; often found in round-chestec 
horses, 213. 

Thigh and hauncli bones, description of, 279 ; 
form of, 280 ; should be long and muscula- 
ib. ; description of the muscles of the inside 
of the upper bone of, ib. ; do. of the outside, 
ib. ; mechanical calculation of their power 
281. 

Thompson's description of the bull, 54. 

Thorough-pin, the nature and treatment of, 
285 ; is not unsoundness, 395. 

Thrush, nature and treatment of, 318; the 



INDEX. 



447 



consequence, rather than the cause of con- 
traction, 319 ; its serious nature and conse- 
quences not sufficiently considered, ib.; 
constitutes unsoundness, 395. 

Thymus <rl;ind, the, 175. 

Thyroid cartilage of the windpipe, description 
of the, 163. 

Tibia, account of the, 283, 285 ; fracture of, 
339. 

Tied in below the knee, nature and disadvan- 
t-dge of, 269. 

Timoleon, race won by, 36. 

Tinctures, account of the best, 417. 

Tips, description and use of, 341. 

Tobacco, wlien used, 417. 

Toe, bleeding- at the, described, 190. 

Tom Thumb, his performances, 58, 59. 

Tongue, anatomy of the, 152 ; diseases of, ib. ; 
bladders along the under part of, 153. 

Tonics, an account of the best, 417 ; their use 
and danger in veterinary practice. iK 

Topgallant, performance of, 57, 58 i height 
of, 65. 

Top Sawyer, performance of, 58u 

Torsion, the mode of castration b}', 254 ; for- 
ceps, description of, ib. 

Trachea, or windpipe, description of, 164; 
inflammation of, 194. 

Tracheotomy, 165 ; operation of, ib. 

Trapezius muscle, description of the, 258. 

Trapezium bone, description of the, 265. 

Tread, nature and treatment of, 312 ; often 
producing sandcrack or quittor, ib. 

Treasurer, races won by, 37, 38. 

Trenton, race won by, 37. 

Tripping, an annoying and inveterate habit, 
366. 

Trochanter of the thigh, description of the, 
280. 

Trochlcaris muscle, the, 93. 

Trotter, American, 49. 

Trotters, American, 49 ; superiority over Eng- 
lish, 49, 51 ; speed of, 50, 51 ; speed of 
\merican attributed to management rather 
than to breed, 51 ; should not be put in 
training too young, 52. 

Trotting, American horses excel English, 49; 
great number of clubs in America, 50, ex- 
traordinary match, 60; height of horses, 
64, 65. 

Trotting on the Beacon course, 63; tables, 
57 ; horses should do nothing but trot, 54. 

Turbinated bones, description of the, 124. 

Turner, Mr. T., on clipping, 383. 

Turnips, considered as an article of food, 379. 

Turpentine, the best diuretic, 243 ; a useful 
ingredient in many ointments, 417. 

Tushes, description of the, 198, 199. 

Twitch, description of the, 345. 

Ulcers in the mouth, treatment of, 151, 152. 
Ulna, description of the, 261. 
Unguiculata, a tribe of animals, 67 
Ungulata, a tribe of animals, 68. 
Unilateral -shoe, 339. 
Unsoundness, contraction does not always 



cause it, 307 ; being discovered, the animal 
should be tendered, 397 ; ditto, but the ten- 
der or return not legally necessary, i6. ; the 
horse may be returned and action brought 
for depreciation in value, but this not ad. 
visable, ib. ; medical means may be adopted 
to cure the horse, they are, however, bettei 
declined, lest in an unfortunate issue of the 
case they should be misrepresented, 396. 

Unsteadiness whilst mounting, remedy for 
359. 

Urine, albuminous, 245 ; bloody, ib. 

Vastus muscle, description of the, 280. 

Veins, description of the, 188 ; of the arm, 
description, «&c., 285 ; of the neck, ditto, 
161 ; of the face, ditto, 125; of the sliouldcr, 
ditto, 252; inflammation of the, treatment 
of, 161. 

Velocity, race won by, 37. 

Vena portarum, the, 231. 

Verdigris, an uncertain medicine, when given 
internally, 406 ; a mild caustic, ib. 

Vermin, account of, 390. 

Vertebrae, the dorsal and lumbar, 167. 

Vertebrated animals, what, 67. 

Vices of horses, account of the, 353. 

Vicious to clean, a bad habit that should be 
conquered, 359 ; to shoe, a bad habit that 
may also be conquered, 360. 

Vinegar, its use in veterinary practice, 398. 

Vines, Mr., his use of the Spanish fly in glan- 
ders, 404. 

Viper, account of the bite of, 225. 

Vision, theory of, 88. 

Vitreous humour of the eye, account of the, 
91. , 

Vitriol, blue, use of, in veterinary practice, 
406. 

Volcano, performance of, 58. 

Wagner, races won by, 39. 

Wall-eyed horses, what, 89 ; whether they 
liecome blind, ib. 

Warbles, treatment of, 174. 

Warranty, the form of a, 395 ; breach of, how 
established, ib. ; no price will imply it, 396 ; 
when there is none, the action must be 
brought on the ground of fraud, ib. 

Warts, metliod of getting rid of, 390. 

Washington, matcii won by, 57 ; height of, 
65, 

Washing of the heels, productive of grease, 
295. 

Washy horses, description and treatment of, 
236. 

Wasps, treatment of the sting of, 225. 

Wafer-dropwort, poisonous, 226; hemlock, 
poisonous, ib. ; parsley, poisonous, ib. 

Water, generally given too sparingly, 379 , 
management of on a journey, 380; the dif- 
ference in effect, between hard and soil, 
379 ; spring, principally injurious on ac- 
count of its coldness, ib. ; stomach of the 
horse, the, 230. 

Water farcy, nature and treatment of, 138. 



448 



INDEX, 



Wax used in charges and plasters, 417. 

Weakness o*" the foot, what, 321. 

Weaving- indicating- an irritable temper, and 
no cure for it, 366. 

Whalebone, performance of, 57, 59 ; height 
of, 65. 

Wheat, considered as food for the horse, 375, 
379 ; inconvenience and danger of it, 375. 

Wheezer, description of the, 215 ; is unsound, 
392. 

Whisperer, the anecdotes of his power over 
the horse, 354. 

Whistler, description of the, 215; is unsound, 
392. 

White lead, use of, 411 ; vitriol, its use in ve- 
terinary practice, 417. 

Wind, broken, nature and treatment of, 213 ; 
galls, description and treatment of, 271, 
278 ; ditto, unsoundness when they cause 
lameness, or are likely to do so, 395 ; thick, 
nature and treatment of, 212. 



Windpipe, description of the, 164; should be 

prominent and loose, 165. 
Wind-sucking, nature of, and remedy for, 

362. 
Withers, description of the, 158, 173; high, 

advantage of, ib. ; fistulous, treatment of, 

174. 
Worms, different kinds, and treatment of, 

239. 
Wounds in the feet, treatment of, 315. 

Yankee Sal, performance of, 58. 

Yellows, symptoms and treatment of the, 242 

Yew, the leaves of, poisonous, 226. 

Zinc, its use in medicine, 417. 

Zoological classification of the horse, 67. 

Zygomatic arch, reason of the strong con- 
struction of the, 75. 

Zygomaticus muscle, description of the, 
125. 



Jkll 



